Automated Ultrasonic Testing (AUT)

Data Interpretation
NDT45
Phased Arrays and Mechanised
Ultrasonic Testing
A Handbook

S.·.vmJ£JitlOft

E. Ginzel
 Phased Arrays and Mechanised
Ultrasonic Testing
A Handbook
E. Ginzel

Ph ........' Prns

COl'yridtl ~o(n b}, E.A.GIIlZCI

All rillhLi rt'SC .... o:d.

('Iudl ... C'IIIog.iD~ In '.lIIk.llo. 00'"

G;n~el. Edward. 1952-
Pha~cd Arrays and Me,hanlscd Ultl1lsom~ Te'llng

1. Ultrasonic lc~ling

""''''"'''''' "'"
.. J2 Country Squire Rd.
Wal~oo. Ontario
Canada "2.1 ~H
 Table of Contents

P'~fll"~

JmroliuNio"
I. /Ii$/Ol)'
1. Tire Pri"dple$('f~PlJfJ.$;'Ig~
R"nection of "a,'es:
Refraction of W:lWS:
Di!T""'tion:
Polmz:ltion:
Interference:
Coherent "'II""
sourees:
3. Bellm FOrll,i"g
3.1 T ransduCC'r ArTIly.
3.2 Thc Ultrasonic Beam
3.3 rh:Jscd ArTIly Aspects of Beam CharacteristIcs
3.4 Fermat's Principle
3.5 Phased ArTII} ikam Focusing and Ste<:ring
4. /la,dwa,e _ P"Is..rs. Recei"cl"$, Jl%, C(mtml a"d Encodtrs
4.1 Ad\'3Iltag~ of Digital Control
4.2 PuIS<'fS and Rccci"ers
4.3 PuISCTS
4A Spike Pulscrs

..,
.5 Tone BUISt
Square Way" Pul=
R~cci\'crs
"4.'4.' Ga.".
TCGTVG
,,,,,,,,
4.10 Data Acquisition and Automated SYSI<!mS
4.10.1
4.10.2 Consistency
4,10.3 Aocuracy
4.10.4 Repeatability
4.10.5 S:!fety
4.10.6 Cost
• 4.10.7 Cap;lbility
4.1I Automated Systems in GC'l\Crul
4.12 Sysltml Components
• 4.13 Instrumem OutpUI.'>
4.14 Scan",ng Displays and Scanning EqUIpment
4.14.1 A_scans
4.14.2 S-scans
4.14.3 C-scans
 4.101.4 Olhcr U:!I~rs for Scan I'Tcsentation Typ""
4.101,5 Depth Encoded C-scan
4.101.6 E & P-soans
4.101,7 S-scans
4.15 Memory and Scanning Spud
4.16 Data Processing
4.17 Scanning Equipment
01, I R Limitat;ons of\lechan;scd Scanning
4,19 SeaMing Speed
4.20 EncO& ...
5. fndu~triaf Applications ofPhascd ·'mry UT
5.1 Electric ResiSlarKe Welds
5.2 Aerospace Fuselage Fastener Cracking,Corrosion
5.3 PowcrGencralion-Turbine Slade Rool$
5.4 Power Gcncr:lIion -lleavy Nozzles
Figure 5·5 Phased Array sectoral scruming ofn"ule inn<:r radius
5.6 Other Applications Using Phased Array.~
5.7 TOFDby Phased Array
5.8 B;u;ks..::mc, Siting
5.9 Portable Phased Aml}'
5.10 Couplingchccks
 Preface
ThIS i~!he 5ecOnd edn>on ofihIs handbook. The fll'\l edmon COIIIaw.ed aspect. of
background ~t ... m: medical ~bted and IIOIlOlcally pminenl 10 !he iooustri;tl
apphcatiom of NOT Allhough this edItion a1>1O adtIres>oCs the focI ihat !he orijtins of the:
Dppar3IUS are in the medical field it does not go into the same dc:t:liL Th.: book i~
$tructun:d in a 1081<:31 ord<:r of chapleTS. ~1r$1 Lh.e ,,"&'ns oflho method nrC bneny
touched on. Then (he basic pnnciples ofl'hasing physics as they apply 10 phased array
ultr1l>Oflic t~sullg an; e~pbinro in a simpl~ f~hion. Once Ihc fundamcnuls lIIe wn:n::d
we look Dt IIow they DU Iwheel 10 fonning the: ultrasonic beam. This ind"..Jc~.
"ref=her" on the fundammtals ofullJUOOic IT.IIlwlucer and sound field tbwry. This
aspc<:I of!he: book;s tntleal in undcrsWlding that the roncq>IS IISSOCllIiCd wnh oLd
~'ingle-clemn1t~ ullr1lS(ll'llc [osting are applicahlc 10 phased array aprlic;l1i1l11!1 In NOT as
.... elL This \.Celion I\;ls bttn m;wIc ~'hal more CO!b~\VIt in it:; equatIOn fomw..
S;""" uitJll$OIUC NOT lISI"g phased 1Iml:fj is u.uaIly ILs:lociatcd "jib mtthani>atiun.
background on \he main aspeclS of lTI<'C!unis;lIion. indllding principles and <"<.JuiJ'TIKm.
"1lS considered lh~ n~~l foundational subj«t r~ulfed. This is assembled IbinS t;o;ampks
from sncrnl sou~c5 aoo display "filion. III provldc a broad o ...,rv; ... " To bnnl! Ihe
phased anay and l1~han;j.ation IlSpects togtlher. I~ book ends "'lth a ooll.-Clion of field
applicalions "-hc~ m«hani!iCd phased is used 10 O,'CI'COIllC' Iimi13li(mS oflnKIiuonal
<inglc dement Qf mulll'probe: SyStcrM. A sqtan.l<.' SC<:Iiun ctlrlwning pmbkrm allows
for some m i('\O. of t~ wbj«t maILer relatlllg 10 tbc pIustd lUlIy principle> Answers
ma}' be dedoced form the book for lhe mlllupic questions and !he simple equ:mons found
in tbc book may be u..oo 10 dcri\c ans"ers 10 the numeric problems.
 Introduction
Ad,-ances In mechanIsation cnp.1bililies. afforded by Ihe rapid growlh of the comrmter
mduSlry. have been wide spread. 'lilT is no exccplion 10 Ihe 1'30ety of industries thai
hal'e benefited from thesc adl'lID<.'CS.

This handbook is intended to improlc studenls' undersl:lnding of phased """y aspecl$ of

mechamscd ultr.loonic in;;:ptttions. As wcll. wme background is supplied "'ith regard 10
Ihe nncillaty aspectS of mechanised uitrIlSOIIlC mspcc!ions and dll:I acqui,ilioll and
compulcr imaging.

The book is structured. as mlgh. be any training h.lndbook. A hislOty is provided and
then we rel1CW Ihe basics of"-al'e~ to build up the background on phasing. But the
prillt'iples of w3, e mechanics and diffraclion are the same for single clemen. probes as
well as phased array probes. Therefore the revi"" of principles leads 10 an c)ltr.lpoI3tion
of these principles to the "ppliealions of phased lUTay uhra~ic~, Since phased array UT
systems an: now nearly always computerised and often used in mcchanised camers (a1
least in industrial applications);1 is m,ecssary for the studcnllO hal'e some background on
the apparatus used wnh Ihe pha.sed """y probe.

Recently inspection of pipeline Sinh welds has bc:cotrn! n popular nnd c.\lcnsivc
application of phased array ultm$OOie testing, \\"ilh thc ne~ibili!y in optill1i~ins IIIgles
and thc ab'lny 10 facilillltC nearly overlapping tnmsmittcr and rccei\'er componenl5 in 3
wndem configwmion. phased arrays h.lvc found a special place III this indu~uy. This
plw; the ability to I'al)' focal 'pot si~-c h"" been an imporumt as,,"1 of phased lm>yS that
put th<:m ahead ofSllmdard single-clcmcnl probe syst<!111S. Th;~ handboo~ provides an n
undet'Standing of how these features an: obtnincd and Ihereby bettCr prepares the polcntial
• AUT Ol"''''tor Ihe necCSS31)' background fllr gil1h wdd !nsl"'ction.

• - AUT OI"'''lIor"' is tfl~ name ~"Qffimonly gil'cn Lu !he pcr"'" '''''IIUIL,;bJ.: fur ""u'''11 up
Ihe scanning ~pp:l"'!U' on ultrnsonie inspeclions of ripdine ginh weld;.
 1. History
"ha~l'<lAmly ultrnSQn;c testing has its oriillll5 in medical ullrnSOund An cXCCllC~l
background on all aspectS ofuhruonic t~stin8 hislOry is prov;~d by I)r, Woo on h,s
IH'b,'ie .1.1 blip: _wWVo ,000uh.DlWUDlI DC!. This small section on lIislOry draws libcnliy
from Dr, Woo's IDformauoo. Tbc coneeTI! of muiul'ic elCInnII$ in ... single hou~ing "'"as
nol thaI =ent Tom Bra"",, al Kellln and Hu~ filed an application for p:l!etll> of on
an annular d}namic.>lly fotUSl'd tr.:Insdl.lCCr s}su:m as ~) as 1959, BUI this "ItS n(}\
ba~ on rtwing. Not UI11i1lhc btc 1960s did the limmg ,,;mulS for \he: ph;I.~1n1 of
ullr.lSOllK: pulsc:s bocornc publiWd In J%R bn C Soma- pubh>hotd a P"P'"'"0tl
electronic secwr sc:utn,,,& for ullr:u(IJIIC media.! diagnOSIS In lhc Journal: UlII]'j9!!j'" II
I~ <l"Xulat~ Ib:1I the principle of rbascd-ana)~ ~ prt>bWly been kno,,-n much carll.".
as Liley rdau:d 10 submarine warfare. iJUI as I ~ult of the military aspeCt 1he technology
....as kepi SC'Crt1. Around the sa:m lime p;Il1Ilkl "ark by DG Tuckcral the aurnmgham
Unl\'cl!i'ty in the UK was pubh.lIc:d.

I'Totot)pc$ of phaserl-amlY $y~lemj h.ad .nlhe elementS used for each pul!;e. Variable
time delays were imroduced between the clements in both tnmsmi>sion and n:<.:o:ptinn
lnod~s $(I lhallhc beam was "~teered~ m a pIInicullll' din:<.:lIon. As m1I'ro"cmcnts 10
eleclTOnics b«ame available 50 tOO did thl: limmg circuitry emlw. In I !)76 Thurston<:
and ,'on Ramm al!he Duke University \"Ubhshed a more ad,1U1CCd version of the
electronically steered anays. T1lcir amy gmcratw ten diff=nl roo";,,, focall.w,. It
combined beam stcenng (p"" 'loosly de\clopc:d) 'I nil a dynamic focusing in the =I\C
1II0de, !\I the time. this \\;lS con>.idcred • ~iglllflQllt II\JlO\<ltiol! in desIgn.

-
Until design considerations were beua understood. early ~01'$ions ofmcdical phased
army probes suffered from artefa<:lS. These an: signals that OC<:1.Il" due 10 portions oflhc
off-:l.~is beam interucting wilh off-axis features flOl intended 10 l:w: detencd in the vicmu)"
of the beam. These resulted from Mgrating lobe~M which result from lile beams that
CmllIlatc at prcdlClablc angles off-axis to the main beam. Gl1Ili~g lobes are unique 10
I'hascd amy \f1Il1sducers Md are caused by the regul:rr. periodic sp:u:ing of the small
array demenlS. When the energy of these lobes is reflecud by off-axis StnJelUTCS and
deicctcd by the transducer. the signall'roduccd is artefru;11I31 and considered "ghOSt
imag..".· that imcrfere wilh cvaluation of the main image. The origin ofthcse grating:
lobes was found 10 1:>1: the inability of the syslem to obtain the neeessary Jlhase
interference for beam stcering. II II as O"erwffiC by ensuring that ca<h individual clement
had been cut to a h:dfw:"'elength width. Smaller demenl ",dth ensur..-s that the
mdiyidU.lllobcs produC<.'<l at each clement increase the angle of di"ergerllX to greater
than 90 deg= •. In adduion 10 eiinlinal1ng "ghost images~. eliminaling grating lobes also
,ml'l'O"es the slgnal-to-oo,..: ratio by cnsuring that the main beam cn<"Tgy can be
maintained over a wilkr range of angles thereby assuring better directivity relativc to the
background energy.

Early medical systems suffered from electrical noise 1:>I:tng introduced inlO the receiver
section. Thi.~ noise was associated with the multiplexer orswilching ~etwork delay. This
noise was added when the system changed delays. To a"oid this dccuieal delay
switching ooise required expensiw. IIIW noise delay ltnes and nlUlriple~=. Another
timing considcr.ltion was r:Iiscd to achit\ e effective dynamic focusing. This requires that
the delay resolution on c' eL)' channel be a small fraction of the ultrasound camer period.
To construCt this would require delay lines eonlaining many hundreds of taps. which
ma£k manufacturing both complex and expensive. Tbercfort. in the "old days" analogue
systems "'illt high bandwidth. and ha";ng large num1:>l:rs of channels (addressing the large
numbers of ckmenls) ma(]( manufacturing prohibitive.

NOI untillhc impro"cmcnts in electmnics in the lancr 197(k did this problem get
overcomc. In 1979. Samuel Maslak. Iben alllcwkn Packard (HPJ. patented a method for
dynamic de!3ys witOOUI changing delay laps. He accomplished litis by heterodyning
(using the beat frcqucncyj the RF signal from t:.1ch channcllO an intermediate frequency.
a phase manipulating circuit could perform fine delay changes ....hile a co:trSc delay line
held a large constant delay. In this WllY. the imaging system created multiple recci,c foci
without c~pensivc ultra-low noise delay lines.

The rapid increase in computing sp«d and data now has allowed significant refmcments
to phased-army tcchnoloi!Y. Today. software progr.lmmes allow probe optimised design,
beam prediction cakulations. precise beam piaQ:IYICm calculations and ultra_fine
resolution imaging. Medical ultrasound stililcads the "-lly in R&D W\"a!ICCS but NDT is
no longer lagging so far 1:>I:hind as it had in the previous decades. Medical development
has made SOffiC fasein.:lting ad\"3JLces including Doppler and High Contrast resolutilln
imaging. NDT docs 1101 yet haw much use for the Doppler features ofmedical ultrasonic
assessmentS but high tcmporal rbOlution and Cllntr:JSl resolutions are 1:>I:,ng laken
ad''lll1L3.ge of. The,e will be limits!O the ability of our NDT .y,u~m5 to have ,he sl:U1liog
imaging associated with medical syslems but they mil e the IIdvan\llgc of the tes,
malcri~ls ha'ing ucou~\ic ,doci'ic. about one quaner thaI we "'" IICcu,lomed to in NDT
l1ti~ I\:Is the effect of 3 sig:ni fkantly ,hon""'"g Ihe wavelength used. which has a dim:!
be:tnng on the resolution possible. As an cJ(alTIple of phased arr.Iy high resolution
imaging Fig1m' J·I shows DJ. D ."ndering ofa foelal facc imaged using a phased army
system WIth 3·D rendering.

In lale 2000 Siemens de\eloped their 3D imaging sy.lem. The following is a repon from
the ne"-spapa the Telegraph. in the UK (blip; ',WW,", .telcmpb.c(I.llkl.

A photo for the album before ba by is bo,n By Rover Hlgltfl.,ld. S<;lence £dttor
Wilni j(),Q/!:tJ(JI,

No ..........,..,.....,., 11>81 pnMC!IoS"" _

_ _ Uf'IbOm onid _IiIoe...-.:l _ _ - . 10 _1IbnorrnaIiIIIf _ will"""'
......." ~ 10 _
detailed piCIU'eI fIt>m!he """'"

F~I.2

The thr~·dlme<1sion.1 5Ci>nn ..... launch<:<! by Sie,""",, y...:.~ay. '<5e$ a conven!lon<Jl

u~rasound transducer to make an Image wh~ Is ~dered from a IWO·dlmensk>nallmage by
<OItware II"'formlng loo bllHon c./>lcuIations. second. Dr Rose de 8nJVT'I, from Great Ormond
Street Hosp/tzll, I»ndon, satd' "lrocredlbly _ded Images or the unl)c)ffi roetus ClIn now be
rudlly ava,lobie at the ~tiet1fs bedslcle uslr>g these Im"lll.,.. ted'lnlqves. "
 2. The Principles of "Phasing"
UltrasoUics lias Its foundations on "'<!I'-':: ro«hanics. 1lM:rc are It number of phenomc:oa
1l$$IX;13ied wllb ",,,-, cs. Wa\es can be: ~n«lro. ~f......,tcd. dlff......,.~ and polarisal.
[nterfeTtDtt Or""3\'<:5 can also occur.

Reflection of WIIV,.:
This is the process II hcn:by a \>;3\( mee'ing a boundary betW«T1 IWO mcdi~ is bounced
back' and ",m:lln> '" the first medium, c.g. Li&lu strikmg. mirror

Refraction of waves :
This occurs ",brn I "lI\e l1'I\"ds from one medium into another. it is twmt' or n:fracred at
tlw: boundary. The: "'11'1.' changes direction and ~oes a slight change in \\Il'elength.

Diffraction:
Occurs ",hen an obstacle distorts a wave c.g ,r,1Ie
wa"c 1nI\'c1s through a gap II may be
dlffiat~d. II IS the ab.luy ofa wlive to spn:ad round comers. Diffraction can occur al the
edge of an orn.taclc.

• Polarization:
This ocrurs ... ben the \'ibnllions of tr:lnli,~ "",,'1.'$ ar<: confined 10 one plane only.

Interference:
Inlm=nce occurs ",-ba!,,,o or more simil:1f w&'-es ITICtt. Tberc: 1IR' '''-0 types of
mlcrfcrtnCc: Coo,uuct"e and Dc:slJUCli,'c.
Conslru clln' In lcrfcrenCf:
This occurs '" hen the waves arc in pllaso: "hen !hey mcet. In phasc means the,r
crem and troughs ooincide. The resultant wa\"e will halc amplitudc c-qualto the
SlIm of thc mdi"idual wa,·cs producing II.
ne,;tructh e Intcrfcn'nct':
This OCI.:UN whrn !he ....1I\"es are <)UI of ph;.lsc. (fthe c!'CSt of one " ·'SC cOlllCidcs
with the IIOUP. of ......ther ,,,,,01 des,ructi, ~ 'nterf"""",,,~ wilt .......11 In g~"", ....1 the
amplilll<k of!he rnultant \\""c is obl:>lned by subtnocting !he illdj,·l(!ual
amplinidcs.

Coherent wave sources:

Thcse an: sourc~"S. which ha\'c the same frequency and are in phase wnh c"",h othcr
II is thc principles of inll:rferenee of waves that is the centnl concept in phased arn.y
ultrasonics. Wa\'es can be added together either eortSuucti,'c]y or dcstroc!i\'cly. The
rt.'Sult of adding two WaH$ of the same frequency depends on the value of the phase of
the wa,'e at the poim in which the walCS are added. The followmg illustrates some
cxamples of how 2 ",a"es imerferc. Figure 2-1 is in 2 pan. (a and hI. It sho""S 2 wavcs •
in the upper half. one with a " 'awltngth of65units and amplitude of I, Ihe olher having a
w3wlengtb of 50 units and amplilude of I. In pan "a" these an: arranged in lime to s!art
with the neg:l1i\'c rnnxirnum coinciding. In par1"h" the maximum lUld minima arc
arn.nge 10 have the same.!art points (i.e. the wa"e On the upper left WIlS delayed by ISO·
in ph3~). When we add the 2 wa"cs togelher the effect is "ve<;loriaj"', i.e. the amplitude
lUld dinxlion of the walcs are added. Superimposing the 2 w3vcs in the upper halfof
Figure 2-1 ""C' ~ the effect ofvcclor addition in the lower Jell frames. In Figure 2_1 Port
M
"a the amplitude of the stan poinl is seen to ha,'c double the amplitude ofeithcr the
upper 2 wales. BUI at the point where the amplitude indic.:JlOr is located (tbe 'e"ical
lines indicating - [ to . I in !lie upper framcs and - 2 to +2 in the lower Icll frnmcs) we ~
that the addition n:sultS in nearly a zero amphtude in Figure 2-1 Pan "3" but nearly a
ma.~imum displacement of - 2 in Pan ··b·'.

I • •
\

upper : upper scale ± ]

But the wa,e!ength ofthc pulse,; made in a phased afl1\ytransducer would all be the
same. Also .• illC<! the displaeemcnl of an dement ofa p,o~.o-malerial is proponionallO
the applied vOltagc, the amplitudes of the pulses made by adjacent clement "ould all
ha"c lhe same amplitude too_ Therefore the only variable from one element to the next
would be the ]lOint at which the wavcs mcct (i.c. the phase delay]_ The point whe", the
adjaccnt \\'3"e pulse has a ma~'n1Um displacement that coincides with its neighbour's
ma.xirnum di$placemcnt w,lI provide a eonsll"lICti,'c inlerfL"TI:oce and if the m.uimum
displacemem of O1IC pulse meets the minimum of its neighbour then the opposite movlllg
par1icle displacements would cancel each other and no pulse occ~. These concepts arc
illu,;mlled In Figure 2-1 . When ";n ph:lsc" the ampliludes of the Wayes add aod no
change is seen in the frequency. Whcn 180" nUl ofrha~ the wa,'cs cancel each other
and no panicle displacemem occurs a., iltu.>lrated by the flat line in the lower left frame of
the image illustrating the out of phase condition.

Figure 2-2 Wave Interference -same wavelengths

• , \ \
• f
i
T \ f I f \ i
f \ f \I \ \i f

'"
f f ,
\
• •

UIlIll50nic phn~ array tc<:hnology is simply I special al'flhcauon oftmditiona! singk

e1emcm ulrra50nic lesting. Strictly speaking it may be thOUght of as having its principles
based on IIuygens' Principle. Defined. the Huygeru Principle statcs: "e"el)' point on It
wavefront may it«:lf be regar<Led as n source of S<.'C<Indal)' waves. Therefore, jf the
position ofa w3wfrom at any inst:mt is known. a simple construction enables its position
to be dra .....n at any SUbScqUL11t time." (Chrislilln Huygcns 1629-1695)

The concept that the wavefront .s composed of "'"3velcts (seco!>dal)' wa\·~) is

fund3mcntalto phnscd-l1JT3y ulU'llSOnics. But the fll4't thai we slill concern ourscl~es with
the main wlwcfront means thai all the other aspeclS ofuhrasonic treatment apply 100; i.e.
We can still consider the Near Zone calculations and focal spot .:alculations and
di"ergcnccs as would be associated with single clement systems.

In ''tradtllonaj"'jsingle elcmtntl ulinl5l)tlin we nOml3lly uSC a "compression mode"

transducer. This is pokd to CaUSC an expan.sion when a vol\.i1ge is applied. Typically we
upply n voltage '·pulse" to the clement via the wires att:lehed to either side of the clement.
The pulse;s ofa shon dUl"3tion and cau$CS the c!(mentto expand 8S the maximum
voltage is rcached. and then return to its rest position when the ,<ol!age is removed (i.e.
the voltage drops back to zero). The entire nat surface of the clem'..'''! moves nUl and
back II1lIking a displ3<.'cment in the surrounding medium and a plane WiI\·drom i.
initiated (see Figure 2-3).
Figure 2-3 Single Piezo-Element Operation

•• • •
••
" .•
•
• · •: .
'. .•
..•
,.. •
, •
I
r
.• .' . • •
•
• ••• ••••

A single wa~efionl looms WIth (Ipansion eoodtUOn

ddflacbon bendog ill ~ edges di\.places parucle;
along the elemenl
...-lace

~
A displaeem('111
pamt etiSlS at
evety domain poilM
• linstressed mode

In a phased alTaY probe. lhe SlIme ,oluge)s applied 10 Ilk: same elIjliInsionallkfonning
of a piczo<'iecuic material, BUI Ihe probe face is 001 a single demC11t but instead n>.aJIY
small clements. an connected \'ia the same son of wiring as a single element and all
mounted III the same backing. When all of the clements arc hit with the: same "olllIge
spike all expand in unison and the dYcet i~ the same as hiuing a singk clement of the
same SIZe.

Figure 2--4 illusn'll1e;; the multI element eonSlnletion of a pha""d array probe "'here
several Clcml'11ts. are hil "ilh the voltage pulsc at the same lime. E:lch individual clement
would. on il5 own. radiale a eurved ",a,'erront due to th" sm:tllli~ of the clemenl. But
when all arc hil al1k same lime Ille eff«1 is 10 form a single large W3,..,frOnt having the
SlIme dimcn~ions and charnclcrislics of a single clement of Ille same dimension as the
combinl..:i mul1i-elemenl< of the phased army probe.
•
Figure 2-4 PA concept with multiple elements and wavelets
Plane wave formalkm

non _ _ u n n u n __ u n ____ ~lnllll1ergncewaveieLS

•
-------,-,-,--,-----
-,---------_._---- • Un5llessed mode

Stressed mode

Figlll'C 2·5 il1usnmcs the traditional singk clelllent probe wiln backing and cloxll'ital
contacts.

Figure 2·5

-.......-
-,-"'--
.. _ .... ~<.~_u" ••
~.h.".n<.

"""'Ut2!'iH
~......
¥:.a.&l'
~~P"
-
"..,,-
•• bo·<09U

Figure 2-6 illustrates the layout ofa ,ingle clemen! of lhe linear array version of n phased
army probe. This is C'SSo.'nlially idcmicallo Ihc single clement t~c<pl for tbe elcctrical
contacts of which there are as many as there are elemems CUI alOllS lhe length of lite
probe:. 110"<:\ CT, in prtp;lring tile probe, the clemen! starts as a single reclanllular unil
··poned" In !he hacking and a diarn<.Jnd dicing saw makes CUIS about as deep as the piczo
material,s thic~_ Tllal gap IS filled "11h a dampmg malerial \0 SlOp cross-talk. The gap
:md element width arc calculated to pro,·ide optimum perFonnance based on rrcquencyoF
the eiCrm:TL1 (piezo ma1<'1iaJ lhicknC:>$). A muhi-con\ac1. connector rondu.:tively fused 10
the prepared pie-oW dement 5«liol15 provides dCC1Tical con\:lCllO lhe OUkr face of the
element. For m<>St3pplieations the dement width is about 8 halfw3\·elength. The
ekmc:ollcngth. ~"uJ:.r 10 th<: SUI, "I.me. ,s IYr,cally 10 10 13 mm. and f"",,,1
Jengthsofthe leru.cs IIIl: S 10 10 em. depending on fn:qucocy. Ammging lbe cI«tl'OOe5
011 such small elrn'Ioml) is rroblt"malN: .so (OIItacIJ an: made similar \0 prin1t'd cin:uJ1.$ and
may N on nUlble b.:icl.;mg5, With 1Il3ll)' ,'OO1oXI poinlS pre-made and ahgnro along the
edge (as in the llNlge on the nghl of Fi8\ll'l: 2-6) • mal~hing multi-pin CO!UI«I01' ('3Il Ix
fiued 10 the contact pms prOltUding from eilhcr face of the clerll<:llt suuctun:,

Figure 2-6 Components of the phased array probe

--
--
In thc SImple compression mode. with all clcmcnl~ fired al 1M $;une Im1O:. II><: n'W' and fan
oflhe proN face oomposcd of the muh, clement amy i~ for all purposes seen the woo as
a singk solid cknlC1l1 experiencing the ""'me defomlalion.
As mo~ [!feci,ion i. requIred more elenwnlli I~ addc-.l. MinialunS3lioo of Ihe l'T<X:ess is
1>«onllng II specialty in the medial field, Figure 2-7 itlustJllles two ph.1sed art'I.}" probes
designed in Duke L'ni""""ty_ TI>e -"C<"fIler for bnCllllng Canlio'3¥u]ar Techno]ogies"
III Duke L:n,,'ef";,ty ~Igncd a real-ume \'o]uI1'Ictnc ~ for imagmg the heart n.e
team in ~o]labo!allon II ilh the VolWllCllic Ml:dical ]rmging ]11<' .:u Durlwn. "onh
Carolina produced D4ll~lHz ].2" duproml'k:tcd In ]994. was !he hils;, for !he: beam-
former in the IIorld'~ lir..t riecltOllicaUy Sl«mi m.1tri~- am.y 3-D ultrasound imaj!er
This !le\'el~nt uses \\ EMS (miC'Jl)-C]eclru_m«h.1nlca] sySlem) '''''hnology '0 ~h,e,..,
6·h64 (-1096) amy the .u.c ofa SIl13U coin (about I~mm diamclcr), The Image (Ill the
righl in Figure 2-7 is 3 "'Ill ~ 10 nm, x 2 n,iCTt)n.~ in sile. It is a 20 Mill cardIac calhe.cr
tll1ll5ducer The image on the left is their first UMH1. 20 81T11Y using the \-1J:.MS
tcchniques.

Figu~2_7 Small '\alit. large 3mlJis (coun.:sy Duke L'mH1"suy CI:C'T)

 3. Beam Fanning
3.1 Transducer Arrays

\1ultiple pic7.<K'IIXtN: clClTlali.S 3J1llflgm in paltC11lS in a common holtSi"l an: ailed

arnys. these an usuaJly linear. maLtU or lUIDular in~, S« Figure 7.

Figure 7 Array types

- _
....
..

to"""-'! _ '''l)'
When the declronic.s a~ ~mmged 10 simply pulse mdi'"idual or groups ()fel~nlS III
!;OInI:order the amo)';5 i3id 10 be sequenced. A ill""" sequc:nccd:un)' mIght .imply Slep
Ihrough f'U1"ng each elcmmt one al a 111M "I\ik the Olha demc:n.,. "e~ rtt.:l\'mg Of the
mdi,;dual clemenl I) ~ In puIsc-ccho 11\OI:k, Thi$ C:ln be used w~ resoluhon ofa
small elcrncm is nttded but then: is DO room for motion. or 1M SUrf;1Cc cannot be coupled
10 <"asily lhen-by aJlo"',"g DO ",buw probe motion.

In the laiC 1970's Md:lroy and BriCT'i fash",moo a pmb<! of cancelllri. rinili" I:.ach ring
was composed of cylindrical ~ions to rcduec inter-:>e(Iustic coupling (erQ'I!<·U1lk).
Using standard equIpment \0 pulse the nng_.>«lions scquennally by n~n5 of
multiplexing. I scriesoffocal spot;; co=ponding \0 the p;lraltlC'lCN of each ring"=
obtained. The annularamoy multiple focal spotS do;> not Imp<O,-e resolunon o,er rlJCcd
unitS btu is doe<; pmml beam fot1lSing aI ,'.moos dimnces in the malm.l ~tng tCSled,

Elemems In an ani)' "'" usually sma.1l and nal. The "ia,dront offan mdividual demenl
15 Ihe~fon: <omewhat omni-direction~l in both transmission and recqlllon_ If "=""",1
dcmems 3,.., puhed iimu!taneow;ly Ihe w'll,c from produced is Ihe result ofintcrfc~llCe
of the various ~I'hcri<al "",,-cs from each ckmrnt_ The effect is a "",'dront similar 10
0"" tr:msmiued hy a I'lane clemen! ha, ing 111e same dimrnsion~ as tile multi-clcment
amy_ If,,~ ,,= 10 delay 1M JIIII~ to c:lCh succtisivc demen1 hy some lime less than
half the period tlf the enllned sip, the ""\"Cfron1 resulting from the mterference is an
meidc:m beam "ith an angle of incodeocc oomrol1able hy dectronics. Figure 3-1 shows
the eff"'l of I linear anay JIIIlscd ,,-ilb incretill>g Iklay to each elcmenL
Figure 3-1 Beam Steering

~"'""=!:
_&=::-~
.....
,,_ ~

By ml' &IIml' prindples. focusing can be ach,c\ ed by delaying the puis<: 10 the mncr
clements. This requires non-lincar delays as sbo":r1 in Figure 3-2.

Figure 3·2 Beam Focusing

I
•

Arrnys utilising the pbase interference resulting from liming of pulses 10 achiew beam
sh:ering or focusing= called phased llmI)'s. Phased 3rrn)'S can 3C(:omphsh two
impon:mt features by dynamic changes to the delay limes \0 the clements;
l. beam st=ing
2. dynamic focusing.
Therefore. predsc timing and phase interference clTccts can constantly VlU)' bolh incident
angle and ZOne of maximum ""$OluI;on.

It is of course possible 10 combine the beam stccring and focusing. Sec Figure 3·3.
Figure 3-3 Phased Array Steering end Focusing Combined

--
-_.
AlTlIys dcscnbed nbQ\'c Induded linear. mam~ or aMular. To !his list "'c could add a
special \crsion called -cetorul annual. Thi. lallcr \ ~rsion a1l0"''' bo!h spherical focusing
and angular beam Siccring (also caJled a ,.oo.!heI3 probe). See Figure 3-4

Figure 3-4 The Rho-Theta Phased Array probe

............ - - . 0

Each nwnbered segn,enl o f !he ,Jlustralion reprcscn~ 3 separate element m !he amy (61
c!cmenlS arc Indicated in Figure 3-4 ).

Lmcar arrays 4l'C tho: most common I)')X. and an ~rform scannmg m OIX' dimmsioll
only. Linear 1lmI)'S 1)"Jl1C3l1) minim;".., the n~ of ckmenlS ""Iwrc:d.. and ~b)'
k«p the: cost o:krAll.
Matrix array. can SC3.n in two dimensions. and offer eonsilkrably mon: nexibihty. albeit
a price.
3t

Circular or annular arrays are specIfic for IlOnnal beam IIllipectioos. e.g. billets. forgmgs.
Rho-theUl. arrays otter the ma.~imum ~lution ofspherieal focusing ....-ith beam steering.
hut the complexity and size make their construction tedious and costly.

For the main part. the remaining portions ofthesc notes will usc the most common form
of phased army probe (the linear array) 10 de.cribe the various aspects of phased limIy
(""hnolol!.)'.

Before moving on 10 the specifics of how we might address the uSC ofa phased am)
system II will be: helpful to m:al! some of th< basics of ultrasonic: be:am characterisations.
 3. 2The Ultrasonic Beam

As mcnnoned e3rher. 1M sound field produced by. ph:lsed anay proIw= an h3,c lhc
same qu,ulI;UIl\e IreatmmllS lhc sinsJe ckmtnt \CTSions

Figure 3-S ~how~ 1M amplitude profi1~ ora beam rrom a 12mm diameter 1.S\UI, nat
~. The 5I:If\Wlm ukula(es the ''!rnnsmI5S'on~ boundaJy 51:1 !he tr.J<huonal-6:.1B usM
ror '"pulse-cc~o" analysis or bcam~ ij rcpn::;.cnted by the - 3dB when calculated in
cakula(~ tmn~m;"ion-<lnly fonnat. The beam iJ c",,,idercd (0 be: tnllIsmilting into
"'''3Ief (\'~ ISOOm 51 aoo the a~ial plot shows the beam from I)mm 10 S40nim (3 near
fields). The R:u.lial p .... t i, laken 11th<: end ofthc I'car Field (1799mm) and i$ ioo,catcd
10 be: 3.2mm diamel<'T

Figure 3-5 The Sound Field

,.
-..
.,-
_ S- P_ ~,-

--
<~ <0
- , l
_'.... • 1:oWoo_ .....
f_ iii" t. t r ...
~ "" ~ ... ", >II
_ _ J. -J

...
-. i
~­
• .I,' I
\
"il'
.' I
- I

_ . . . . . . :oc
-
-'-
,.M
~-.
~
•
•
..
""'''..o,
..... ,-
•
.~

•
-
Calculations of the peak and boundary ~o"ditiQJIS of beams play an important role in
ultrasonic testing. Equations for lite dctcrmin.1lion of lite most common parameters are
found in most basic ultrasonic tc~ting gUldes. !3ccausc so much of what can be done ..... ith
a phased-array system in NDT takes oovamage of the ability to al«=r some of~
parnme!ers the l\eJtt portion ofthis tex! re"iews tm: main items cakulalcd for ultrasonic
•
b<-ams. lbese inc1ude ~
Near 7..(1ne
Bl!Jm Diameter
Focal Zone
Beam Spread and Half Angle

Focusing considerations such as cffccts of varying lite acoustic velocity and Gain
(scnsili"iry) due 10 focusing will also be consideml.

3. 2.1 The Ncar "ton e

The loca1fon of the laS! maximum is knO"l1 as thc ncar field disUlJlCl: (N or Yu) and is the
natural focus of the transducer. The far field is the area beyond N where the sound fidd
pressure gradually drops to zero.

The ncar field distance is 8 function of the transducer frequency. clemem diameter. and
!he sound \"c1oclly of lite test malerial as ShO"l1 by Equation I:
Ol! 01
Eqn.1 N=~~ or Eqn.la N=-
41' 4.{
Wher"
N -- Near Field DistallCe
D - Elcnlcol Diameter
f · Frequency
v a Material Sound Velocily
,_ - Wa,ekngllt

Most "'ork in ultrasonIc NDT is done near or juSt beyond the Near Field.
The range forv."3m or back of the ncanone is also of interes! and the "working field" can
be defined by lite d,stances where the maximum pressure drops to h.llf(-6dB). The
working field. beginning and end of the f0C31 :rone 31ld lItt Pro~ diamtter are SOO"011 in
Figure 3-5 to eJttcr>d from 119mrn to 362mm.

3.2. 2 Ik:am Diam eter

A trnnsducer 's scosltivity is affe<"ted by the beam di",",,~ at the poim of ;mcre;t. The
smaller the ~am diameter. the greater the amount of energy that is reflcned by a flaw:
proportionally speaking. The -6dB pulsc-ttho beam diameter at the focus can b<-
calculated with r:qu3tion 2 or 2a. For a flat transducer-we use EqllllliQJI 23 " 'ith Sf- I
 D _ 1.02FII
Eqn.2 8·M8 - jD

Eqn.2a D/f~ = O.2568DSp

Where
o..... ~ Beam Dilmeter{at !he 6dB drop bound3ry)
F~ focal Length
.,. Malerial Sound Velocity
f- F~uenc.y
D Element Diameter
SF ~ Nom,ali7.cd Focal Length (sec Eqn.6)

3.2.3 Focalzone
For a focllS<'d probe tl>I' sW1ing and cooing points of the focal zone are loc:l1ed "here the
on-a.~is pul~-«110 signal amplilude drop. 10 ..(,dB of lhe amp1ilUde al tl>I' focal point.
This was lem,e(! the ""orking field" when describing !he Near 1.one in Sec!ion 3.2.1 .
Equation 3 gi'es the length of the focal7.one:

Eqn.3

Where
F,t;'" Focal Zone
N ' Near Field
SF' Normali/.ed Focall..cngth (sec IOqn.6)

3.lA Beam Spnd an d Half Angle

All ul1rasonic beams diverge. In other woms. alJ UDnsducCl""S havc !xam spread. Figure
J-6l1ives a view ofa :iOund 1:Jcam for a nat transducer. In the ncar field. lhe beam has"
comple.~ shape !hal narrows. In the far field the beam diverges.

Figure 3-6 Principles of Beam Spread

 Principle. ofb.am IPr."

• 01-------1=--

",

for flat circular transducers like !hal used in !he cakulalions for III 500"''ll in ~-. IlIe-6dB
pul,.,,,,,,,ho beam spread angle IS ,"<on by Eqwmon 4
S (91)_ 0.51'"
1'.qn.4 III 12 - jD
Wh=
o 2 ~Half Angle- Spread IX1wcen -6dB points
O.S I~ is a COII$WII ."..'ti for the -&18 "",,,Iope
(for the ··2O.JB ol\elopc:
!he conSI:Inl iii cha.nged 10 0.87)
, . • Malenal Soun..! Velocity
I· Frequenc)'
o ~Element D,ameter

It ClIn be $Ccn from thi. C<juauon thaI beam ,,,,,,,,ad

fmm a InUlSdllC(:r can be r.:duced by
selecting II transducer with a hig~ fll'qucllC)" or II1argerelro1C1l1 di~ or both.

3.2.5 Focusi"!: Conflttur:l lion,

Tnodlllonal .mgk dnnenl U'lMdLJ(ffl are a\ailable In three diffC1V\1 focusmg
configurations;
unfocused (Mfbl ~I.
spherically (-spoI") fOCU$oed.
and qhndri<.::llly ("Ii~~) focuKd

for tllcsc probes., focusing IS IoCcom"li~hed by elthe.,. the addition of a lens or by ell!"""1
1M clemen! ilSClf.
Sy definition. the focallcngth ofa transducer is lile distance: from lilc face oflhe
transducer to the point in the sound ficld w'here the signal with the ma.~imum amplitude is
located. In an unfocused lTansdtlCcr, this occurs at a diSlaOCe flVm the face ofthc
trnn.~urer. which is applVx;mateiy ~ui"alcnt to the lTansducer's near field length.
Sccause Ihc last signal maximum occurs 3t 3 diSIa!H;C ~ui\'3IentlO III<: near field. a
lI1lJ\sdurer, by Ikfinition, cannOI Ilr acoll ltiulh' fMII<i'd Mt a di.tanee greater th~n II<
ncar field When focu.<ing a transducer, lh~ Iype of focus (spherical or cylindrical). focal
length. and Ihe focal 1lI1"ge1 ('"spherical polnf' or "flat surface") need to be specified.
B3Si.""t! 00 this infonnutiuo. the radius of curvature of lile !cns for lhe Imn,duccr can be
calculated This varies ~d on alxwe fW"""'tCfll. When tested. the measured focal
Irngth should be stated as being detcnnined from the targct specified

There are limitations On focal k-ngths ror transducers of particular frequency and element
diameter combinations and targct cksignatinns. 1lte maXImum practical focal length for
a poim wgCI focal designation is 0.8 ·Near Field length. Transducers with focal lengths
beyond these ma~imums. but leo.:; th:m lile Mar field are called weakly focused. In other
words. tlu:n: may not be an advantage to a focused transducer o'cr that ora nat
Inmsducer.

In addition to the limitations on ma.~imum focallcngths.lilere arc Iimit3110115 on lil~

minimum focal lengths. These limitations are typically due to the mcehanical limitalinll5
of the transducer.

3.2.6 Foc~1 lenglh "~r;atjo"s du~ 1D acou~lic ,eloci1~ dirrc r~n(cs

The measured focallcngth ofa transducer is dependent on Ihe material in which It is

being measured. This is due to the fact thai different materials have different sound
velocities. When specifying a transducer 's focallcngth it is typically specified for ","tCT.
Since most materials have a higher velocity than ...."lIter. the focallcngth is effectivcly
s.honcncd. This effect is caused by refraction (:>econling to Snell' s Low) and is
illustrated In Figure 3-7.

Figure 3-7 Focal Length Alteration due to Change In Material

 -- -
This change In tho: rocallrngtll can ~ pmIicloo by Equalion 5. Forc:wnple.llwa! a
panicular focal l~nllth lind lTIIIt=aJ path. thIS C([Il;I.lion can be usOO UI dctronUIC tile
appropriate ""1:1" path 10 compensate for the foclUing c«eel. in !he 1<'S1 malena1

Eqn_5 1I 'p=F-AfA~)
••
•••
Where
lip WalcrPath
1(.. \ialtTiallkpth
F Focal Length in Waler
". Soon<! Vdocllyin the: Test "\aLeriaI
,-. - Sound Velocity in Waler

In addition. (he CIIr-.alun: ofsurfacc orllle lest pi~c eM! aff~ focusing. ~ndlng un
"hcth"nh~ entry surfuce is conca~c orco",c~. the sound beam may oon\'crgc mOre
rapidly than il would In anal '<:Imple or;1 may $pl'e3d Md actually tk:focus

3.2.7 FOfllsing Ga in

Focused ImrneJS'''' Irml)dUCC'l"$ u.o;e an acoustic Jms 10 df«li,-dy shifllhe locatIon of the
near lOIIC toward !he tlllru;duceT face. The rod resul1 can be a dr.tmalic incre3$C III
smsit;,ity_
Figure J-l! illuslmtes the relall\" im:ll.'3Se in "l:'1li1 amplitude from small defectS due to
r"",using ",hel"C' S F is the oormaliu<l focallmglh and is given by F.quation 6.
Figure 3-8 Increased Sensitivity by FocUSing
 Countsy Panametrics

Eqn.6 SF F'N
Where
Sf - Nonnalizcd Focal Length
F ~ FocJi L~'lglh
N ~ Near Fidd

For e.~am[lle. the ,han can be used 10 deICnnine the increase in on-a.~is pul,.,...,e!",
sensitIvity of a 2.25Mlll. 1.0"elemenl di3Jlleler tr.msducer that ;s focused al ..\ inch~.
The ncar field lenglh of this lrnnsduccr is 9.55" and the normaliud f()l,:aJ length is
(4.0".9.55"J ~ 0.42. From the dWI;1 can be SCt"n 1hnt1his ..... ill result in an increase in
senSi1ivity of approxima1ely 21dB. Focusing gain in (dB) for C) lindrical focU:lCd probes
can be cslim..11ed 3S being) 4 of the gain for spherical focU5CS.
 3.3 Phas ed Array Aspects of Beam Characteristics

The forgoing infonnation should be a simple maUer of'-refreshcf' material co\'cring Ihe
basics of ullr.lSOnic sound field equations.

The concepts co\croo above ha'c cquhalcnlS in phased:uray sound fi¢ld calculalions.
E.g. A S MH7.lincar amy pba.<;<:d:uray probe is conStructM of60 elemenls ea.:h IOmm
wid;: and CUI with a <;emre of lmm spacing and a gap ofO.lmm. What willthc near lone
be for a focal law that fonus a pulse into steel al zero degrees (i_c. direct nat contllet) wilh
10 adjacent ciemcnlS fired simuhanoously'?

Dr. I.N. ErmolOl assures u, thatthc Ncar Zone calculations f(lr a rtttangular probe can
use thc !>arne equations as a circular di.>e trnnsducer if the ratio of Irnb'lh 10 width does not
e~cced 2:1. Therefore we c:m USC the applicable linear dimension for our estimations.

This is cffccmdy 3 IOmm x IOmm SMHz probe: in contact with sleel (VcL · S9OOm/s)
Wc can therefor.: U!iC

N=-
D'/
Eqn_l
4,·
D'
N=-
Eqn.la
4'
N ~ 10l x (SxIO·/(-I.d.9xlO·))
- 2Llmm

This is far too cloSt,: for our purpo;>'iCS if we wanl \0 focus at sOnun so we could use 20
elements and push the ncar zone oullO lW_t<mm . There the focal spO! would be "bout
SAmm diameter (as re' Equation 2). Then we could USC Ihe focusing delays to pull thc
focal SPOI back to SOmm "'here we would havc " focal ~po! in steel of about 2.7mm
(using Equation 6).

There are limi\S to the extents 10 which we can ellIT)' the wmparisons between single
elemcnt lind I'hased "rmy probe elements. As EmIOJOV poimed OUI. Ihe Ul']lroximalion of
ncar zone tre:llmem is limited to rectangular dimensions IlOI e~t«d;ng 2: I.

\JU! eYen Ihen We should look 8t the wry first approximation made for near mne
di.tance. f:.qualion I statoo N _ 0' f-lv

This equalion is deriwd from the mon: famlliar

D' -),'
N, ("~n lb)
4A. '4
Equation I WU made assuming that the dim.:nsion of the elemC1lt was much gre3ter than
the ,,-a,-c!ength of the sound pulse so the A.: tlTt1t was dropped But "hen !he indt'idual
clement i5 on !he ~of Imm this is .'ery nurty tM same size as liM: "a'clcnl!ih and
the off :u.i. dfee1S cannot be ignored.

Wa,elm form 1he1r iI\d"iduai """llVdrOIlts from each element and. as indi~le<ltn Figures
3-1. 3-2 and 3-3.lhc ,.a,dclS an es'lCtluall) Ctmlbr Becausc oflhcir circular ~ the
pressure is ap)llW:lIn.:1tcly uniform in amplitude as we move arotmd the .... a, efront off-
axis from the from of the clemen!. In fact some tdca ofthc degree Oflhl~ can be
detennined from the C.tml3lion oflhc neat 1.<)ne of II single clemen!, Inserting .,alues
typical ofa phas<:tll11'll)' probe in Eqn Ib (cg for I Imm clanctll dimen,ion radiating
into sleel a159OOm~ "'lth a 7.~"iHz nominal fRquency) the near ZOfK tS I~ IhM the
.....m"length ofliM: pulse, (For this e~ample the "llelen¥1h is 0.79mm and the T\e3t wnc
",II
.... ould be 0.12mm mSII:ad of the: ~cstim:l1ionM of 0.32 using Eqo. lal. 1lw:n: bc so"'"
obliquilY factor ~uhm3 in a rMuclioo ofpreu:= on 1M "'""I'drunl as "'t tnO\C towards
90' from liM: fOT\lard direction SO al some point lie do noc halC very large amplilude on
whK:h to build OUr con.tru<:Ule intcrf~, As "c \bC I1lOTt' and more clemenl.'i 10 fonn
our beam the CII<."lJ)' 15 eoncenlnltcd on the ax,~ nfthe bcam fonncd. T1lc OIte al which
this 0ttIJ1"S is b'l"elltcr for ilrg'" elemems than for small clemenl$ (at the sam~ frcq~),
This limili the amount that II rhased nrra~ can be. steered offaxi., The uff-axis amplitude
a,ailabk from the mdt\ idual ciM11CT1lS deCT".ses at !he same rate as the indil idu.,1
elements making up the array_ 11lereforc. 10 stON.'f 10 large angles. smaIL tndiv,dual
elernenli are DCCC$SIJ)'. It is genttllll) r«wnmcnde<l that ",hen designmg a phased ami)'
probe fora ,peciflC application tho:: ooigrta' mU$l dolMmi"., the mll:unum angle the
beam is In be Sle<:rcd. Then !he indilidual clement "'Kith is esl3bli'ihed 50 !hat at tIw
:onglc the bcam !I1llpht~ from the uKbvKiu:t1 eI<Tt1Cn1 is raluccd by no more: !han 6 dB

The;:c details n~ uscfulto an operator tn mgeneral W:I)' and the de1atls of lhe ca1culati0115
are left 10 the probe manufacturer.
 3.4Fermat's Principle

for an uhl1LSOTlie operator, the imponanl fealUl"C' of phased armys is the ability to direct 3
beam 10 a desired location This uscs fermat'll PrinCIple, illust1"1ltcd in Figure 3-9.

Figure 3·9 Fermat's Princip le as Applied to Phased Array Ultrasonics

1 .... _ .. ,..

..-
-- ~)

... \I

In 1650 Pierre de Fermat f{,"nulated a principle for light paths which We now uSC for
sound paths 1fl phased array technology. It states that a ray travelling from one poinllO
another ...·ill follow a path such that, <.:ampared with ... arby palhs..the time required is a
mlmmum.

f ir.;t the ope1"1l10r must determine point where tile focal depth is to <xcur, the inspection
angJ.:(s) andlor euupbnt (or wedge m"erial). plus how many and which elements are 10
be fired The uperator also must know dc13i11l On the 3rnly and wedge (if used).
The central ray following Sncll·s Law loca\Cs the array with respect 10 the point of focus
and t~ calculations 3l"C' made for each raypath from the elements us.."d 10 the point of
fueus (as illustrated in figur.:' 3-9). Delay times between cicmc:nlS fired arc then
calculated for eac:h c1<:mcnt 10 emu", Lhal Ihe Ii"", to Lhe poim of focus is the minimum
(compensating for lelocilies in the coupling and teSt malerials).

To hale an <>pe.lILo. cany out Sll>'h a colkCI;on of calculations elcry t;me they W3m \0
change a firing sequence for an inspection is OOt pl1l<:ti<,al. Therefore Lhis is done using"
computer algoriLhm. Calculat;ng the required delays is $imphfied by some fonn of
~graphic lISer interface- (GUI). Such" GUI is shown in Figu,.., 3-10.

Figure 3·10 Phased Array Delay Calculator GUI (RD Tech)

....

-•
I~

FF3
r---1I '
3

" '"
r-3 r-3
- -
_.............~ JiO:3 :fi""::"'3
'-

---
~

•..,.,--
....... --~
""
I'l _
.... --
..... _
h _ _ _. . _ _
..
1''''' '±l
~
~
~
- ,.... ""
........
... -
(.... :::r
fi"":'"1l
F"'3

l1lc calculator produces a file called a rOCl lla,,·, wh"h defines Lhe elements \0 be fin:d,
time delays. vollnges.. for both tIM: trnnsminer and .""em,r funcli"ns.

This is an ASCtl filc. and can be edited, ,,-n\ailed <."!t. as r<'qull'1~d. The file is then
usually trnnsfelTed In the computcr programme that controls the pulscr-rttcil"Cr hard,,'arc
Lhat dri\'o.'S the phased ami)' probe. n,... controlling compUl.. is commonly refrTTl'd to as
the "':\:1I1I acquisition uait" the caleulat", is also a programme and may reside In the data
acqUls;ti"n unit). The GUI s~n by the dal3 acquisition unn oper.ltor allnws control o\'01'
the pulse, and rttc;\'crs and the input parnmclers that configured the mitial Focal L:lw
Can be secn displayed numerically 3nd grnphically as shown in Figure 3-11.

Figure 3-11 Pulser and Receiver Settings on the Computer Monitor

-I-I~'"'

'.
n
,-
n,.
! .. !,."
'-"'"

fOOl ~
'-j''''1

.1
--
r--3 III
,- • •
- ;:;l ~ J;;[ • '~I
_ l _ ! ....... _j"'·
'-
n n
p,
J
The sch"",atic reprcsent.:llion or the ~nl;re serup is secn in Figure 3-12.

FIgure 3·12 Phased Array Equipment Schematic

,- ..~ I
\,.;,

• Recllhlll1il
•

The focal!a,,'S can be ,cry rompleJ< Bnd when scI'ern! an: groupe<! togNher elOClrOnic
scanninG is accomplished (i.e. the II1()wmenl ofthc beam ",lhoul physical mo' cmcnl of
the probe. The oplions arc lincar. SOCl0rni and depth focus scanning as sho"n in Figure
3-13.
 Figure 3·13 Electronic Scan Patterns

... UnfiT Sran b. Stttorial !'raQ

r"'L-1 ....11. _........ -

-
,~.

• ? For linear scans. amYl' ar" muhiple"ed using me same Focal I.:Iw .
? For secloral.scMs. the same elements are used. butlbe Focal I.:Iws arc changed .
./ For dyn.ll1lic dcplb focu~ing (DDF). the both the uansmiucr and receivcr Focal
Laws can be changed 10 optimise pr"l.'SSure and resJlOI1SC at a s~ifie depth.

When combined with a mOl<lriscd scanner that mo'"CS the phased urray probe: in a
specified path the entire volume of the tC"St pi""e can be imerrogaled.

3.5 Phased Array Beam Focusing and Steering

This is 50melhing of a =·iew as we have already oo\ercd the principles in the rcv;ew of
the bc3m eharaC1eriStics and associated equations as they related 10 single elemem
probe>..

3.5.1 Beam Focusing

• Focu.sing ~fficient ( K) is defined as K -= ~

Where F focal distance N - Near lOne length

• Beam dim~"1ISion (d.,) in ~Ieeringplane 31 focal distance is given by

F
d ",,t-
"
 Where A is the: total apenure. F is the Focal dist:ulee and ;" is tile
wawlcngth. (In thi< case the A is equivalent 10 the dianmer D for a single
element).

35.2 Ik:I.m SU'('rin g

• Is the rllplIbifil)' (" m/HIifJ' 'he rr/,"cud lI"gle of the beam gtneTlued by
the array probe.
• Allows for multiple ,mgle inspeclion .•. using a single probe
• Applies asymmetrical (c,g. linear) focal laws
• Can ''''')' IJe per/a'IIIi'd in 5/cning pillni'. when using 10 (Iinear).armys
• Can g<:ner.l1C both L (oompress.ion) and SV (shear \'cnical) waves. using a
single probe
• Steering capahihty is rclalCd 10 the width of an individual clel'IlMlt of the
army
•
• 9. ~O.5-
,
Maximnm stcering angle (at ~ dB). gi'cn by

<
• where i. is the w3,dength and "c" 1M individual clement width
• Steering range can be modified using an angled "'edgc

3.5..3 E1.,.,ll"9l1k (Linear) Scannin g

--
Figure 3-14 Electronic Scanning

,.J.-, .

Is the uhiliO' lo mOl'e 1M (J('Ou.'lie !>eo'" along the axis of the array wilhout lIny
mechanical mowmCnl (sec Figure 3.14).
7 The beam mo\'<.mcnt is pcrfonned by lime mullip1c.~ing of the: acti\e clements
(repealing the focal law Steppm!; through One dement at a time ... ing the nex!
adjacent clement from the stan clemen! of one focal!a'" as the ncxt stan element)
" Scanning eX1ent is limited by;
o numoo of clements in army
o munoo of "channels" in the acquisition s)'>tern
 3.5A 5« loral Scan ning
Whell3!1 3.SJK"ts oflhe Focal Law are held fixed e~cqu for the delays 10 aller angles
such that a range of angles tS covered by the beam. Ih~ scan p3nern is called 3 Sectoral Of
S-scan (scm,times also called lUI &7,inluthal scan). Figure 3_15 illustnllCS the dfect of
Sectoral scanning. This panem enn be considcred to be similar to the spinning-head
probes used in the production of medical B-scans where a small lIngular w'indow is I~ft
open ffIT the probe to transmit and recci,'c through.

Figure 3·15 Sectoral Scanning

The block illUgcd has a series of side driJled holes that lire drilled at increasing depths as
the beam sweeps !rom lcflto right. The side-drilled holes in the hloc.k imaged in Fib'll!\'
3-15 are o\'erlaid with a scalcd-dowlltransparcney 10 illustrate the sw«p motion. It will
be noted that the Strong (rcd) horizontal signal at the ootlOm of the scan image docs not
mateh the bonom surface when olerlain on the block, This is m=ly a projection
dislOnion and the overby is for ilIus\J'3(]IC ralhCT than measurement purposes.

3,5,5 Co mbinrd Beam rrocH~ing.

The phased-amy technique allows for almost any combmation of processmg cap3bilitics:
focusing + sleeTing
linear .canning + .teering
 4. Hardware - Pulsers, Receivers, Motor
Control and Encoders
The prttwing matc'Tials prO\'ided nn o\e,,-;ew ofth~ phasing principles used in phased
am.y ultrasonic probes_ Although il may be possible to band operate a phase<! army
probe (as is donc In medical apl'licalions} this is not usually the case in industrial
applications, (NOle." recem!I' RD Tcch ho.' illlroducrd 0 pona"'.. phasw arrtl)' "I/ram"j(,
;Il,'mlllem mil Om"i~,·a". Thisalla'..r a p/"Jl'W array probe 10 he "sed I;kafiud
"'edge .<ingl.. el{'ntellll'rohe hili al.•" ;>KVrporal"" "hilil)" 10 lake inp'" front encoders /(J
m/:t''''''';'''' Ihe scon a",/ prodllce B & C sca",,·). Probe. """ be mnunted in some fonn of
a holder and some degree nf mcchaniS3tion is used to manipulate the probc and .oll<:ct
th~ ultrasonic signals during the motion process.

The first systems described ;n the medical history presented by Dr. Woo "ere from the
1960s. At that time industrial ultra.s<lnic instruments "'cre emittly 3IIaloguc based. In
fact most systems then Slill used '1u!>es" (C3J1ed \'al\es in the UK). As 5Olid,slale
elcclJOnics t>ccamc more popullll. instruments grew smaller and eventually developed
wilh a 2-j;idcd electronic structure: on~ side of the eI~ics being digital and the cUher
analogue. Primarily it is the control section of the instrument thaI is digital. The concept
of digilal ultimately means that the components are opcrnted in a binary condition: the
nem is SCI either 'nn' or 'on- This opened Ihe "lIy for eompulCrcontrol of the ultr.l.<;onic
in,(nUllcn! , Small flTOgrammes on EPROM ehipSlUC O<)w conunon on portable
instruments and by su:pping Ihrough a variety of programmes the instrument Can be made
10 operate under toggled control. and e,"cn display the A·scan as a digitised
tl:JIf"sentalion of the analogue output.

4.1 Advantages of Digital Control

Some aspects ofUTarc not practical or possible to make digital: "'put power supply and
the \nlnsmincd and receiled ultr.tsound arc alwll)'$ analogue, However. many input
conlro]s and .om~ outputs are fcao:ible as <Iignal 5i8""]"

Dig;\:l] controlled ultrasonic inslruments ha,'c many ad\"IDltage$ of the older analogue
umb:
• aceuraq (li"'e ('If cloc~ based instead of deflector plat.e.)
• rcpcatabilot)' (exact .....'1lings can be recalled)
• .torage of sc!ling~ 10 memory (all parameters stored)
• speed of selUp (simply T<:call stored param<'t<>rs)
• sib'11all'fOCcssing
• disl'layoptions. c.g.l'rojecticm scans (toTIKlgntphic prcscntaUolI of (\ala)
• data recaJl for reponing
 4.2Pulsers and Rece ivers

Whether or DOl (he parnmelCTS of (he pUIK to (he mmsdl>«T arc: digitally conuolkd or
not, the puiSI' n...,lf is an analog"" signal. SImIlarly, m., uimsofllc vibration tha( a
tnlnsdl>«T '\eniCS from a n:nec(;on g~ra.lct a vollagc across (lie tnlns.ll>«T th:u i< II....
analogue.

,>;onnaJ uluasonic illSlrommlS ha,'c I :unglc pul>CT IUId m:ci,·cr I'haKd ami)' J)'su:ms
ha,·e. o;enes ofpul=s and recciVCTS. USu.lI1)· ~Id in mulup1es of32, phased 1lmI)
S)i)lems ""lIllways ha\1: I !ioCpllI"aIC pul!K."""f and rccci"cr connection fur cvcry dement on
1III1mI)'_ Limits on m., 1Ul1l1 number thai o;;lJl be: !IsM in 3 single fOClllaw ma)' 11'1'1)-
For eumpk. a 32. 1211 phased amy UM would ha'e 128 pu~ and 128 r«ei'en and
hi: capable ofOOdressing up (0 32 in a group (0 form a beam for a single (<XlIlla'" Of
course Ihe opcf1uor mu5( selcct a probe thaI 1$ sui13blc \t)!he c1oxlronics' capablhtlc~.
Sclecung a phased arra), prob<: wllh 128 "if:11I"n'" would not be useable on Ksystem WIth
only 64 channels (pul~r-r"""i\'cn;). I/owe,'cr, a pair of 60 elcmCllt rrobel could be used
(In a 128 channels S}Slenl. This "OIIld k.,·c 8 channcb unu~. These unu$Cd channds
C<.>Uld be used for ~ingle ebnco( rrobes. e,g. TOfD pairs. srecilll8ndcm or \I'lI/I.'i"er<e
oonflguralions or evco just ~pan: channels for the phased MnI) functions in ca:;( O!K of
lbe (llher charmcls malfunctioned..

f'based pulser_m:ei,en are an arn.w.ng <:Unlple ofminiaturua(ion. ~ pulscr-

1lmI)'
"""",'cr il built on a pnni<!d circuit boanl popubtcd by "Icclronic components and
!Duall) includes TCG and gaung ,in:ullr)', A.D con,aur and lime delay circuilr),.11 ill
• package tha! is 110 bIgger 1harJ. person'$ finger,

Quality (Ifw pulser and the n:cti,rr has • gr= dfecl on the informatiOll ob!amablc IJI
ul1rasonic 1e>ling. The follo",nl will con;idrr somc of the options and the" f,.,,,ure.
 4.3Pulsers

Essentially ~lIlhal is required 10 vibrale a pie7.or:leclric transducer;s an 3h~mal;ng

• voltage. Howcycr. chamctcri~ti"" IIf the pul;;c ,'ollage will dictate IIow Ihe clemenl
",bmt<!S.. TbJs is analogous 10 pushing a person on a swing. [fpushes arc 3I'Plicd 31 the
natural frequency of the loaded swing_ large amplitudes can be IICh1e\ed. If not. a rough.
low amplitud.! ride resullS. In ultrasonic testing. ma.~imum amplitude displacement;s nOl
al ....-:lys dcsimblc. When precis.: liming is needed (as would be for thickncss leslS on thin
wall material) short dUT31ion pulses atC bener. Eve'll a 'nnllY' probe can bc made 10
dampen ilS vtbmtion" ilh the co"..."t pulse eharnct~rislics ,

Three pulse shapes are commonly used in ul1rnSOnic naw detection uniLS: spiked. bipolar
tone burst and squall: ,,';l,'e, These arc illustr.l\ed in Figure 4,].

--
Figure 4-1 Pulse Types
•

1"""_ ......

---
 4 .4Splke Pulsers

Figure 4-2 shows (be components in a spik pulsn".

Figure 4-2 The Spike Pulser

"-
~"'"
•
. ,
Cc c ..,.,~

-'"
•
,..... ""'"
dralil. (wrIh
• """""
~-
dampinQ 19$1$(or)

When the capacitor discharges. the rapidly applied \ oltllge acn')ss the transducer causes i1
(0 vibrate. The purpose of (he damping resistor is used 10 ;ncr.:~sc (hc ralc o,,"olmge
decay. This is the damping ~\'a;labk to the operator and is used lOC<lntroi the nngOOwn
time.
 4.5Tone Burst
Tone burst pulsei'll allow maximum energy OUtpUt from I!l!I1sdlJC(:rs by adjuSting lhe
frequency of the '-oltagc applied. This cal! be done in scnral ""')"s. A chopped "ohage
from a wavdorm genellllOT allows selection of J"IIscs of diffcrem shapos. frequencies and
dW1ltions. as In Figure 4·3.

Figure 4-3 Tune Burst Pulser Waveforms

u LJ
rUl.'C

Tone burst signals usually consist C>f several cydes. These are preferred for velocity
determination using interferomclTy. As wcll. since "cry high frequencies can be dcrixed
using tone burst pulsing it is used in acoustic microseopy where fKquetlCies in the
gigaH<:m nmgc arc u5Cd.

4.6Square Wave Pulsers

Square waW pulSCT$ are IlIpidly becoming the preferred laboratory style of pulsers.
Similar to the spike pulser. the square wave pulser charges a C3p"cilOf "hich discharges
across the I!l!I1sducer. Uy holding the switch closed in the circuit for a controlled amount
of time. then IlIpidly !"\!SlOring 1M. pulse voltage to ZCro cauSC$ tWO displacements of the
IrnnsdlJCCT. rm, displacements a1 the transduccr are opposite in phase so by tJming the
recover)" voltage a construCTive mterfcrence can be effected bet" ecn the original
backward mo~ing w3'-c reflected off the probe backing and the s~nd impulse from the
pul.scr.

Adjusuncm of pulse vohage and pulse width:m: possible thcn:by making square W8\"(
pulsers a moSl "crsalile tool 10 optimise tr3IISducer porfOmlaIlCe. By choosing the bes!
pulse .."jdlh 10 obtain conslroC!i .. 'c in!mcrencc.less "'ol!age need be applied to I"" probe
thereby n:ducing noise levol . By pulsing al a frequency higher than lhal for maximum
output. bandwidth can be increased and lo .... er frequency e(m1poncms reduced. Pulsing a
tr:lOsduccr at a frequency lower th:rn thaI for m;u,mum amplitude increases mechanical
damping and pro\'idcs a sllarper cleaner signal .... ith linle nn8-on. These features of the
sqU3lG wave puhcr are illustrated in Figure J4

Figure 4-4 Pulse Width and How it Affects Transducer Excitation

- "., "., - ".,

-w,,"
..,.
.. ' " n.

-097,""'Y
.
/
0'

- "., ". - ".,

~
-w'"",
:1'5.'''' ..
VOl.
-S<'I.SOI V

V
-
...
....,
"'.1\911 ..
". ".-
, , ".

v.,.
-!-<oO _ Y

In Figure 44 the sql13re ,.-3 .. " pulse shape is shown on the lcll. In the first case the pul,;c
is set to 8 fairly shon dUr:ltion, 12.375 naoosecorwb (liS) and lh<: applied vollage ,s -498
"OilS. To the right of the m:ei"ed pulse shape is the ~ignal ofa co-polymer tmosdnccr.
nominally 30 M Ii>:. using a glass target. Signal amplitude is n:lativcly low implying dUll
the lnlIIsducer oulpUI is nol maximized. However. an advantage to this signal is lha! none
of the low frequency componcnlS of the trnllsduCCT an: exciled and lhe band"'idlh is high.
In tbc scrond c:a!IC' in "'gure 4-4, 1/M, puIs.. "',,h11 has been adJU$ICd I(l promle a
ma.~lmum OUlput from 1M U1UISduccr a1 2515 ni, Voltage applied i~ .~1 volu. up
me
~1igJll ly from 111~ 1ir..1 CIISC (in =
lirsl vohagc was mc maximum possible for Ihc
puis.. " Idm applied) Loucr fr"'lucncyeomf'OO"nlS may be: added II') mlJ sign.1l
compared 10 the lim case. bu11/M, baodwidlh is n:doced by tbc grea1CT OUtpul near the
rcsonanl ~ucncy.

In 1he third case tbc puIs.. has boen incrcased 10 51 ns lind the \'oltagc;s c:s.senliall}· the
same as Dl'Plioo in the S«OOd c&>e, Tramdoccr OUIpul IS reduced III1d !be nng-oo IS
mlUall:, dirrunaloo. II i~ 1f>=,fore possible 10 inc~ m. <bmpinll of the 11:UISduccr's
~lbrnlion by dccrca;;tng Ihe pulse l~nl':lh beyond IIw; res<)nanl frequcnc:y,

\\ 'ben di>(ll.ayed ",,-ually the effeclS of pul.c wid!h anJ pul..e lunmg an: IllOI'e dnlrnatic.
Fi~ ..... 5 is an IlT\OIgc ofa pulse from a IJ5mm diarnc:tn 1.5\ ttb probe "llh a sphc-ncal
mdius of CUl'\ slim, of 15Omm. The pulse used 10 obuin this i!ll.1ge was from a Spike
pulscr (no pul!>C-lrnglll luning l'O">iblc) :md 1110: \ olugc ~pplicd 10 !he elcmcm 10 obtain
!he \Uiblc image "'" 700V "'gure 4-6 howc\a has a similat imaNly ali.hc foc1l1 'pol
(ligbl inu:nsil)' is proroniOllllllO p;lnick di.placement! but uses 1= !han b3lf the 31'Plied
\oltagc. The combin3l1on <.If!Uncabl~ pul",·",d!h and phasIng inICrfcrencC can make for
Dincr.:a~ puliclc di'pl:>CClnenl in llle IC>I malcrial3s much as 3-4 limes Ihal <.If a lingle
dm>eJll used ... ilh In un.luned puls.er.

Figure 4·5 100 Volts

Figure 4-6 ,,'""180 Volts

 4.7 Receivers

l'ul"-Cfll apply 'oltages of 100 10 1000 \'0115 to 1M probe, How~ver, recc",'ed signal' IIfC
lh~e to four orders ofmagn'ludc smaller,. few micro .'011S 10 a fe", yollll {I- IOI. Thii
causes. couple ofprobletn<, One is .he: shock oflhc puI$e 'oltag~ \h;I. is lransferred 10
!he I"c~i.er ill p111se-echo I1'IOIk of opcnlllon. "Tho: Olber problem is !he need 10 wnrhf»
lh1: ~13Ii'cly Sll1:II1 sign:.l from flaw!! without amplifying DOi;.e The lauer;, further
toIIIl'licatcd ~U5C'!he fKqurncy of!he TttCi,'ed signal may DOl be: 1bc: same as 1bc:
IlllllSllliltcd pulse em'dope (aceowlUlI, for e.m $mailer signals from the traII~ucer),

When S\Oo'l("hcd from pubc-ccho \0 Ull11"'TU1-TttCi,c. Ibm: is DO longer a pb~ " ..-al ei<'clric
conn«lion betw<'Cn m., Iwo comro~'us. Figure 4_7 illustrales Ibis ~""'ch",g.

Figure 4-7 poE versus TR connecllons

,( .

_.-
- --'-
•

,
- -
---_._. T._..... "' ....... •
To obt3m a §lgnal c:lpablc Ofbc:ln, dlSPU~ ILIId subsequenlly proccued the recei\-aj
signal caused by Ihoc <;mall transducer vibralions mUSl be: ampliflCd. "Tho: amplifica1l<)n
pt«es!I IS qu!lC ill\'ol,ed and ,Iso iocludes fillering ILIId somCI;111<.'<; ancnualJOll

F,rsl stage is !he cm:u!l proI","1lon Ihat prQ\e("lS!he preamplifier from the pulscr voltage
when 111 pulse-echo mode. The pramphficr can use transistor type: amplificn \h;Il
provide about 20 10 4{) dB of gain, frc:qut1\Cy respo!1SC of lhe preamplifier is usually
broadband and S(lmc high pa!i5 filllTing may be: lIIcorponl1cd 10 illlpro\'c Jigllal-lO-lloise
"lIio by citl1111mling some 13(\;31 mode components of lhe probe: and line ""crf~rcncc.
I're:J.mplifkr bandwidths = usually flat from about I MHz to 15 MHz. 3Jld this is not
operator adjustable.

Following the l'T<'lImplilkr. the signal is paw:d through a broadband allenu.3tQl". This
prot....,15 sub5equent cirtuiuy from saturalion and it I'rovides a means of calibrated
adjustmenL of signa! height. Allcnuation is usually equipped with = (lOdS) and fin..
(I dB) sw,tching. Some portable instruments ha' e been made that use 'elY large
preamplifiers. As II result. e,en with maximum allenualiQII. signals from normal beam
inspcclions nf plate could not be reduced 10 below full SCreen height.

,\lIenu:llcd signals are p:wcd on to R F amplifieTS. which C3n be linear or logarithmic.

Linea, amplilil'rs are those most commonly found on UT inslrumrnls. When using II
line;lr amplifier for th( m:e" er. aml'litude of a Signal is proponionaI to receiver ,·oluge.
Ilowe,e,. ,«e;\'<"1" gain control is in dB increments. therefore signal amplification by 6dB
gain doubles the 'ign:tl height. This linti15 the range of useful amplification 10 a1x:oul 34
dB (34 dB raises a 1% FSH signal to l~'.). When II logarithmic amplifier is used. the
""ak tS d13linear so each increase of ldB g:lin is 1% oflhe screen height. bpresscd
another way. the dynamic range of this logarithmic amplifier is 6.3 limes greater than the
linear. Some lOgarithmic amplifiers can a«cd !OO dB dynamic range (i.c. IdB sain
resull< in something less than 1% FSH).

Frequency filtcnng can be applied 10 RF amplified signals. Normally bandpass filters are
used to eliminale noise from higher and 10\\ er frequency sources. These are selectable by
the oper.:nor and:tIe I3belted to comspond to the centre ~umcy of the fi1t~r. Normally
the bandpass filter is set 10 correspond to the nominal frequency ofthc rrobe. Wideband
filters are also available. Amplitude of ~'gnal compared to the best bandpaiiS filler does
!KII sillnificanlly change when ,,'ideband is selected bUI the siJll131 wilt often be noisier.
Sec Figure 4-8.
Figure 4-8

-
Receiver Filters

,-- •

r·\ /' .
.I/ J... \
- \
. /".
I
, "-
,
\
I "-. , \
, • •
_..._ -
•
......
4.8Gates

ES~n1ial w COmpUleT imaging ofultlllSOl'ic data is the ability 10 extract mfonnation from
regions oftimc that can be selected 10 monitor for signals in that time. The region being
monitored IS S3id 10 be ·'J!aled". Tim<: along the galed region or amplitude within the gale
....·hen a signal O<.:curs or both lime and amplitude can be gated. Alarm or recording
thresholds can be sci for signals occurring in the gale. Gates arc an essential component
in automating inspeclion systems. Gale positions are usually facilitated by auxiliary
controls, Gate posittons on the ~rttn arc noted by e~tra trnces Or markers on me A-<ean
display. Gate controls indude Stan and end adjustments. threshold :;cning (amplitude at
which a signal musl rellCh before alarmed orcollecled) and positi,"c Or negative senings.
If positi,·c gating is used a sign.al mUSt exceed a set minimum threshold. If negative
gating is used a signal in the gutt must ran below the threshold before alanning. Typi~al
of positi\e gating is signal amplitude monitoring ror flaw dcte<:1ions. Typical of negative
gating is 3 coupling monitor u~ing a through transmission signal that alanns a gatt of the
coupling reduced and reduces the signal below a gin1\ thrtshold.
 4.9TCGITVG

When amplification is ,arjable with re.s~tto time it provilJes ti~ t~ted gain
(TCG). this is also called ti~ "ariable gain (lVG) or S\\cpt gain. By allowing more
• nmplifiUltion 10 be add~d :is time or dil;[.l!ll.'e inc",ascs. signals from reflector.> of the
Same surface area can be adjum-d to the same amplitude 31 any distance. Amplifying the
response of more diSlllnt echoes avoids the inconvenience of disllInce_amplitudc_
.omclion CU"C5 and allows an alarm threshold 31 a fixed perttntage ofthc screen hcight
to be SCI across the entire screen.

4.10 Data Acquisition and Automated Systems

I.:1bonllol")' UT instrumenl5 are oftcn pan of a complc;< cOllection of hard""3JC and

S<lfiwarc that can be considered n data 3t(juisilion sy.slCm. Tkse can be used for precise
malerial chamcleri$ations in SCientific studies or they may be pan of ",duSlrial productilln
systems. Many fcaru",. (If]aboral(lT)' instrumenl5 and data acquisili(ln ,)"tcms are besl
demilcd by explaining aUIOm.lled insp..'Ction systems. These collCCJll5 CJn be applied 10
se\'ernl methods ofNDT so a general outline of concepts will be cO"ere<! firs~

Coliecling infomution about an objecl or condni(ln is ge""ra1iy considered daw

acquisition. This usually involyt:S collecting information about one parameter with
.e'peelto anolh~r. e.g. monitoring tcmpcraru"" against lime. Data ""quisiuon can be
oonc simply by an oper.lmr r...:ording readings manually. In the tcmpcmwn: example the
operator "ould watch a thennomClcr (analogue or digital) and "",ord the \"alucs of both
lempo:r:lture and Um~ at "anous time im~,,'als. (Ruord$ of a Single parameler would
haw litlle mcamng uolcss they can be ",Ialcd 10 something else).
Scientiflc and rngin~ring applications today require ,'ery farge numbers of readings to
be mkcn3Jld these witb eX3Ctingl"n:cision, Several hundreds or lhow.mds of readings
oH1 severnf hours are casily accomplished using rompu~rs. Whrn computers an:
incorpornted into a data acqulsilion I'TOCess the I"l'OCes> becomes uutorn:nro. Comput=
can then be used for not <mly collecting the readings. but also ",ning It and subs.:qucnlly
analysing il.
Adum3gl.'S of aummated systems include:
!. specd
2. cons1Slmcy
3. 3CCUm<:)'
4. repcntabiJity
5. safely
6. cost
7. capability

4.10.1 Speed
AU10lruned systems can be art'IUlged 10 inspect many thousands ofpans pcrday.
e.g , In the automoli"e industry. ECT On bolts CWl be performed at 25000
pans.hr. Maltunl tlp(tations would he no match fw such tate$.
4.10.2 ConsIstency
Aummatcd sy;;tems sbould operate under as controlled ~ condition DS is possible thereby
StriCI objcct;ve limits can he selecled which ""ould nol be possible where the SOme'" hat
more "subj""li"e" human <"}'C is concerned.
e.g. Amplitude response mC3Sun.:ments of many renectors in II leSI piece.
4.10.3 Accuracy
Manual oper.nions are considered good if an opctat<)\" can hold lolernnces and make
posilion measurements in the IilIIge of 0.:5 to J.O mm. bUI aUlomated systems routinely
",cord locations m micron (IO"'m) accuracy.
4.10.4 RepeatabilIty
Due to the control on conditions and the precision of measurement. inspection results are
'cry repeatable_
e.g. During periodic in-scrvic( eddy = n t inspections oflubing. locJtion of
indicauon~ is typically "ithin I mm of the lest from) )(::1'5 previous.

4.10.SSafely
One of the biggest adnntages in uSl!lg automated ~ystems comes from a safety poillt of
vic",. Today remote inspection systems are used in numerous fom,s of hostile
environmcn!;l,
e.g. Nucloar. insid<: reactors and componrnlS "'here lesling could be done
manually if 110 Y fields cx isted. Other hostile condilions for human opcraw",
indude, extremely 10\, Or high tempcrnturcs. deep waler and cau5tic •
atmospheres.
 4.10.6 Cost
Although aulQnl3ted equipment can h:l\e some large associated setup COSI>. overall
• inspcctlon cost can in fa<:\ be reduced 3S a result of aummated systems in .pne of the
lsi'll'" sums spem on the system.
e.g. Increased ,peed a'CT manual opcroliun saves man hours.

4.10.7 Capability
Some mspeCliuns arc only pl)SSible using automated equipment
e.g. in-scl'\kc "olumclric inspections of fuel channels in CANDU nuclear rC3cmrs

Accurncy. consistency and repeatability can a\"C~id unJ1<.'CeSSary rcplacemcm COSt if a ICSI
pro\'es no deterioration. Com crsdy. minor changes detectable only by the mecume)' of
an automated system could be lIle reason for COnCCrn to condemn 3. oomponcnt and
thereby sa"c millions of dollars by a"oid,ng COSily 3nd unllmely catastrophic failure due
to an undetected change resuhing from a manual >an.

The case foradv3nccd automated t->DT systems is dear.

4.11 Automated SySlems In General

In g~Q~r:al automated NOT s).'~tems ha\'~ IlM: follo"ing;

I, a "cmml conlrol S~'SI~m (usually a ooml'ulcr)
2. a scnsor and att;lched appartllUs (the NOT equipment)
3. a meanS ofmo\'ing the scnsor Or pan
4. a mcans of colleclin!! and displaying t!leOUlPUI from the NOT
apparatus.

4.12 System Components

I. Centntl to the whole s)'Stem is t.!Ie computer. Computer.; oome in various

shapes and sizes. lhl:re are two main Iypes of oompUle-rs; 9nalOb'llt computers
Bnd dlgllnl computers. Annloguc computers are somewhat IlfChaie now and
rarely found in common usc. They arc hardwired devices utilizing eurrcm llow
and switches to address their logic functions. for Our purposes" e "'ill be
conccrned only with digital compU\eTS.

2. The se-nSOl" is p:trt of tile NOT equIpment. NDT eqUIpment function~ are
familiar to any c.~perienced NOT technician. An important k:nurc for an
automated sy,tem is how to utilise the .ignal genCfllted by the instrument. In
some mllChines it is ~iblc 10 provide an input to the NOT instrument.
Ihc-reby focilitating computer control of some of the inslrument functions. This
can allo,,' for -remote" control.
 3. MO'IQR ~onlrnl IS of various 50TU and can be &5 l,ml'le &5 "",-,u;hong 3 dnvc
motor on or off Or;. ma), in\'olu complex closed loop S)5lemS controlling
1'0>;11011 and I-~Ioo::;.y ~ on a feedback monilOring S} 51m1 m.:.l>uring
'orque<; <iO as not I(ll!rcak!he 'nspc:<:"0CI1OO1 by o'·eJ"..straoning 11. For effe.:U\'e
d.:!1a di<piay _ rom> ofpG"itiooal inf(lfTOO,1OII mlJ.'illx ad<kd 10 !he motion
control. Tbi, ,s often accomplished by COUll"n!! Sleps on a "C)'rcr motor.
simple 'lIning. or mos. accunudy by U~ of positlona! cn~odel1!_

..\. The d.:!UI di'pla)' OUll'u, is merdy a mC31l1 ofpro\"iding a useful n"'Cord ofllle
l~' l"CSu!!s. Thi$ mish' ~ as simpl~ 1lS. \'ollage QU'P'" ""'en from !he :\DT
in;lrumen' .00 dISplayed IlS a hne of ""-r}1ng ros;.ion ....',h inc=.,ng "me I'
wip dWI r~;ng) or i. ClUl be. complex set of d;ua POlillS <Jxw,'ng
....-a,eronns colleded and proc:~ for d'~pLay ","h posniooal mfonnauOD.
The onfonn:lUon col1cc.ed by oomputcr ClUl be further prooessOO 10;
• rwu.:c I\<)'se (e.g. signal a\eraging)
• cnhan<.:c pc:rtincnl signals (amplitude colouring or ~ignal proc:e><.<ing)
• COI"J"e<:I for gcomctric CMraclcO.lics (e.g. SAFT)

Figure: 4·9 illusUlI'e$ !he N.s'CS of an 3ulOm:ued S}"$1<"m sho",;ng .he computer as central
10 alilhe m~Il<>ll ..,.;1 11)" A PC "yle compuler addresse!; motion control and rolk<.:ts
analogue informa.1OrI from 1M ~DT inspecoon insuumenL TIle results arc dl<pLa)'cd on
.he computer morlitOr ""h the Of'11QR 10 pnn.lO. prlnla
Fig ure 4-9 An Automated Scanning Rig

.--
••-~
J ••
--
-
4.13 Instrument Outputs

Physical pmpcr1ICS meOl.>uroo in :-IDT can ioc!oo.e; tcmpcrat=. pH . pres5U1T, dist:uK:e,

\ e!",ity. m:lSS or Optlca!. ~ic and electrical energy. The sensors used conl'en t~
p<OJH:r1ies to an electrical qwuuity: volugc, cum:nl or n:sistance. The ,..,o.,or5. a:. a IT'ult
of cb.nging the rby~"31 proper1y to an cI~rical quall1ity, on: also tcrmc~l lrnn<duee~
(tntn:l<i ""jllit mcl'll}' ft'om one !onn to aoothc:1l.

1'1'-';\11;:.0] data can tK, considered ...,ignal" or ~",,,,,'efonn". Thts I~ usually a \'oltagc
'-uying ""th Illne. SIgnal, un tK, either 311alog~ or digttaL Analogue .• ignal~ nrc
continuous and can change M arbitJar) AmOUnt in In arbitrarily snWl time imerul.
Computers pn-fcr digital signals. These arc dl!icrctc values in ~pcctficd conS~lnt time
intc ..... als. If the digital si.jpW &mplitlloCk intervals arc smaJl and the Ume mtenal, are also
small the resultant di&tul ,,":a~cronn can closely a)1l'<oximalc the un.aloguc _'cfoml.
The difference In ..gn.al qu...ltty tK"",ccn IllLlIIoguC and dlgttal;) demonstrated In Figun:
4_1 0.
Figure 4-10 Analogue to Digital Shaping

A
/\
II\;
B

f igure 32 ~hows lh~ sle[l~ in comerlingthe conlinuous analogue signa! \0 3 d'gnn] "gn.l1
by • compulCf.

Fnunc A sho"lIthe ra" ULpul as a caoUDuously '1II),ng amplilUde. fr.uoc Il <ho"ii bow
the co(wersmn LOU,l asSIgn 3n off-SC1lhal ",II cnsun: the ma~irnum OCg3t" ..
displil<:cmrnt is abo, .. the: 10"c::S1 \"alue$. The ,ertka! division of the signa!!! shows from
minimum 10 rTI3Jlimum there nn: 161C\ds. \·ertkal di\'SiOll5 an: muluplo:s of2 ",Ih 2~6
di,i.ions be:ing common. Sampling along the honzontal axis is ti=-based and a single
$MII[llc is 13k"" ~I each lime inICT..... ], This \altIC is the pe.ak or aw"'ge and the: cl~1
whole \'alue thai the intCTu] =ponds to in the 8"cn urne mu,r\"lI] is the va]uc
assignc:d \0 lhat pomt. Fnunc C !iho""S Ihe <."OIl\-med digll~] ~nl:uion of the
an:tlogue signal. The amrlnude 8)lis is left for refe ..... nce and tile amplitude of ClICh
sam[lle is indieah:d at the: bottom of each baT The number of bits tNl each bar indicales •
i. easily (onwned 10 bInary cook and read by the oompute-r. e.g. tile bar md,,:.. unll J
nTtical bit. would be: IUd as 0011. 4 bits is 0100. 7 bits is 0111,

The pme~ofcllansinll an analogue signa] 10 Ihe oom[luler friendly digital SIgnal is

called digiliSillion. The e1ecfl'Onic oo·ice lhal accomplishes Ihis i. called an anaJosue-to-
digital coO\'ertcr (A OC) and the associated electronics 10 accomplish this conversion is
usu.aJIy incorporated on I prinled circuLI board inserted as. ~card~ m the 00InJIU1Cf $0 the
Iwdwarr ,s oft"" f;3.n~ an A 10 I) card. "The d'gllalsignaltha' rrsults from this
ton"eNion is composed of digilal ,nlues of 8 kllO,,"n moge termed !he scale factor and
th<:ic \lI]UCSIlrC 5Cpar.Ilcd by. fi:tl'd IlIIlI: lQtcr\al.crmed lhc wnp]ing 1n1=.1.

The rr,erse pro<.:co;$ is a]so used. i.e. rot"ming d-tgJul ~,gnals Ii) """10£"" SJgnals. The
de\i« 1M. accomplishes Ihis i. ca]led. digil.ll-Io analogue coo,mer (D.~C). MOSl
prople arc a"'"an: nflh<' rc,'ersc process in en1crtainmrnl de... ices w~n:by mu..ic
,nformatlon on. e[) or 1)\"0 d;skel~ if played back on. ~ o(speakcl"li (the 0;0000
"'"1I'e ou.put of IllI: ~pcakCfS is always :IOa]og",,).

TbI ~-ups may includc: both digJul3lld analogue eqUIpment. Where severn] analogue
IOPUI or tlUtPUt channel. Ire u;.cd In a tl!Sl systcn1.hcy are often aJded '0 lUI A DC Or
D.~C IhrOUgh I multiplcur ("'UX). A MUX "u,;cd 10 §elect ",hich oflhc analog""
S'iM]' w,1I be CQf"med at any I""" tllnc. Figure -t-ll. shows. block diagram of how
a 'ariet)' of analogue and digiul inputs and O\Itputs might be arr.u>gcd on 11 computer.

,-
Fig ure 4-11 Multiplexed Inputs and Outputs via ADC s and DACs

K<,h-.J

,
~
, l"""m u
•
y ••
-.
.-'. to",-
L ,_
.-'

L ,-- -,
,-
r
,,...- I
l-.
"""" ~

';: .. . -

CompU'CN used In <1313 :w:quisilJQI1 rome in a vanet)' of Sil.CSo f(lfTn31s and pno;c: ranges.
A. one: tune three groupings applied; microcomputCfS_ minicompu\a'S and mamframes.
These were rough])' based 00 si~e of memory. Tod.ly. the differences nrc 1>0. SO dearl)'
defined. f'." cpt for sitU;lIIons ""hen: the amount of <l3t:t 10 be collected is large and InU§t
be ~ quickl)' In addition.o pcrf<ll"rning manyQ\Mr functions (multitaSking)_ mos.
m~p<:ClIon s)'ste'n~ can be automated "'ith some ronn or. personal compuler,
IntcgntllO any automated daI.:J. OCIluisitlOn system is the daI.:J. OCIlU1Sition wl\warc. Dat.a
Kquisi[ion wfho,llre is u>Cd to col1«1 da1:l. analyse the dat.a and display the resullS.
Without Uw: .mhl)' w analy..e and d'5pJay the n::su11S of dat.a collection me millions of bilS
of dat.a that can be oollc<:tnl "oold be uninlelli"ble w the ."<1"3.8C opc:r3lor J>mces.\ed
dat.a can be oulputlO monitors or primcl'$ in the fonn oft.ablcs. J:!lIphs or e'en be made 10
duplicate Slripdlart or o.;.::illO!iCOpC f AoSQII) rn::scmations.

Sc,eral V31icties of$fICciahscd wflw3re uist m NOT inspection S}w:ms. These are
ollen usN in conjUllClion umh spttialised Instrument>. The da!:l loi;'1uu;,tion ",fI",'3n::
collects III I15pCCIS of !he "j;WIls and r«ords all I!ISUlJmcnt panulletcrs. ~ wfuo.;m.
alw addrC'Sscs motion control and posllional,nfOrm3t1on.

4.14 Scanning Displays and Scanning Equipment

4.14.1 A·scans

San tenninology has become slightly II1OI'C complicated since Robat Mc\1a>\cJS ~DT
Ilandbook "35 published In 1959. The IIlSW1!:lneous dispJayofecho amplitude lIIong a
limc'oo,", is still called an A·sun. This is the tmase afforded by .11 lIT $Copl'
mstromenlS. Vertical displaco:mentll may be bi-din:ctional (RF display) or mono-
d'rcctillT\31 (rcctified) and the OOnzomal U3Ce represents elapsed II111C or d,<\;U>tt of
l'ropagalion. Sec Figure .\.12.

Figure 4·12 A-scan Display Types

,

...

4.14.2 B-scans

When motion i,added 10 the dispL:ly scnT3l options exist. WIlen t.1I1C is di~played along
one ""IS and probe po5ilion. as 1DO\'Cd OUT the tcst surfa.:c. along the Olhc:r. a B~ is
generated. The Bmoum of!ime displayed is delermined by the kngth ofga!e used to
colIe<:! information. In!ensi!)' or colour may be used to indicate IUllplitude and phase (if
Rf signals arc COnCeled).

~ concepts arC sllown in Figure .... 13. When a hard topy is made il may be
visualised as a series of A-scans stood on end and S!:1ckc"d one beside the olhcr.
"Ole: The '1rndiliOllal"- definition of a B-scan referred to a -erO$_sectional representation
of a !es! specimen and was independent ofprobc motion with respee! 10 beam direction.
ahlloush most B-scan.. were made ll5inga 7.crodeSl"" compression mode and a "top" and
"bonom-' of the pan cotlld be represemed by !he entry signal and the backwall signal.
This "mulinonar' CcncCpl1S more diflieuh 10 imagln" wlH:n !he beam is angul31cd but if
we rna,"!,in !he principles of lime or dis!:1nce on one IIxis and probe displacemen! on the
other il is ~lil1 a rea:i0113blc !realmen! of the term B-scan.

Figure 4-13 Formation of an amplItude B-sea"

4.14. 3 C_"""",,

When maximum ampli1ude ii colIectc"d III the ga!ed region and a rasler scan performed. a
C-scan results. !n this case !he probe position is ploned along both plol axcs. This is
clfecli."I)" in 3 plan "iew. See I'i!,'Un: .... 1of
Figure 4-14 Formation of an Amplitude C·scan

r - ' 1l1== =c====

, '

Ampliul<i~ m~y be indica!cd by in!etl5"y (a.., with shades of grey) Or colour "here!he
screcn heighl i~ divided imo ranges each assigned 3 differen' colour, e_g, Q...20"lo blue, 21-
50% green, 51-8O"Ao orunge. 8:1-100",. rod. Ailema,ivciy, for 3 C.M:3n i, is also possible
!o monitor the position of 8 signal in time and assign a colour or greyscale to stIundl',nh
dismneo:-s (or depths).

4,14,4 Other Letters for Scan Presentation Types

These were thc !radi,ional A. B. and C-=ns. Howc"cr "arilllions ha"e been added '0 the
basic§ and some of !hese ha.c resulted in increased us.: of the alphabe,.

When ,he reference co-ordina!cs /IfC the surface of the ,cs, picee, and a n0TTl1.l1 beam is
used for inspeC'ion. nomen.clalure 1$ slr.lillhlforward. When angle beam inSJlCClioD> arc
used the loss of orthogonal rel3!iomhip be",.,.,n beam and ,esl surface can cause !;()IllC
confusi(tn.

Collecting 3 B·~an for a bean, inclined 45" 10 the test surf:ICe i. no' significantly
different from the nonnal beam but the Operulor may ha.e difticulty relaling position of
probe: to indication as 'hey no longer wine;lk Sec Figure -1-15.
 .-
Figu re 4·15 Flaw and Probe positions Offset on Angle scans

- - --
--......
---... _.1 •. 'T~p"T

, 2 )' s. __
• • .I .
"9"'11'

In the above iUlbtration the J'II'OM Iw mo\ed 10 position J (aJlPl'o~. IOmm tra\d) before
the sipUll from the: fla" ...as peakcd. The actual position oftlu:: lb." is oome diswu;c
:IlIcad o f!he probe. For !he curnpk 100,C. If !he rcfractcd angk;s 4S' aoo!he
soundruth III "'I' ~ai<eJ ' ign.al is 10 mm. the lIff'set c~n be calculaled b)' mul""lying the
soundpalh by !he ,ine of!he rcfracted angle, In lbe example Ihis would be HI(Sin-lS") r
1(1(0.707) {IT Ihc off,"';1 11IIhe ~ctlml flaw plI>lIion is 7 mm from Ihc enco&:d ",,>lIion II
i~ ob\'inus then Ih:1I off-~I;~ dependenl on !he SlIUOOruth. dc-qler 113"5 bemg off-SCI
mon:, Some dal.:l aC'IulSilil}n programn~ can COfn:CI tbe disrJay bul this n:qui= every
""inl along cch A-scan be mullil'hed by tbe apprortialC faclor pnor 10 display and Ihe
dau ;1 then Gb i ftC<! hori7.o"",Uy_

When 1\\ 0 probes an: u!;Cd in the T-R mode it is stili possible 10 collect signals O\"CT a
period ofu_1Ind pl<)l the fCSullS agaiMI probe mo,emcm. This is the pr10cipk of
TOFD prcscnl.ltions.

In lhe B-scans and C-scam just described. "I' collected amplitude: mfonnation 1M a ~mglc
rl:me- If " e "ere 10 combine Ihc I1ISIa !IC:ln used for lhe C-scan with the point by po;nl
A -sc.:tn capture u:;cd in tbe H-'ICIJl. ,,'1' Cln obu.m III !be possIble inform:llioo for the
\ ol~ i~ICd. We havc aml'litudc infor013110n for til.: gated 11m.: forcach point on 3
grid and sin<:e time is equi\"3lem 10 disW>Cc we ha,'e amplitudo: infonnallon for e"ery
point in the \olume irupecled, Although lhis is ,cry memory inlCn~;\e (as \\c will soon
~,,). il pro"Idc$ suif",,,,m InformatlOO mat tomographic "i.uali<3tioll techniques can t>c
:ll'Plied.

4.14.5 Depth Encoded C-sean

tf a pt.n ~iew "as ploued wuh indIcations uc«dmg a lhn:shokL 1>1'icall) FSH.S··.
~nted as a differC'nt cotour for each 20",'. increment of dcplh. we could hal'e a depm
di5tnb\ltion of flaw.. _ This has b«n lermed • ~(\qIIh..,.,.,odo:l C·~ ~ Sec Figun: 4_ t 6,

Figure 4-16 Depth Em::oded C-scan

-.~
----
---
---
.. --
._-
-- --
-----
-. ...
._--
-.--
•
~~ .. ..
, " ... "
~igun: 4.16 IS a depth crn:<Kkd C-scan ofa ccrarlllC disc, A 0.1 microsecond gak was
u..:d to monitor the IX""tion of small rcnOCIOl"S in • grid paUCl1l. light.". shadc$ of grl'Y
indicate Illr'g«S funh.". aW3)' and dark.". sh3dC1 indicate Wgt:1S IlI'C clO$Cl". A \-CTlical
.licc "',as
taken through the position at <;J Iml11ll11d a hori7.0ntal ~licc was taken al 11.9 mm
and !besc crtIS$ SOCIKIIn at<: dispb)'ro w the left and abo,·c the C-5oC3Il "nage. The
di~tances to the lo"er 4 1aTJ!els in the I CTlical hne are clearly S«n to V:'Iry in the yertical
~ scctioq "hilc they an:: fairly eonsisu,m in the horizontal,

If a ""Id was inspected wlm IlI1 anglc beam and th,S <l3L1 oollectc-d by a SUItable ruu..
III:qul511ioo S)'lem, a )Iicc along the v.eld axis could be e>:.trac1ro from the data.
han.in3lion ofth.: I'ununetcrs would show then: i, only one pOInt in hme on each
ap(llicabk X- Y co--ordmau: (5c<: Figur" 4-1 7) and that must be com:ctcd fOT angle and
asSigned lin equi,aleO! &pth. This is tcrmcd by some ~ D-scan This i\ the pn:fc-rm:l
tcnniooiogy for some users ofTOFO when the s.;.;m dIrection mows pal1l11d 10 !he weld
axis (OOIC soch tertl1ioology requil"<'l1 a weld axis IlS a reference). The SIUTI<: I1$CI"S of [he
O-st'an tcrnunology then n:st'!'\'C [he term H-sean for the.can made WIth 1M TOfD
probI:$ moYUl& ~bT 10 the: wdd &.,is.
 Figure 4-11 Project Scan Nomenclature
X . " " - IC-$:ooj
•

4.14.6 E & P-scans

Other tenninology has be<:n used to identifY thl'SC displays. De~nding on the view and
,=timO'S depending on the software manufacturer. these have also be<:n caJled E-scans
(for cnd 1licw) and I'-scani (fOT projcction vicw).

4.14.7 S·scans

Phased amy provides a new opportunity for scan pm;entations due II) the potential for a
dyn:lfl1ic nalUre of the bc.am. In addition to the ~Iandard presentations the variable angle
alTonkd by the phased amIy providO'S US with the Sectoral or S...,can.
 4.15 Memory and Seannlng Speed

In Ihe de"'ri]lllon of analogue 10 dlgnal con\'~rs,on n \liM noted thaI Iypically an 1\ b"
AIX' is u§t'd ~by rro'iding 2' or 2~6lcvcls o('crticai (rcsolutiooj. The samrhnf.
I1Ile oFthe AOC will dicutc tht lime inle"'.;).! along the A-scnn thaI is <;ar'un:d and
digol'~. Flash A to D comcnerboard!l ~ also a,-ailahl" in a variely of<peed. Iyplcally
2010 100 MII~ but slo\\C1".nd faslC1" \'Mitun on: aLso .,-ajlable. If. 100 \1 Hz. AI>C is
lid. wnphng occurs c'-cry O.oJ]1'1.. In pUls.::-cc:bo this JIfO\"KIes a ~lulioo in .,ccl of
0_0I6mm (shear):meI 0_03 ntm (Iongl 'Jnc, Imlponll m;olUlion also dicta~ doe quali.y
of $Igna.l rqm:xluc.:d from !he an:alogue. Figure a-lit sbovo'S an 311310gue signal from a
10\l Hl probe. Digitising.' lOO \1Hz .1l0\\S IUSOIl3bIc reproduction 001 al W MHllOC
ongitUll analogue trlI« is just ban:ly rccOjp1i~b1c (Ibe dashed line of the analollue II1ICC is
supphed as rcfC1"el1Cc. only the dots would appear on Ihe scope).

Figure 4-18 Digltising Effects on Oscilloscope Waveform Quality

... •.,
~ ."
,.. "----
.
::,. ~. ... ..'' " ..........
, .
.j

to _cIgOoI "'IJNII 'OlolHr:cIgOoIiVW

.<.DC_ '00_ .<.DC_a ......
1010-.ploo ...... ~
"'- -.pIoo ......
~1 ...._
0'''1*"_
Whereas tempora) or distanCc resolulion i, solely a func.ion of AOC I1Ile. amplitude
n,solulu>I1 "a funclion of both AOC ratc and numbcf of b -ds of sampling "-1- numocr
ofb llll_ For UT dala acquisition sy~l"ml 8 bn '<lI"'pl ing is prc5CTllly Ihe most common. A
mim!llum sampl ing nne of four limes the nominal ff"'lU~n<:y of the [lfobc: used ' j
n-..:om""",lkd. This will ffiSUR llIe dignised amr litudc:- will be within 3 dB ofllle
analogue'1Iluc.

Dtgtlls,"g an A..scan i. the first step In fOTl5tn1tting. B-sc3n. SUI each samplc mil'! be
$I.,'cd 10 compu"" memory, th......,forc larger scan lengths and larg~f lime of the lIalOO
pmod. ~in: I'I"IIII'e memory th3n stn311 ~M and galed limes.

~orl "mpk: ~ usinlll" MHzc<>l\lXl normal beam probe on a SOmm thtd plale v.e
\\ould like 10 gale the enU", thlcknc,,-, for d'>pby. We WQuld usc the rccom"wmded
nHOIm"m AOC 1111e of )6 Mi lL We must also consider that lOOnun lime equl\1IlffillS
tn"crsed by the longJludmal w:I\'c tow'cr jusl the 50mm thickness; lImee.
(~O ~ 2) + 5.9 - 16.91'->.
,\ t 16 M Hi AI)(' 1(; <amples an: made C'aCh )1<, 50 fo r th~ gated time of 16.9)15. 270
:;.amplcs "ill be monkd for eacb A-s.::on. At each point 8 bit:; of amplitutk infonn:ltion
are ooUoxtcd 1M bu." - I b)1C), ]four O· B_s.:an ,:I \0 be oolloxted across I "dd and
",dude hul affoxtcd lOIleS. a ]00mm tra\d should suffICe Ci.e_ 50mm ~,Iher ,ide to the
"tid CC1\ttclinc)_ If 1IIl A-scan is wl1cct."j It O~nun in""""ls. !be dna i!cnmllW "oltld
b"
270 x I x 2 x]OO S-lOOO bytes (54 kB)

the first panmlCter I< 270 points per A-scan

the second is I b~,e persample point on each A-!oeM
the third is tile number (If A-:;cans pcr mm III
100 is !be ]C11j,\th of !be >Can ,n mrn

To generate the fuJi for d...--pth cncOOed C-scans and D. E. aOO.ur P SC&II5
\"ol~ SCItRS
"ould ""f'1IiT ~,crll owch ~ \0 be: made in a <ingk JII'X'CS.'- I'-cn ira small square
100 ~ lOOmm "':IS scanned "iih a 110m raster ~Iep with the abm .... conduion'. SA \lB~1es
"oo]d be gencnlloo. Caution should be I3ken \0 eolloxt only WI amount (If information
tllat is ab.olulCly nce....~sary.

In a mul!i<hanntl ~)~tC111 where SC"CflII B·scans (or D-scans) and DTOFD scan are
,011=«1 the r,le .i~e of (..-en a ~imp]c lin.:ar SC3I\ parallel I<l the weld uis (",th no
rn.<tcin~l oouJd qukkly result in file ~i«!l of 'Oe,...,,] tons of McgaB)'1e5 (MB).

4.16 Data Processing

One of tile added features of d:1I3 lK'qu'sllion <)'Stcms is the ability '0 rw:rform subsequent
pruc<:s.ing of the 51on:d signals. Sirw;c!be oon'11I of dig,tal storuge. sc:vcraJ tcclmiques
have been deri\ed 10 cnh.mce the information l'OHoxted. This process is gellCmlly ,ermed
digilal signal proce~ing (DSP).

Elfe<;ti,·cn= of DSP relics on the quaJ,ty of'M C3p1urro signa). Quality determining
f:lC\01'$ include;
I how "ell transdoccr aIId (!a13 aequl$'UOII S~SlC111 arc: ma",1Ied
, WllJIhng rw:riod
~ signa] qlGlltismion !e'"cl
~ ea.libm'ion
~. material altcnualion

Any unwanted di~turbance in the useful f~ucn.:y band that is introduced 10 the sign.'ll is
con;;iocrcd noisc. Noi..: may have 5<'v~ml S<)UI"CC'; tile 1I1I!lSduc:cr ihc:lf. inslrumcn1:l1i<m.
'ipurious w3vcl\ from SCl1tlCr.gOOll1Ctry and mode (On'·=lons. as ",dl lIS surrounding
eloxtricaJ noise

DcfcclS ma)' ong",a'c in ueas w~ ~WIIIC'IrK c:onfigunlUOllS form ~ ""seT!! or

enuapmems fot chemicals ,1131 an lead to COfro'oIOll. cracking or both_ ~ defoxl
occurring in thll area may be COffilpt.ed N romplo:1dy rI1.3Sked by the rurrouoomg
coodni.on$. Con\ersely. g~ may be mlsintnpreted as &fl:<'b. B-seeMS, (·-SClUlS
M
or otbcr imaginS display. all()\\· defect dekcUOli by illuSltatiDg "1lIe big pictun:: ,,11m:
•

subtle 1T.:nds an:: nOllceable !NI mighl 001 be C\ idcnl In the stllic A-'OCa/I di<play.

In spnc of the imrrm 00 lIOlicability afTonled b) im;lsing. spuriOtlS $ignal~ from nolS<:
~n::es may \Iill ma~~ defects. Variou<; I«hni'lu~ nase been de,·dOJl<'d l(l tnhancc
pertincnl infom1'l1l0n 10 suppress the mllsking ef"fecl5 of noise. Di£illli signall'roc:essing
can be gencr:1l1y grouped ,"10 1"-0 categories; one: dimensional and 1\\0 dimensional.
One dimc:1lslOnal processing is applied to the ~I'tured "a\~form a!>d may be eithcr

--"._-• """,
filtering or SpeCtrum lInlIlysl$. T "0 dimenSIonal procesSIng is conccmcd "'tn tnhancing
spatial $I1UdllItlli of the lOlage.

""'-

One dimensional DS!' tw bem briefly touched 011 bncfly. Use offa.>l founer
transforms, signal a, eraging fN incn::ascd signal to noise ratio. When noise i~ know1l to
originate al a nigher or lo"~r frequency than tile penmen! UT signal, a bandf"l'S fihcnng
rrocess can be applied. ThIs :;.elcctively femo'·c~ ~puriou~ CQmpo"cn!S froll1 thc A-scan.
Figure 4-19 illustrnte.1 such a process.

Figure 4·19 Filtering by osp

,•
-
",- '
--
T
.,
~~
I ,
·~ r

V
•
+

~
•

[~ ,~-

-
.

- ( --
•
Po
=
A somewhat >;mpl~r form ofp<O\'ClIsmg i, sigrol aVmlgmg. Silln31 a,waging allows a
flaw signal 10 be dra....ll OUI ofw background noise by w principle Ibat a fbI'.' signal is
coherent but noise !~ 1Klt. A o;ohcmll rq>euu'e signal added 10 itS<:lf Mn M limes will
meTea", by a faetoTor"n", ....·hereas noi ... added 10 ltsclf'n' Iun<:~ "'ill incn:3SC by I~
M
~uarc TOOl of"n Afi.,.-'n IImIUO!IS w SIgnal 10 no,,,e milo ofw .'mlled """cform
M
•

"tmpro,'ed 11)' '>n.

Two dU"C1lsion.:ol OS!' li:Chruqucs arc used LO enhance spalialll1foonation, As such, two
dnTleosional OSP;~ applied to B,scan and C-5Call images, II may be noted thaI B-!ClIIIS
"Ill C-seans ront.;un no mor~ information than tm: A-S(.ns u~ to gcncraLc them.

-
IIllwC\cr. they provIde sp:Ilial relatIOnShips not possible to dcu:rminc from isobled A-

Amplitude a_eraging is 5OII1clim<:"S used I)Il C·S<.:afI displays.. Thii lends to $ITI()OI/J edges
and ehmlll:.lc isolated rcaJ<s. The a\crngc oh grid (Ju, S~5, 7,7, CIe.);S placed:ll the
cen~ oflhc grid. The average v:.lue =y be linear or we,ghl~ An ~ample of image

hole:<. Amrhrudc -wnpl<:"S in the g:II;:II..,gion Wen e\'<-ry O,Smm on.

filtering is sllown In Figure -'-~O. A Illndcm configuralion"'lIS UIiCd 10 SCIIIl J fl:'1 bouom
"'= O.5mm grid
rattan 1"-'1(1' scan The uPJlCT image In Hgwc 4-20 show, the I'll" image. Below 11\;11 is
an muge formed by BS~S non.weighted averaging. Show'"g the scan NcklDSh offsets
being (OlTtttcd A 'h'l wn'OIUIIOJl mtt:r SIl'IOOIhcs the image fUrlbcr and more closely
T~IS tM- round shapes .hal fann the: FBlll3rg<1S.

Figure 4-20 2-dimenslonsl DSP (matrix averaging)

, • • • . ..
' ..
•
• • • - ,. •
B_~ DSP mhanCCmallS an: aL!l(> performed.. Of1lw:: processing methods u.ed willi B-
scans. ~'IIlhclic apcrtllll: focusill3 technique (SAfT) is the best kno"'II. TI1I"'l-Ilme for
(be u!tl1SOllk beam (0 m,,~L 10 and from a poin!;, a h>-pnboli<: funcuoll of1lw:: probe
p!l$iuon and targ~t deplh. When tbe <:qua!ion of lIlis hypt"rbola is known. A-<C:\n sIgnals
can Ix: ~hifloo in ume and added 10gclhcI WJK,n a dcfec' i, pre~nL 'OllSlnlClilC
!ntcrfm:nc" of1lw:: "'1I1"form5 form a IUJ" ~1gna.L \Vb"" no Ikfect is ~I thc
inletference is destnK:uvc and the signal IS sm:\11. This SAFT proc~lIIg may bC'
performed in cilhcr two d,m<."IISions or lh= dimmsion~; hoWCHT.Ihn:c dimC/tl,onal
SAFTmg requirCll oonsidcruble processingltme.

An example of rIw.: Iml'fO'ed slgnal-lQ-llOl~ llI!io and bU,m resolutlOO of SAL'"

proc~lIIg are: ~ho ..'I1 in Flgu~ 4-21, III Figure: 4-21 three Imm notches were "':;)IIned.
The ilnage on the lefl is th~ raw dau as il would appo::lr in a B-scan and the image on the
right is1lw:: result ofSAFT COfTOC\ions 10 improve lau:11I1 resolution.

Figure 4-21 DSP by SAFT

I~
Bciim: SAFT plIXC'SSing

A Yard!ion ofSAFT is tbc so-called ALOK (German - Amplituden tmd !.auf/.all Orb
Kor.o.rn). The c:>.p«I00 \JlI.I cllime h)l'Cfbolic CtII"I<." an: IISC<i 10 improl·e ~ignal-IO-noi$e
r.llio of dcfi!CIs 1Io"''''''''r. III) syn1lw::tic focu'lIIg Otturs.

A SUlUlarJIlOCC""llIg can be door: 01/ ph;ucd l1mII.y 5C3II resullS. Figur~ 4-22 .lIuslnues a
bef~ and afl .... con.dilion where:;)II S-StlIn w-as used 10 rolkct the: Ill'" da~ DSP
algorilhms an lI$I:d 10 correct for the angular displocml<!nl thaI .. ould Ottur, !)au would
Ix: collected over a linear "lime" based di~plny (lower linear uncorr«lcd image) and th~n
the fact thai the probe was not moved is IISoI:d to c.alculale tile fla .. locations 01\ the all:
gmttlled by tbe S-scan focallf, .. 'S. The COITCCtion pl'ICcs!be sound ongin;u. ~lIIgJe
poim and displays the L:lrgelS (only 4 wer~ proces.o;cd in the upper image). as they would
appear relative 10 the probe position.

I
•
Corrccted
~-

•
~-- •
Linear
vIew
 4.11 Scanning Equipment

Scanning apparnt..,; is n:quired for position.:l! information. Knowing a reflector exists in a

test piece is of linle usc unless ns positi.m .an be dct~rmincd. Position wIll be crucial in
as<:ertllming if the reflector is a flaw Or gwmetry; if the reflector ;s deltnnine<!to be a
fla .... and il occurs in a weld. position .... ill assist in evaluation and characlerisati()O.
Although simple ruler measurements from surface reference,; arc olkn us...'d for manual
scanning. inde.ling dcyiees are usually us..'d in mechanised scanning.

When partS are lJIO,ed past n probe the rdati,'" position;iI rarely T<!cordcd p=iscly.
Tube Inspe<:liOl'l stations arc often equipflCd .... ith strip-c:han ,"".(lrd:... feed_speed and
position of tile indic:.tion on the chan can be used to locale the indication. In pIpe mills
audio alanns am! paint sproyer markcrs alen the operator to ....'hen and wb<:n: an ccho
breaks Ihrcshold. TM spray maker i,localed down str~am of the probes and ils opernlion
is delayed from the time of the alann based on Ihe trJ\e! speed orthe pipe past the •
pro"".
When probe movement is made over a fiXl"d obje.1. st'-enli options <::'list for
mechanisation. In ordcrto fix wme >011 ofrcfercnce position. a probe holder and
associa«:d framework is required. POSilion nlay be provide<! by some fOml of encoder
and tl\\: probe !!Iowd by hand Ait"",ati,-ely. movement may be facilitated by motors on
the framework and again. eneoders may provide positional infonnation.
 4.18 limitations of Mechanised Scanning

'01 aU ISpCCb of,n~ ~ be mo:ban,sed. Tbere will aI ....ays be ~ .. iw:fe

m3nua] If<,;hmquc5 are ITlOIl' COSt dTecll' e although JIl'en unhmned funding all manual
scanning could be mechanised to some <kgrcc:

aU! n should be noloo .h.n mechanIcal hmiulll(mS might apply.o mechamsed systems.
The ItWSI cnmmon of the limitations .. ould be scanning speed. E,CtI .. hal a computer
and ullr.lSOruC S)'Slm'lS can rroduce and eoUcc. the dala ~ high l'lIIes of \I'1I.v~] sp«<! Ibm:
may be mech3nical impediments to mo"iog .he fITObe(s) nlthe ma~imllm speed .h~t ClIO
be evrnpulcrwUecled. On long SC3II garnrics the ganlfy $Upport .....y SCI up ~ibnltions
and shUe the probe so th31 coul'ling p:nh or tool'linl! quahly is m:luced. Or the scanner
nt.9) simply shake some components I()()S(. The risk of (\;Image by something as ~tmpk
lIS a <mall speck of ,,'dd sp.:Il1cr may be greater at higher sc.ao sp;:cds !han a. lower
'ipI.-.:tis. An cJUU1lf'1c oftrchn<>logy ad,ances ..... y be jlttn in the pip:hne girth weld
inspec"ons. Older systems m the 1980'1 wm: based on th~ pulser PRJ' and Werc h.ard
pressed 10 S<,:an ... dd ha~ing 6 .. dd zones at moll' !han 4Omm.'s. TO<b), the ph;lsed
array 1 ) = iliustIlU,..! in Figure 4-23 can SClIJ1 a ] 2 LOr\C ..-dd and colle'<:t fuU ....nefonn
scans for To~n. 6 thl~k~ chnmlel •• lhrough tr.m.misSion coupling channels lind 8 full
"a,donn a-scans lor [).scaos i{you I'refer). All this at more !han double the ~ of
tho: older s~t..'mS (about SO-IOOmm's), This is .!J1be more imrressi\c .. hal the file SMe
,s considered. F,le ~1J.es of tile older systems ,wre on tile order of IOOkO and pro~"lcd
only amplilUlk and tifnl' informalion. any proj«lion scans (B-sc;ms) wen: OIIly -imagcs-
so .. en: giu'n tbc.crffl maPJI'"p as ~ did 001 rresct"~ the "1I"cfOlTll and no TOFD
"31' being I'ro.ided. The I'hnsed array ~) ,tern !'een I!\ Figure 4-23 (lower righl) lypically
collecl5 o,'~ 1.000 urnes more data (I ().15J.,iA) II IW;"'~ the specd
Figure 4· 2.' illustmu:s sc,mtl of the option~ for scannmg equipmcnt. Whclher eont<ICl.
im1TlC1"S1OII or gap techniques 3~ u~ the priociples 11l'·ohed are the same.

Figure 4·23

- .
Ab",<: left is a lab ;.canmng rig wilb X,Y.l & 6 mouon,
Abo\c righl ;SI phased amy Pipeli~ girth weld inspecuon rig (placed on Pipe).
!\l1lmagcs courtesy Il.I). Tech.
 4.19 Scanning Speed

AIX' 1"1116 holo,e II~ady hom discussed:u'ld. If~ galed times.,.., l'C<!u,rcd for a-scan...
1M ability of the oomputer CPU to process the mfonnation mal presrnt I ~p«d
Imutation, If the: compul<T has not had cnou,h ume b.:t,,'eeII >amples btaru.. hnes on the:
iHcJ.n result indicating missed dlta points.. Similarly. missed dlta pomb can re.ult
"hc:n grneraling C-Kans at too high a travel sp«d.

Ilowc\"Cr. cnmputer CPU is nOI !he only limiting faclor [ , en if C<lIIIputCI'll an: 1)(11 used
for dlta acqulsllion. ;l.n(lLhcr limiting faclor is the pulse n:l*tl1l(l<l f~queney, Response
turn:s of the recording dc,ices sucb as suip-dw1 n-conkTS rna) requin: sc'CflIl pulse
~ignals 10 C1lSllf"C the: true ma.~imum amplituOc is indIcated. Thc:refore a probe must be m
!he ,icmit)' ora rel1ectOf for a time SIIfficient for !he: recordIng OQuipment to re_pood.
Th,. will be. in pan.. dctcrmmed by the silc of the: beam and b) the: sg,:, of the: calibnllion
or nunimwn 13'llCI. SIaUC cahoouion JI13)' Indicatc a gain sening to odl;c..c the: required
signal ""'plilu<k but" hc1! a dynamic run II m3dc o,'cr !he calibnmon 01 101,) IlIgh a speed.
the amplilude =orded wIll be something less!!un thai for the sl:lIic calibrauon
[mpiriC3l1y ~~lahh'h,"d scanning 'p,,,,ds rna) be found or spccifocalion or c«l~ can
,;upula,e nwcimun! ~pc~"d.i b:t~d on probe or bean! SIlt: and PRF.

An example of spe<:lficauon dlcta,ed speed Sl3IC •. ,SUMlllg ,doci!), Ve wll be

dctnmincd by

Ie' u.{ P~f')

When: We IS !he nJ.1TO'.I.C!I -£odB width 3t tile appffi1ltlatc operating di_laOCe ofLbc
tr:msdoca dct.."'T1lllncd b)' dcslgll ""Iui",ments and PRF is !he err""'i,,, pu~ "1>1::lIl1on
frequern:)' for eaclllnlns.duccr. This example n:quiln 3 firings ""hio the (. dB beam
" idth.

In a <}'Slem "hen: man~ probes arc sequemccd "~' multiplcxer!he PRfi;~ di,·ided
1IlIlOlIg>l !he UNaI number of probes.. Although man)' units ba,·e PRF's of 2lHz. "hen 10
rrobc:s "'" used ill th. ')lSwm. me elT",,'i,·~ PRF al ¢xh probe is "",1)1 100 117
lmJ!l'O"cd technology makes PR F ronsidmUlons im:levanl With !he digital control of
dala acqul),nion ~~stl:nlS Lhc entire pr1X'CS$ from firing the CJ.:mcn'(I) 10 collee"ng.
di~playing and <;Ising the recci.cd signals is all computer controlled. Then: is ~till a
maSl ... r dock and lh~ com pUler ~quen<;e5 all ~uvnles olTthi$ dock hIT eumpk 10
p'peline girth .... eld ill~pct:tions using a polir of phased arra), probes many funcliolls nrc
carried OUt during !h~ ",an. The ....eld is divided ,"c"iean), into Z(llICS with a j,(,1Ul1
directed DI each LOne (e<;I\CI"lIgc is symmelrie eIther ~ide of the weld). A slmrle .tnp-
clwt !>\)le ofd3ta dl<pla)s amplitude and tinK' In 3 gate forcach zone as "CUllS ~wral
chann.cls dedi.:alcd to collecting the full pul..:-c..:oo w3'cforms and TOFI) Ii.LlI
w;I,cfortnS. But tllcre is 110 ,ndependell1 pulser. firing a"":I),. obli,·iou:s to the dala
;JC(]uisition S)~lcm. In~lclld.. the scqllC1lC<: of III "C1Its for the scan is qllCUed off the:
pulse from the encoder indicating each I mm of scann.er advanc.... As!he!iC8MC1" IS
advanced by the motor (tomrollcd "ia a m010r control ~nit and a comm~nic:l1ion link via
the mOlOr control card on Iile controlling c<'lmputcr) it calISe'S the C1ltOder to tum and the
puis<:> generated indicat~ a spccifi(:d numocrofpulscs perunit disUlnCe. As the encoder
I1IdicaleS Ihe sIan of the Imm Inlerval nil functions in the '""lueoc<: conllncnee:
I. The computer is indicaled 10 record the encoded positions (calibrated in
milhmctrcs. or perh.;!ps inches. as referenced from a speeified origin)
2. the computer;, told 10 load Ih<: first phased army focal law
3. fire the tntnsrnillers in Ihe camelorde. and delay
4. arranGe the """,i"en to receive the pulse from the IntnSm;l1ed signal
5. apply Iile correcI recei"cr gains 10 the applicable channels
6. collect the lime infonnalion from Iile lime gale
7. collect the amplilude inform.llion from the amplitude gate
8. .lOre the amplitude and time to memory
9. repeal the above sleps for all channels (changing 10 StorC wal'cfonns instead of
amplitude and lime where applicable)
10. prim onc linc of displayed da\.1l to Iile monitor
11. \\'3it for the nextlmm incn:mem pulse from the etlCQ(kr and b<:gin again

(many more small check.'> ,md func!lOns are carried OUt but the 0\',,",11 effect this tries to
.on"C)' IS that many functions are occurring based on Ihe initiating pulse from the
moodcr. Some systems ha,'e sean speed~ around loonunlscc. This means \h:tlthe
~quence of e"enlS that are n"<juin'd to carry OUt allthe Sleps in a single millimetre are
repeated 100 times e:lCh second. There is stili a limilto whal a computer can do in a
sOOn period oftime and if the scanning speed is \00 fast to complete all the functions
required in thaI I mm imcf\'al then ALL the information for Iilat step i~ lost. lltis is scen
as a black line on the di'play. On the C-scan the samedfoxt (missing da\.a secn as black
lines Or spotS) can be S<:<!n when scanning speed is \00 high as shown in Figure 4-24.

Figure 4-24 MIssing data Points

,•
,
• • • -• ,. .. ..
,.
•
I·
•
• J • I

PRF
i
The equ:.lion Ill'"' 11"\-,-) docs 001 apply for such cncoder·Uisgered data acquisition

systcms. Inslead. lhe fact that each liring of the pulser is dictated by thc encoded
di.Wtcc-imemll means thai the opcmtor nc.::ds to detcrmine the dimension of the 6dB
bc:am width (We) and ensu~ Ihal the mooded sample interval is less than 113 that
distance 10 confoml to Iile imend to the spccitication requi~ment.
 4.20 Encoders

A rotary optical encoder is '-' scnror WU uses !ight 10 scnse the 'I"'ed. angle and dirc:clion
of a rol'l1)' shaft. A linear encoder reads a linear strip instC<ld of a disk 10 provide the
same information for lirl<'ar mOliOO. Oplical encoders use light ill$~ad of oonw.cts to
d~tcct position. so they are inherently free from contact wcaT and the digItal outputs are
bouneeless I no conUct bounce). Accuracy of an optical ""coder i. as good llS (he code
wheel. The code wheel panems are created using rrccision digital ph:l1Iffl!. and cUI ..... ing
either a pundmg system or a laser. each guided by dosed loop prttision vision syswms.

The light source u=l for encoders is usually a PO'"( source LED. rather (han a
conwnlional LEI) or filamen!. Most optical encockrs = !ransmlssil"e typ<". meaning that
the hght IS collimated lighl into p31:l11ellight rays IUld passes through (he disk (or strip)
pancm. The image of the pau,,", is dC!e<:1ed using a phased array rrl<loohLhic SCn:;Qr and
coo"cned to 1TL digital quadrature OUtPUt£. Reflec!ive 1ype """"""rs bounce collima1ed
light orr a patterned rcfle<:ul"C code wheel. Fining all of !be electronics of a reflectivc
encoder onto one side of the code wheel make. it D rrI<Ire oompac\ design (h.:ui
lranSml!<Sl\"e Iypes.

More information on the operation of the Oplic.aJ cm:odcr can be found on the Web. One
such r~fc,.~l\Cc is hUfl;liwww.senwmag.con\'3nicJesil[(XI/40·jndcl.htm

Other positional indicating devices include patcnliomc!crs and resolvers.

 5. Industrial Applications of Phased Array UT
Pha5nI array ultrawllic In<;UUmc:nlS may lui, Chad a skJ'" ~tan gC'lung into indu.lnal
applicauons but now sc"~,,,l eumpk~ ~.~isl where useJ1 ha\'c found the ad,':InCl~~ of
phased amIY. superior 10 Ih3I of COO\CIIliorl<ll UT, Se'eral cumpk. an: pnr';dcd in Ihi.
~llon.

5. 1 FIC(: lnc RCl'151ante \\ ~Id ~

~ ...... )'0 rq>1k< ............. Ie f""'Ibn Im""ed ~,Ihtr .... oflho ".Id. OW
Icdlll<>Iog)' '"'l"'~ dial ... opcraor _ I I } ' "' .... r...... ,....x. fOIla'> 10 k<q> d:oe "dol
_ _ 1m< betw= II>< pn>b<.;. T'hb n _ ",lioN< ODd Il10...,. ill J/l1<JnI oneil ..-...Itr>
""",,<k: "ftll< b<am ,,,,.~ •. c.",. r"'-" ami)' p<oba ODd .kr.-uoa..: ."....,.;.
ocamoinc.......". ... _tr:Iod.on. pooWo: .... dc>_ ...... die UI."'" ..... "' .. _
0UIYdt oflll< b<am ' ' <JOI<ItU r""", ~·1 ........ tho """"",,,,,,,,,1 .aup ODd F,J:IIR'
s.~ <b.,,,.1I>c I'IIascd '\tfly ...........

Figure 5-1 Conventlonal ERW UT

Figure 5-2 Phased Array ERW UT

 .T1>t , , _ 17(11" F......... llole III$pKt>CIOI Sy.-. ... _pal ... """" • .....n
"""~. "" !he f,,}'m, ...n~ of .. iDJ "'ill
f......... bales. ",th the f..."""" 10$UI11td Th ..
d=p _ . pho.al1llT» rn* _"" b<IIh """"'- o<>d <=lnII& f""""""," ).......
do 4p<d ... be IIp;....pt. MncI><Id. IW ODd -r"'~)ic.s _ • """"'" ptf
fnImorllDll ~","'d bl",d·1eOl ,.. hdohO'1. FIg"'" $.) """'~ the f......... n. .... Iocabon
ond ... doc ..,.,. .... ~ rn* "'............I'Y ~ ",'a Ibc fO>1<l><f, ("or 1OO
<1<O»<tIIO mol. lIP doc """"" lb. If ....... 4<:m _ . III !be Ioo.n ioIIof< of .,.... $.)
or .... "'na
" sIIo>n'I bow the f)iICnI .. 'I'\'Ih<<I ....... .....Jem&

Figure 5-3 Phased Array for Aerospace fastener hole.

Faying Surface Comer •

•
,.
I•
••
-•
•
•
" • ._- • • - -- •
 5.3 PO'lrr Grn~tllion - Turbinr 8hldr Roo,~
T_ _ .......... ~. 'JIOCW ~ Iilr _ -.:I 0.-mrk<.m,.. '" -='-
""-d &rI'I)" ....... l>ca:mo: II'<'P"W .., .... _ '" "",,-.diq "'' <fIIS< or. '&n<1~ "r
k>caI,,,,,,, r""" the IOU>!!'" I"',nl or ~ f,lU"" S-4 sbo,,·, 1hc ""Ric <'0\ ....8. ""
"",Ilk< "" \be kft IIDIl .... n>a.:baIuood <:0' ....... nh a bla<k """"" IDiCfO<d "'''' IIw

Figure 5-4 Turbine Blade

Tho curnlu'" Oft<! lim,lCd aandoff ""'<ss "" 1Ia',), ",,"kf f'I'l".so """""" """'_
for pbaJed. .... ).. '" 001 .. Ill< "'"""""'" """'............... ,., """''01bc bow I ....-..nl
..,.. oIlooo, \be~' ~ of"'" <rilI<:aI iDDI:r .....

Figure 5·5 Phased Array sectoral scannIng of nozzle Inner radius

--
-~
 s_~ PctrOC"hrmic:o l Plp"tillc CODstl'\lc tion ( Pip" \\ 1:t..ARD)

P'pel....,l1li ",'dd ""f'<CI .... by VT ha< boon ~ boa! .... '''11 g,'" !rom
,,,,hop""") 0",1<1"", Iht ..·.Id ",10 ,·<nItal<h'·i""",lII'Id ..."" «J*I&Ic ~ Mr ca<b

""* ".......
-roDe-!Iao I"''''!dod .... - . for .... ' - ~ """""""'_ TradworIalllll.du-
(ao .. r~ ~ ..... <idol an: _ ttpIaocd .. ,th <mailer pIIIIICd .my
<)_(F,,,,,.$.6 loti <idol \'-'""'""""'or ............ Iad &n.. _ l~.~
",Ib l~ or """" ~ 10. s~ ....... "" Ib 1""1 :: p/IIIoN """Y prot.cs 10 do ...........
function•. Co""'" GU1,p"""iol< • r... """ easy mclhod or <Qlllill"""ll F<nll..o". fill
uand>:d ..·.Id J'fIlrol<!. The op<nI<It tIeOd 0111)' ........... .... II,llIck"""" &nil dcr.... tbo
--.... or..,.,.. """ _ "" .... 0CUIp is - " 10 ~"1O .... pIIIIICd lt1Iy """"'"
",tn._t_ FIJIft 5-n
Figure 5-6 P ipeline Girth Weld In s pection - Phased Array vs M""",,,O~'

Focal Laws

.-
 5.6OttMtr Applications Using Phased Arrays

The prottdmg cumpJ.:s of phased amI)3 lJ>mo.. 'pecilk induslJ)' aprlic:!.IiQns ....h=
phased anays ha,c impnwcd Ihe IIL<peC1i(lll lechmques by Imrroving covCI'IIgc from a
rcstricti,c acCC". illCK~scd in<pection ~pccd. ami c"m impro'w \he poiaLlUl for
dl:ttttion and sl.ting.

BUI phased ...... y lechnology C3S11y illCOrpOf2olC"$ .11 aspec" ofuadnional ultrasonics and
can be made 10 cs;.emiaJly duplicatc the pcrfOlllUlncc of a singlc elemcnt probe. T"o
aamrles an.' TOFO and backsca\l(f 5i~lIg,

5.7TOFD by Phased Array

figure 5-8 shows TOF!} scans from 1\\0 diffcl'C'IIl proje.:u. The I<:fl SIde u.c$ a smaJe
cl<:mcm TOI'D probe limm diameter IO"m, and the plale is ~5mm thick. On the righl i~
a TOFD 'ic:8I\ USing a 7.S MH/l'hasnl array pn')b<: using 12 dcmrnts (cqu;,'1Ienl 10 I
11mm clcmcol) on. 32mm ....all dllckness.. Theonl)" dlffennccs art' those rdallng 10
sign.11 dUTlIlion. The fA re'SuJIS an: seen 10 have a lo .... er frequency con"",! (!IOU: the
Ioo,er dunllioo of btcral w';l,'c). Whereas an oper.I1Of is bmited 10 the results obiai!l.1blc
from a sing.le clenlen1 TOFD pair. a phased nlTlly operator can oplimi\e cOl1dnions 10
~mc: e"tm!. AdJu$UJ\& the number of clements 10 'W) the beam OO\rntgc and :ldjUSlin(t
the angk: by. oouplc dcgm::s up Of down to imprme ne"," mnxc resolution. As .... ell.
the phased amy 0)lCTlI1Of h3SIhc ability to USC a focused beam to impron' <i/jng
resolution. Phased amI~ featurcs such as multipk beam angl<1 and beam d,,'crgrncc
ch.uaclcnsucs ClUl be camed OUI simuJl3II<!Ously in a single!ioCan ,,;bereas a ~Lnglc
elernenll'fOCCSS ,",ould KqIIi~. ~e scannIng amy Of muluple $C3n' of the same ~I
spe(:lmen.

Figure 5-8 ConventIonal vel'$U$ Phased Array TOFD

 5.8Backscatter Slzlng
Fb .. sizing has .h'"3}s bo:cn • c;riti<";.l aspeo.:l of I'DT. In rcoenl ycar5 il has been
n:cogms.ed ihall,p diffmcII(ln lechniques lIff",d 1hc bC"SI opIion~ for ultrasonIC .i~'ng.

Fogure S-9 InlJS1mlcs!be prIncIples of lbe Ndscallcr sizmg technique for. ~wfllCe'
breaking naw. I'ole 1h.a11hc o;amc pnncipld o;-.n tot used for both ~'ngle clemenl and ~bi·
modal~ dual elcmem pmb/: lechniques bUllhee.umplcs in Figure 5-9 indicate a Simple
!oh.eat mode: ",Ib lhe 2 coodiuons of1hc probe positioned 10 peak on the na,,· up m the
tim half dIp ("f'I'"1 or S«:Ond half 5lc'p (kr.o.«).
Figure 5·9 Simple T1p Diffracted signal Using Pulse...cho shear wave

"'" -- I
"\ -.~"=
.. ,,,, "

:, -<:::J
;
" -.
,/
"_.~··e=
, ....
;--:--:-:. ~

~or a planar na" lhe gmmll COndilioo for the origin of up diffnw;lI:d signals can be:
<.\c<;cnbed a. on Figure S-1 O.
Figure 5·10 Tip Signal Origins

1>l1...cU!d ""'.... D,
IrIOdenIw"""
DITmClaC1 "'~ ... D.

Flawal S&HI D
l1Ie ~I\a Illne betv.een D, and D, does :lito" for some ~.. malC orsinn!! ";a

tJ "r2,~}1fl9
\\'hI.-n: D 1~ the distance belween u.., defect C'xtremil>es and 9 I> the angle Ihat the incident
beam m.kes" Ith the hne pelJlCndicul$r to the plana, dd..cr.
SUI the anal),.is 11131 allow. sioting and orienlatioo lielamill31ion ",lin on probe rootion
and IS Jomc\I, hat d<-prndc:nl on coupl",g \'3rUtioo as lhe analy"s In part uSC'S anlplnude
peaks. The pnnciplcs of the depth and orientation te.:hnique can be illu,m:lled by the
probe p.>S11t00ll as related I<l the <:eoo d) n:"llIe peak positions In figun: ~ t I ,
Figure 5-11 Probe Positions ilnd Soundpilths recorded for Peak
Amplitude, of Tip Echoes

Figure 5-12 illustrate! the scan pattern used.. !>e,'ont f<)cal b"J an: """"led I<l s"""l'
across the not~h as the: SC3J1JICI" ..t\"lII1«S the probe panolld 10 \hi: ootch a.~i5.
Figure 5-12 Schema tic of Phased Array probe on notch blocks.

~-~
Pi"aIeI \0 noICh a<&
n. ~
n, l- • - -
- fll _ focal 10... 1
fu. _ local law 15

The a.dvanmge of a plla>ro IIrIlIY 1lL\.I",.. scan in a OOOIaCI Icst is both limo (fl.SJ.L.....) and
unifl;mTlily of coupling m.:r.,by making m., 3JIlpiitude \nICC 1~ '~ri~bk than II migbl be
if the probe was a singk demcnl bemg pushed and pulled IS well as slid,ng Sldewa~ as
would be the: c:ase for a mcchaniClilraslCT S<:3Il

When tomplclcd. m., K:ln dam Cln be pm.cnlro in a plan "ic\o.' inlegr:lling lhe ma~imum
amplitudes over the enure area (a lradiliunal C-scan). This idenlifies where the flaw"S an:
loaned along the lrngth ufthe 5C"an. lkcau!>C an electronic !lISter is also occurring In
whl~h!he waveforms arc collected. !he ~:llXked A~~ (B-sartsl al C31,:b puint along
lhe scan length pro, ide lhe echo dYn:lmic:s of the flaw in the beam With !lUifH:il:lll gain
lh<! up dilTnw:lcd signal$ can be idcnlified. B.."C4IUSC of !he echo dynamics aV~llnblc in Ihe
ra.<1a scan. the p.iU11!mS lhal rcsull allo"·!.he: firs! sle~ In flaw analym.

Figure 5-12 show's the combination of A. Band C..scans thai allow the opcl1ltor \0 ... i"w
!he lip diffra.;uon signal~ for analysis. The inllgc in the lOp len i~ a C-scan (plan ,jtw).
tn the lop ngllt is lhe ~\'olumc: COIT«I<"d .. nd ,-jew- {B-scan ofa smgte JIO$'UOn along the
1lO1I,:h with each fotallaw A-scan 5howl1 314S· 1bc to..-CI kfl i .... -Volume corn-ctcd
Side \ iew" (Il_scan ronlposOO of a compo",,, of the 100at number of foal law, in the
'tr11a1 and cat:h c-nco<kd daL:l. pomt along the scan axis m the: horilOnL:l.I3!lis. The A-
scan in the: 1o\I.~.,. righl is the: display of the angled eunor on the upPer righL
Figure 5-12 Tomograph ic Projections
• •

An eumpk arme sizing an.! oncntalion llS>.CS>~nl atTonkd by \be technique,~ sho"l1
In hgure ~-l.l

Figure 5-13 Sizing and Orientation DetenninaUon by phased array

backscaller

'" mm DOlch ",dical<:d by (urson; 3$ ~ -lmm and 4-l.7' mdilWion

,
,
J
 5.9Portable Phased Array

'\1lJ1JC"roUS otbcr >Ingle element appliClltions ~ ~ duplicated and IISlI.1l1y Impro\ cd

~ing phasW an:I> u:chn'lJlICS

With the: introduction of the: portable ph.lsed IL/Tay instrument (Omnlscan $C\! hgul"l: 3·1 4)
t~ many limitations of field mechanis:l1ion an: reduced while pn:",,.·,mg alll~ fe3tures
of display {see Figure 5· 15 I of the 13rg~r lab-l)'J>C unn,. ll;e unil shown al!;O inclu,tes a
poI"13blc I:ddy Curren! module and associated di.play~.

Figure 5·14 Portable Phased Amly Unit

Figu re 5-15 DI$play$ ava!table on Portable Phased array unit

 5.10 Coupling checks

A function commonly rcqum:d in mcch:m~d ulU'aSOnic inspections ,s me "couplmg

check", ThIS i. a m~thod ofvCTir~lng mat couplam is ]",ing ad~quately ~upplied 10 the
surface immediately under the w~dgc. In plate inspections iIlis i. a moot item since iIle
backwlIlI,ignal is usually monitored for thickness ib m.,r" pr<"iCllce confinm; 1.h:It
coupling is being acbiewd. Howe"er. when an angled beam i. used there is no gcomelric
signal to bourn:e otT and the system needs wmc son ofJechnique to receive a constant
signal for coupling "crifications. In pipe mills 300 On ginh weld inspections this is often
accomplished using the symmetry ofptObes on either side ofille weld cenlreline.
Sending a pulsc from one probe on one side oflhc weld to me prolx: opJlO'iitc configured
10 be a recei"cr.thc through lmnsmission signal allows coupling check. Somelimes
howe\'cr, a loss of coupling is indicated c\'en ",hen cOllplmg is good. Thi~ win ocellr
when 3 geormlry condition such 8S mismatch or excessive "'cld reinforeement re.din.'e15
Ihe beam from the recti"cr.

t!ere again. phased 3Tr.1y has prmen to provide lht best opl;on, In addillOn to allowing
all the angle beam irtspc<:tions and TOFD on a girth weld. phased amy probes can also
be configured 10 provide a sclfchcc k on coupling by using a O· compression mode. This
has Ihc added benefit of elK:ckmg wallthiekn$. T)'JIicaUy on a 6O~lement probe three
groups of20 adjacem d~mrn15 would be selected to make 3 0" focal law and iIle
backwall amplitude set to aoouI')O% Bnd gatc<f to indicate a lack of coupling when lhe
signal amplitude drops below 3 specified lewl (1}'Pically 4 10 6<18).

Figure 5-16 ilillilr.ltes me 2 option~ (phased 1Ur.I)' systems can also be configured to
perit;lm. in iIle tradit;c>nal thr-ough-tnmsmi:;sion mode too,)

Figure 5-16 Phased Array Coupling Check Methods

"

''''' '''''
jjj III
PhaW!d 3Ray 0' (:DUping checi;
 6. Exercises
The r"lkJ"'in~ que'li()!\s I'rolide a means of ~If·asses.smcnt of the matcrial, co'em! III
th,. booklelllrld die a...ocia1<~d course on I'h.tse<l ami}' Ippllcallon 10 Inth weld
inspcc!1on. This mean. lhallhi~ booklel alone" 111 nol hol'C all the an."CfS. HOWC'CT.
this eooccrn should (lilly rdm 10 the \Iuluple Choi~ questions These qucuions ~hou.ld
be aruwcre;l by circhng Ihe Ieller rcl'rc:;.:ming the b~ t oplion of an~"crs.

Tbe worked problcnn. Illal folio", the Mul1lplc Choice questi()!\. requm:: numenc aruwc~
and these can be recorded in tbe space prmldc:d For !he queslions ~iring problem
sol~lng $(llutions a scpar.I!e "orl,: $hec1 may be: required for 5Ome: ealculauons,

What aspect of wal'e mechRlllcs docs a I'lla5<:d array constructed beam rely on?
am.... '... IS required)
(n:nICmbc:r th.:!1 thc bftl
a. COlblnl~lil'c In!erfcrrncc
b. amplillKk ofw-",~ (i.c. applied Ichase)
c. gap bc:t" ccn element>
d. dampmg material u-ro be,w"," !he ckment>

2.
When uslll8 p/la>ecI amly ullJasomcs. off-axIS beam -vtcfacl1;M IIR a rcsull of;
•. d.-stn.u;livc ;nl.,-(crtnce
b, gralong lobes
c. non-unifonn loltage;; 31'plicd 10 scp;u1IlC elements
d. inclwl-lon. in tlIe delay wedge

3.
Who is !nJIOI1Sibk for the throry u>Cd in phastd urn)' l1I)'-nacing \h;ll S!;lIC~ Ihat a "'y
Ira\ cUing from one point 10 another ,,·m folkJw a path $llCh thaI. companxlwith nearby
paths. the ume: required i~ a minimum1
I. l1uy~cns
b. Frcsnd
c. F~I
d. Fraunhoffcr

••
Who IS rrspot\SIhle for tbe theory used In phased amy'S thaI St:ll~ thai e\'ery poin! on I
"'II efronl may ilsclfbe: regarded as I SOUKC of «<ondary walCS"
a. l1uyscns
b. Fl'Cl;nel
c Fcnn31
d. Fl1IunhofTer
s.
Gi,cn a lmear phllSl.-d alTll)' probe, "lull variable a,ail.hk to the opo:r.!lOT limits its nc:ar
field length?
a, fmjU<1lC)
b. ~'ollagc 10 the pul..:r
c. I"'l>c dur::l1I(m of ~ pulM1" ,,,ll:1ge
d. number of elements used

6.
Gi'a! the sCU\d:lrd 60 delmnt phnscd amy probe used on pipeline girth welds. what
aspect of die phased arn.y probe would ~ used 10 increase 1M pos.llion orlbe near 10IlC
fm a fOC:lllaw for an unfocusN beam?
L locrca$(.' delay limes bl:twccn adj~ccnl dcnll'nts
b. illC1USC the numbn of adjacent clemalls used
c. 111<.= Ill<.> pulsoer ,'uilag"
d. Jnc",~ the I\'cci,"CI" amplifier' nllage

,
....'bc:n using the standard 60 elenlCnT hnear ami)' phased lmIy probe "hal effecl on Iht
lateral bc3.m SIZe allhc focal spot does a sbMeningoflhc focal dl.~W>Cc hale?
a. ,n"...,,,-'I« II
b dttreasn il
c. no ch;u!ge feSUlts til thc bu:t:!l dirttlion
d. none ofthc abo,c,;I;; unprmictablc

•
Vv'hcn using thc ~t:mdud 60 clement hnear amy phasro array probe "h31 effect on ihc
,~",cal beam ~izc II (he f(IQI spot doct a slu;mcning of III( foc:.1 di'tan~c !>a\'e?
a. 11lCre3SC:S il
b. dccfca>cs it
C 00 change: rt'liuilll in the lalCf3] dIrection
d. [I()nI: oflhc Rbo,c. illS unpmlKUbk

9.
Wh.11 b il aboutllx: """,3\elet> il~ by each element on the pIused am> probe is
M

I:riucal when shaping tbe beam1

.. phase.oo interaction point ",,!h the adjacmt ....a\elet
b. fRqumcycQ.IlI:ntoftbew,l\clcts
~. !heir a.:oustic impedance
d. Ilx:lr elecrricallmpcd:ance
10
The 3211 ~S phased amy tI\SU'UIDCIll ,,;oed \Io11h the: Z-60 ckmenl rh;l;;cd array I'robcli: """"
only J20 ofliK: possible electrical conn«10r; 01\ Ihc InStrument 10 address the 2 probes.
Wh.a\ arc IiK: other H pulser-m:chC1'll used for?
a. dedicated TOFD
b. If:In!>'ocl'K !",ir lo:chniquc'
,d. """
all nr lhe above

] I. When designing techniques for Ihkk ""II sections using the wnal discrimin':l1ion
technique the OVl:/U1ICC for. --&IS 'lOne separation can be difficuh to achie'c. Whal can
be done 10 O,'en:mt1e [hIS probJem7
a. U5C' lnrger l,on.es
b. usc l3tieT largcts
c. U$(' mort: dcmcms in the focal I.",.. or I probe ",Ih high.:, fn:qumcy
d. all oflhe abo'" al't' options thai could IH:lp

12.
Wh.,,;~ IiK: normal (iUld usually the m:uimum) 5amrk nllCTVlIl along the ,mh used m
ginll "cld inspxtion'< in the WIl3II"<lmiq""~
a. O.5mm
b lmm
, 2=
d. 3mm

"
Wh.:.! IS the normal po:!olliomng accuracy along the IImh \11at Can be expected for any
encOOcd Kan~
I O.5mm
b --!·11IUlI
c. +1. halfthc sample inl<:r\"ill
d. IOmm

"
What ultimately determlI\CS the accun1i:Y 1)( the posmcm of a SIgnal in the time gale?
3 the er>C~r
b. the I'd"","",, \afgC1 amplitude
c. probe frequeocy
d. i\!oD digi!i~lng fmjuency
15
What is the nmsl significant d,ffercm:c bc,wC'l:11 the f'ipeWI;u,RD PA slstem used for
pipdmc weld .nsp«tion! and other I"pd"", mc:c:h:r.msed UT s)'Slerm (s""h a~ It... KYD,
Shaw and Weld~ni)l systems)?
a. The Ul1r.1SOlllC bam sh:r.p::
h. T1tc number ofuansdu.CTS used
c. The use ofTOFD 10 assist in in~l3uon
d. The pnlClicc of dh'iding tJK, "'cld 1010 ~.oncj

J6.
When prcpMlng for ~ p.pl'iinc ln~ion whal must you do 10 ensun:)00 get ibeC(IITCCI
anaJes in 1M leSt pi«e once you 113\'1: decided on the bo:~l anaJes rot
the be,,~P
a. iklC111""" l~ numbcr of/.ones 10 be used for the \\.,lds 10 be lnlW
b. DclC11TlllK' the acoustic ,-doc;!), of the pipe ~lcd
c. Dc:lCmlinc lhe acoustic velocit)' of\hc plasuc in the wed~
d. Both b and c are ..-qwn:d

"
When oclmTlimng IICOUS!;C \elocilies in pipe ~lcc1 for a pIpeline project you musl u.~ an
Sit st.ear wl\c probe. The pipe Sled i§ b;~fringern and ghes more than one ,docu).
The "cl«:;l), ~I )'OU mu>l &tennille in th<: sled 10 gel the best results for com:c\ shear
wa,~ angles IS the - ._ _ _ ,·elOCIl)'.
a.. SII slo"- "'3\"
b. Sit fast "",e
C. ComprcsslOll .. ,1\'"
d, Surf..;e w.s~

IS.
....'hat is tile distlnce from the centreline of tile weld Ilul the MlCfIbc linc" is n~ 011 the
pipe be:forc il is "d<k<[ 10!1;etlw:f.' (The SCribe: line i~ the refen::""", used \0 set the hand
po<ilion f('lf the ~nner 10 mo\C on),
L 25rrun
h. 40mm
c. l00mm
d 125mon

"
WOOl IS 1he g:l1c
channds~
th~oold lc\'d for <:o11«lIng amplnude InfOfr!lation on the slnl' ch:ln •
•h ().S~ •

, 1().IS·"
26-150,0

• 40!'•
20,
W!\;lt i~ the u.ual gate IhlQlIold I,,\cl for collecting time (TOF) infofIn:mon on tlw 5tnp
chan channel~
:I.(1.5%
b. 5-IS.....
c. ~O""
d. 40"~

21.
When des'gningan mSflOCII()n locliJllquc for a 15.5mm th'ck CRC weld be"el n would
Iypically use 8 .GOOCS root.lCP. 2 hoi pass and 4 filii). What "oold the Fill zone heights
be (c I apflroximalion)?
a. 2.4mm
b ~.9mm
c. 3.2mm
d. 3.Smm

2l
...."hen ck<;igJIing an in.pecllOl1l«hniquc for a pipe 19mm Ihick wong 3 J be\cl wilh 3
I ,lImm root Ian..! and. 2.4mm heM 1'3'>$10.4 degree be\cl angle for the fills .....hal are the
Fi11lO11C heIghts for a technique "'ilh a 10lal 0(7 lones j,e. 5 FilllMCli (dOSC'<I
arroro~im:l1ion)?
a. 2. lmm
b, Llmm
c. 2 9mm
d, 3. 3mm

2J,
According 10 the guideline.<; of ASTM E_I96I. 1,.. h."I1 designing a configur.llion for D",,,10.1
in 'pttlJon. the gale position$ mUS15t:>n alleast before tile theoretical fusion
line for the LOM channels (.uip chan).
a. Imm
b. 2mm
c. 3mm
d, 5mm

"
Wbc:n seninK gate5 for the fusion hne (stnp charts) channel> nol all of the gates wi!l!\;l\'c
the S3JTIC Irngih. Wbkh galC'j are somc:limcs made longer"
a. Amplilude gates for Ihe Filllo~
h. Time gatu forthe Fill7.one.
c. Amplilude galc~ for the ROOt &.orcap 7.onc:
d. Time g3~' for the Rooc &lor cap ton<:
25.
At whal spa:<! mIlS! you run the calJbralion scan~
a. 4(1m1lllS
b. IOOmmis
Co 125mm.'1
d. lke::;;une ~pecd tIw the "dd;s ~

26
What i~ the type ofp/la..~ anay.sc:IJI that uses. series offocaJ 1a"'"510 durlieSl': a 11lS1or
SI:~ (similar 10 m:m1Ul1 scanning)?
a. Sectoral
b LInear
c. AzimUlh.:ll
d. Dyn.:unic depth focu..ing

21.
Whal is the type ofl'iw..--d aIT1l~ scan tn.l uscs a series flffocal """"5 sweep through a
mnge ofungles from a oominall)· fixed e~il romt?
• 5<0..,
b. LillC31
e. AI"(:
d.. l}ynamic lieI'm focu~mg

"
.
What is aoothcr name for 1M S-scan·"

b.
c.
"""'"
A/jmUlhal
Linear
II. Both land b

,
29.
What combin:1\1{>n of phased lUTay !iC.lII1)~ "ould be used 10 e):3t1Iine I point On a
rndlused cur.'c (~Fig. 029)1
it. x.:lOI'lIl and ALlmutha!
b. linear and ~
c. A/~muthallLOd dynamic depth fOCl4lnB
<l '\"0/IC'r'.....;","'!~2

- ' fig., 029

30
What "",Ihod of~nuphng ch~k is done using. phasnllUTlly probe thaI a ~'"llle d~menl
angle beam probe cannot do?
I. l1Irough IDnmlirosion
b. 5-JCanS
~_ 0" thid.ness ~lwxl:
d. Resonance

Calculaled SelUlions RcquimJ;

I. 'W'hal IS the Sl~ (In)"ICS) ofth.c: ul!rU>OOlC daLJ. III • 1J..$CaII fOT 1hc followlnB
condl1ioru;; 2~mm thick SI~I pllll~. scanned .... ,th a ~"OfIlXl 60" fcfll";lC\J SV """"
",I\e 1\'~J2~lnu) and 3 2.5 Mill. mm~ucer Usc 3 10\1II.t ;\1)(" "Ith II bit
resolution. gate only the tfmc In rnc131 for I full $kip l/ISp<:CUon (i.e, from !he
probeimc131 Inlcrface 10 the mctlIl aIr intcrface al the full ~kip) ILOd usc a!iClIII of
201hnm Wilh Imm n:sollIlion (i.e. I A."",an forcach mm oftr:lsd),
- - - - - - -, ...
.l
200mm along the wcld length ... ith 3 Imm nosIer pitch?

I) WhallS the muimum $C3J1fIing sp«d ofa 16 channel (16 probe) sy~!cm
.
2. How big would the file calculated In que~lion I be if a T3Sler scan "3S u..:d for

,
where the nllntmum 6 dB beam "idth of the probes is 3mm al thc f(leal spot
{polO! nfin":rc<itl~ A$sume tM' 3n old-slylc 5 kH1 PRf clock is u~ to lnlYler
 the pulser and me probes. are nmJnplexed. A~sume Ii mmimum of3 firings per
probe beam widm are required. mmls
b) How long ",ould it lake !O scan a ginh weld 1.5m in diameter using !his
system?

4. Usc: me Figure below to help Under.;ta.'"CdC"h<;.:p"'m="C",,=Cpo=i"~,~a~kcd for. You are

gi,·en 8 64 element Imear phased lImIy probe 5M1I% nomiMI frcqumcy wim
clements sp:lCed Imm and each element IOmm lIide. The probe i$ place m direct
(normal incidence) ,omnel wi!h a sted block.
8. What is the near field 1engm in me IOnun width direction (NI1? _ _~
h. What is the near field Imgth plane perpendicularlo the IOmm wid!h when
16 adjacent cil"tl1cnts are fired at !he snme timc (N~)·.' nun
c. What;s the nalural focal spO! size in the 16 element plane fnrlhe
condition in part .1\. (S1)? mrn
d. Ifa foc..I 1311 was used m focns the beam back to ~mm what would the
<pot si7.C be in thai plane (S2)? mm
e. How many element.'; would you nCed to actiniC in order to achicve!he
same 5mall focal spot size eakulatcd in pan ·d· 31 !he nalural focal1cngth
C:I!culatcd in pan ·h· (i.e. number of clements \0 g~" 52 at N2)?
 7. Other Reading and References
Mat~ri31s IuIw been drawn from m;lnr sources 10 compiic !his handbook. Websites arc
listed with credits \(I the authors .... here !hey are used In the body orllle book. These and
o!he. ""'cbsites arc also listed here. Two o!hIT main sources of information dlll""'n on
were;
Phased AlTar prcscnuuions made by Dr. Michael moles with RD Tech and
Ultrasonic in.<pcCtion 2 - Trnining for Nond~stn.Jcti,·e T.'Sting by E. A. Gi07.e1.

WcbSill."$
History ofUT (medical)
Dr. Woo on his web<;;itc at hllp: .....w ....· ob-ullQwund·neJ

ChanICteristic Parnm~tel"!l ofUilnlSOnic Phased-amy Probes and Equipment

H. 1V1Istcnl!erg.. A. Erhard. G. Schenk BAM - Berlin
h!tr; :""""....... ndl.ocqujde ,'iJ.1n~"Wue'ten ....V£stcn hun

Phased array te-chnology concepts. probe, and applications

Jerome Poguet
http;/ ;,,,,,,·.ndt,wt'lIrt;cle.',oQ7,>05/pogurI1fJOK!1CI.hlnl

Phased Amly Probes

hup: iW""",,'.imawnic.com,
hup' '/""'W. vcnnon_oomI

Phased Army Equipment

hun;' ""·,,,w,rn-1ech.colD

Undcrslllndinll uhrasound Ph},ics: Fundamemals and bam Review

By S}dncy K. Edelman. Publio;hed by: Educational Sonogrnphic Professi<mallnc.:
2nd edition (June 1994) ISBN: 0%2644439

Essentials of Ultrasound Physics by James A. Zagzcbski. Publisher. Mosby: 1st

edition (JllI1u:l.1)" 15, 1996) ISBN: OR15198S23

Ultrasound and Elastic Wa\'cs: Frequently Asked Questions. by Brian Michael

tempricrc Publisher. Academic Press: 1st ediliQn (May 2002) ISBN: 011-W33456

Data AcquisitiQn Techniq~ Using Personal (;Qmputn'S, II. AU5lcrliv~ Academic

Press. 1991 ISBN 0-1 2-068370-9
 Ulua:;onic instruments and Devices: Reference for Modern InslrumrnUlt;on.
Techniques. and TC<'hnology. by F..rnrnanuc1 i'apadlkis (F.dilor). Publisher:
Academic 1're$S; (January 2000) ISB": 0 1253 195 17

Autom.ltcd Ultrnsonic Inspection o{Weids. llW Sub..commis~ion ve. The

Intcm:nional In~lilute of Welding 1989

Journal Ar1icles

Ulua:;onic pha><:d.arra~~ for nondestrucli,·c t~sling. McNab. A. Campbell. MJ ..

NOT Inlemalional. 1987. "01.20. 00.6. pp.333·337

Current Applications and flnure trends in phased:may technology. X.E.Gros.

N.B.CBmeron. 300 M. K ,"g.ln~ighl. "o,"ember 2002. \ol.~. no. ]0. 1'(1673-678
An swers to questions in SlXtion 6

Multiple Cho;""

,.• Il.d 11.3

1.b 11.b ll.c
J., !J.e 23.e
-I .a 14.d l -1 .d
jd IS.b 2S.d
6.b ! 6.d 26.b
7., 17.b 17.a
8b lS.b 28.d
9., 19.a 29.8
IO.d 10.<; 30.c

Numeric 31l$Wct:S

I. 1l3kB
2. 24.600kB or 2,46MB
3a. 3 11mm:s b. aboUl 4.8 seconds (perhaps slighlly more as !he r:lmp-uJl and T3It1Jl
oo"'n (acceleration and de<:c1cr:ltion) is allowed for.
4a. 20.89111m (this is Bl'proximated as 11.2mm for simple cqU3Hon without the term ->..'J
b. 5-1.2mm {using the simJlhlkd equation}
c.-I.llmm
d.I.<)rum
e. No pan elemenrs Can he used so this is bes! approximated using 36 demcn!5