FREQUENCY TRANSFORMATION

INTRODUCTION:

The standard procedure for analogue filter design is to first design (obtain the
transfer function) a low-pass normalized to unity, and then, by means of a
frequency transformation, obtain the transfer function of the desired filter, either
low-pass, high-pass, band-pass or band-stop with desired critical values.
The low-pass filter initially designed, before performing the frequency
transformation, is called the low-pass prototype filter.
Since the desired performance characteristics (design specifications) are for the
final, or actual, filter, it is necessary to determine what the corresponding
characteristics or specifications need to be for the low-pass prototype filter.

LOWPASS-TO-LOWPASS TRANSFORMATION

A lowpass-to-lowpass transformation is simply frequency scaling as the starting

point is the lowpass prototype filter. Thus, a lowpass-to-lowpass transformation
is stated as follows: replace every s in H LPP s  by s k f , where k f is the frequency
scaling factor. Hence,
k
M  s 

M
bk 
 kf


 
b s k k
k k
f
H LP  s   H LPP  s  s  s
k 0
 k
k 0
N
 s 
a s k
kf N k k
 ak 
 kf  k 0
k f

k 0  

M M
k fM  bk skk fM k k fN M  bk skk fM k
 k 0
N
 N
k 0
[1]
k N
f a s k
k 0
k
k N k
f a s k
k 0
k
k N k
f

Let k  k fM kbk and k  k fN kak , then

M
k fN M  k sk
H LP  s   N
k 0
[2]
 s
k 0
k
k

If H LPP s  is in factored form:

Page 1 of 21
 M
K  s   k 
H LPP  s   N
k 1
[3]
 s   
k 1
kk

Where the zeroes,  k and the poles,  k may be, and in general are complex.
When frequency-scaled, the transfer function becomes
M
K k N M   s  k f  k 
H LP  s   N
k 1
[4]
 s  k
k 1
f k 

Hence, frequency scaling multiplies the poles and zeros by the frequency-scaling
factor k f .

Example 1: Given the 3rd order Butterworth lowpass prototype transfer function
1
H LPP  s   3 , obtain its lowpass transfer function given that
s  2s  2s  1
2

c  1000 rad / s .
Solution:
1
H LP s   H LPP s  s  s  3 2
 s   s 
1000  s 
   2   2  1
 1000   1000   1000 
1
 3 2
s s s
9
 2 6  2 3 1
10 10 10
Multiplying the numerator and denominator by 10 9 , we get
109

 s3 s2 s 
 9  2 6
 2 3  1109
 10 10 10 
109
 3
s   2  103  s 2   2  106  s  109

Page 2 of 21
LOWPASS-TO-HIGHPASS TRANSFORMATION

The lowpass-to-highpass transformation is stated as follows: replace every s in

the H LPP s  by k f s , where k f is the frequency scaling factor. Hence,
N M M k
M
k 
k
 s   s  M


M

 k f
b k bk  f
k k
s  bk  
  
kf

H HP  s   H LPP  s  s k f 
k 0 k 0  s  
k 0  kf  [5]  
N k N k
k   
 ak k f s
N N
s k k
s
 
ak  f ak  
  
k 0
k 0  s
k 0   kf 
For a Butterworth prototype filter, M  0 and there is symmetry to the ak
coefficients: a 0  a N , a1  a N 1 , etc. hence, equation [5] becomes
N
 s 
 
kf sN  s 
H HP s     k
 N H LPP   [6]
N  s  kf  kf 
 ak 
 kf 
k 0  

Example 2: Transform the following lowpass prototype transfer function to

highpass filter function given that k f  1000 .
1
H LPP  s  
s  2s  2s  1
3 2

Solution:
1
H HP s   H LPP s  s 1000  3 2
s  1000   1000   1000 
   2   2  1
 s   s   s 
 
 1  s3
 9  3
 10  2  10  2  10  1  s
6 3

 3 
 s s2 s 
s3

s 3  2  103 s 2  2  106 s  109
To confirm that this is a highpass filter, have that
 j 
3

H HP  j    or
 j    2  10  j    2  106  j    109
3 3 2

3
H HP  j   
10  2000 2    2  2  106   2 
9 2 2

Page 3 of 21
Hence,
H HP  0   0,
H HP     1 and

1000 
3

H HP  j1000  
10 9
 2000 1000  
2 2

 1000  2  106  1000 
2

2 2

109

1  1018  1  1012
1

2
So H HP  s  is clearly a highpass filter with c  1000 rad / s .

Poles and Zeros

If H LPP s  is factored as:
M
K  s   k 
H LPP  s   N
k 1

 s   
k 1
k

Then the lowpass-to-highpass transformed transfer function is

M
k  M
 kf 
K   f   k  K HP s N M   s  
k 1  s  k 1  k 
H HP s   N k  [7]
 f  N
 kf 
 
k 1  s
 k   s  
k 
 k 1 

M
K  k
Where K HP  N
k 1


k 1
k

In equation [7], the lowpass-to-highpass transformation has resulted in the

following:
a) The poles and zeros are inverted and then scaled by k f
b) The order of the numerator becomes equal to that of the denominator (N)
c) H HP  0   H HP   
d) H HP     K HP  H HP  0 
e) H HP  jk f   H LPP
*
 j

Page 4 of 21
LOWPASS-TO-BANDPASS TRANSFORMATION
s 2  02
This is achieved by replacing every s in H LPP s  by ,
B ps
where 0  center frequency of the bandpass filter
B p  the passband bandwidth i.e. B p   p2   p1 , where  p2 is the upper
edge of the passband and  p1 is the lower edge of the passband.

Example 3: Given the 3rd order Butterworth lowpass prototype transfer function
1
H LPP  s   3 , obtain its bandpass transfer function.
s  2s  2s  1
2

Solution:
1
H BP  s   H LPP  s  s  s2 02  3 2
B ps  s 2  02   s 2  02   s 2  02 
   2    2    1
 B p s   B p s   B p s 
B p3s 3

s 6  2B p s 5   302  2B p2  s 4  B p  402  2B p2  s 3
02  302  2B p2  s 2  2B p04s  06
If the denominator is factored, then we get
 K1  K 2s 3 
H BP  s    3   
 s  1s   2s   3   s  1s  2s  3 
2 3 2

 H LS  s  H HS s 
From the above analysis, we can conclude that:
a) The order of the bandpass transfer function is twice that of the lowpass
prototype and therefore will be always be even,
b) The bandpass transfer function may be factored into the product of lowpass
transfer function and highpass transfer function, and
c) H BP  0   H BP     0, which is typical for a bandpass filter.

Poles and Zeros

If H LPP s  is factored as:
M
K  s   k 
H LPP  s   N
k 1

 s   
k 1
k

Then,

Page 5 of 21
CASE I: k is real
Then the transfer function for bandpass filter is

M  2 
s  02
K  k 
 B s 
s   N  2 p 2 
k 1
H BP [8]
 s  0 
 
k 1  B ps
 k 


To determine corresponding bandpass filter poles, let
s 2  02
 k  0 or
B ps
s 2  B p k s  02  0
Then the two poles corresponding to the one lowpass prototype pole,  k , are
B p k
j
s1,2   4o2  B 2p  k2
 [9]
2 2
Therefore, each real pole in the H LPP s  will yield a pair of complex conjugate
poles in H BP  s  , and one zero at the origin.

Example 4: Given that k  1 , o  5 and B p  2 , obtain the bandpass filter

poles.
Solution:
B  j 2 1 j
4  5    22 12 
2
s1,2   p k  4o2  B 2p  k2   
2 2 2 2
j 96
 1  100  4  1  j
2 4
 1  j 24
 1  j 4.90
will be resultant poles, and there will be one zero at s  0.

CASE II:  k  j k  k is real 

To determine the corresponding bandpass filter zeros, we solve the numerator
of equation [8] as
s 2  02 s 2  02
  k  0 or  j k  0 , then
B ps B ps
s 2  jB p k s  02  0

Page 6 of 21
Hence, the two zeros corresponding to the one lowpass prototype zero,  j k
are

jB p k
j
s1,2   B 2p  k2  4o2
 [10]
2 2
Note that both zeros are imaginary, but not the same magnitude ( not
conjugates). However, if the lowpass prototype has a zero at  j k , there will
be also be a zero at j k .
Hence, the four bandpass zeros corresponding to the two lowpass prototype
zeros at  j k are:
jB p k j
s1,2    B 2p  k2  4o2
2 2
jB p k
j
s3,4  B 2p  k2  4o2
 [11]
2 2
Note also that
s 2  02
 j k  
B ps
Indicates two poles at s  0 , cancelling two of the zeros introduced at the
origin by the lowpass-to-bandpass transformation of two real poles of H LPP s 
or of one complex-conjugate pair of poles.

Example 5: Given that o  5 and B p  2 , and there are two lowpass

prototype zeros located at  j 3 . Find the corresponding bandpass filter zeros.
Solution:
jB  j j2  3 j
s1,2   p k 
2 2
B 2p  k2  4o2  
2

2
 22  32   4  52 

j
  j3  36  100
2
136
  j3  j
4
  j 3  j 5.83
Hence, s1   j 8.83 and s2  j 2.83
jB p k j j2  3 j
s3,4 
2

2
B 2p  k2  4o2 
2

2
 22  32   4 52 

 j 3  j 5.83
Hence, s3  j 8.83 and s4   j 2.83

Page 7 of 21
CASE III: k  k  j k
To determine the bandpass filter poles, we set the denominator of equation
[8] to 0 and solve as follows:

s 2  02
 k  0 or s 2  B p k s  02  0
B ps
Then the two poles corresponding to the one lowpass prototype pole
 k  k  j k , are
B p k 1
s  B 2p  k2  4o2
2 2
B p k
 
2
Substituting the value of k in  , we get
1 1 1
B 2p  k  j k   4o2  B 2p  k  j k  k  j k   4o2
2
 B 2p  k2  4o2 
2 2 2
1

2
 
B 2p  k2  j k k  j k k   k2  4o2

1

2
 
B 2p  k2   k2  j 2k k  4o2

1

2
 
B 2p  k2   k2  4o2  j 2B 2p k k

1
 Rk  jI k
2
 
Where Rk  B 2p  k2   k2  4o2 and I k  2B 2p k k
1 1   1  k 
 M k  k 2  M k cos  k   j 2 M k sin  2 
2 2 2   
 I 
Where M k  Rk2  I k2 and k  tan1  k 
 RK 
Therefore,
B  B  B 
s   p k     p k  Re   j p k  Im 
2 2 2
B  1   B  1  
 p k  M k cos  k   j p k  j M k sin  k 
2 2 2 2 2 2
Therefore, the lowpass-to-bandpass transformation results in two pair of
complex-conjugate poles for every complex-conjugate pair of poles in the
lowpass prototype.

Page 8 of 21
In addition, two zeros at the origin are introduced for every complex-conjugate
pair of poles in the lowpass prototype.
In summary, one pair of complex-conjugate poles in the lowpass prototype,
k  j k results in the following poles in the bandpass transfer function:
1  k     
s1,3   B pk  M k cos   j   M k sin  k   B p k   [12]
2 2   2  
1  k     
s2,4   B pk  M k cos   j  M k sin  k   B p k   [13]
2 2   2  

Example 6: Given that k  1  j , o  5 and B p  2 . Find the corresponding

bandpass filter poles.

Solution:
 
Rk  B 2p  k2   k2  4o2  22 12  12   4 52   4  0   100  100

I k  2B 2p k k  2  2 11  8
2

Then,
 100 
2
Mk   82  100.319

 Ik  1  8 
k  tan1    tan     4.574 or 175.426
0 0

 RK   100 
1  k     
s1,3   B pk  M k cos    j   M k sin  k   B p k  
2 2  2 
1  175.426    175.426  
  2  1  100.319 cos   j   100.319 sin    2  1 
2  2    2  
1
  2  0.3997  j  10.008  2  
2
1
  1.6003  j  8.00795  
2
 0.8002  j 4.004
1  k     
s2,4   B pk  M k cos    j  M k sin  k   B p k  
2 2  2 
1  175.426    175.426  
  2  1  100.319 cos   j  100.319 sin    2  1 
2  2    2  

Page 9 of 21
 1
  2  0.3997  j 10.008  2 
2
1
  2.3997  j12.00795 
2
 1.1996  j 6.004

Example 7: Given that the lowpass prototype is a 4th order Butterworth filter
with 0  100 rad / s and B p  20 rad / s . Find the corresponding bandpass
filter poles.

Solution:
The Butterworth poles are obtained as follows:
 2k n 1   2k 3   2k n 1 
j  j  j 
s4  e  2n 
e  8 
e  2n 
,k  1,2,3,4
 5 
j   5   5 
For k  1, s1  e  8 
 cos    j sin    0.3827  j 0.9239
 8   8 
 5 
j   5   5 
For k  2, s2  e  8 
 cos    j sin    0.9239  j 0.3827
 8   8 
 9 
j   9   9 
For k  3, s3  e  8 
 cos    j sin    0.9239  j 0.3827
 8   8 
 11 
 11 
j   11 
For k  4, s4  e  cos    j sin 
 8 
  0.3827  j 0.9239
 8   8 
Hence, the four lowpass prototype poles are

s1,4  0.3827  j 0.9239 and

s2,3  0.9239  j 0.3827
The bandpass filter poles are obtained as follows:

a) s1,4  0.3827  j 0.9239

 
Rk  B 2p  k2   k2  4o2  202  0.38272  0.92392   4 1002   40282.85277

I k  2B 2p k k  2  20   0.3827  0.9239  282.861244

2

Then,
 40282.85277 
2
Mk   282.8612442  40283.84587

Page 10 of 21
  Ik  1  282.861244 
k  tan1    tan     0.40232 or 179.6
0 0

R
 K  40282.85277 
Hence,

1  k     
s1,3   B pk  M k cos   j   M k sin  k   B p k  
2 2   2  
1  179.6 
  20  0.3827  40283.84587 cos  
2  2 
  179.6  
j   40283.84587 sin    20  0.9239  
  2  
1

2
 7.654  0.7006  j  200.7071  18.478  
1
  6.9534  j  182.2291 
2
 3.477  j 91.11
1  k     
s2,4   B pk  M k cos    j  M k sin  k   B p k  
2 2  2 
1  179.6 
  20  0.3827  40283.84587 cos  
2  2 
  179.6  
j  40283.84587 sin    20  0.9239  
  2  
1
  7.654  0.7006  j  200.7071  18.478  
2
1
  8.3546  j  219.1851 
2
 4.18  j109.59
b) s2,4  0.9239  j 0.3827

 
Rk  B 2p  k2   k2  4o2  202  0.92392  0.38272   4 1002   39717.14723

I k  2B 2p k k  2  20   0.9239 0.3827   282.861244

2

Then,
 39717.14723
2
Mk   282.8612442  39718.15447

Page 11 of 21
  Ik  1  282.861244 
k  tan1    tan     0.40805 or 179.592
0 0

R
 K  39717.14723 
Hence,
1  k     
s1,3   B pk  M k cos    j   M k sin  k   B p k  
2 2  2 

1  179.592 
  20  0.9239  39718.15447 cos  
2  2 
  179.592  
j   39718.15447 sin    20  0.3827  
  2  
1

2
 18.478  0.6957  j  199.293  7.654  
1
  17.7823  j  91.639  
2
 8.89  j 95.82

1  k     
s2,4   B pk  M k cos    j  M k sin  k   B p k  
2 2  2 
1  179.592 
  20  0.9239  39718.15447 cos  
2  2 
  179.592  
j  39718.15447 sin    20  0.3827  
  2  
1
  18.4784  0.0.6957  j 199.293  7.654  
2
1
  19.478  j  206.947  
2
 9.59  j103.47

NB: The lowpass-to-bandpass transformation will also introduce four

zeros at the origin.

Page 12 of 21
LOWPASS-TO-BANDSTOP TRANSFORMATION

The lowpass-to-bandstop transformation is stated as follows: replace every s in

B s
the H LPP s  by 2 p s , where o is the “centre frequency” of the bandstop filter
s  o
frequency response in rad/s and B p is the stop bandwidth i.e. B p   p 2   p1 ,  
where  p is the upper edge of the stopband where the attenuation is Ap and  p
2 1

is the lower edge of the stopband.

Example 8: For the given lowpass prototype filter transfer function, obtain its
bandstop equivalent.
1
H LPP  s   3
s  2s  2s  1
2

Solution:
1
H BS  s   H LPP  s  s  B p s  3 2
s 2 02  B ps   B ps   B ps 
 2   2    2  2 2 
1
 s  0   s  0   s  0 
2 2 2

s  02 
2 3


s 6  2B p s 5   302  2B p2  s 4  B p  402  2B p2  s 3
02  302  2B p2  s 2  2B p04s  06
NB: The denominator is the same as that for lowpass-to-bandpass
transformation. H BS  s  can be expressed as
K1 K 2s 3
H BS s   3 
s  1s 2  2s  3 s 3  1s 2  2s  3
 H LP s   H HP s  [14]
From above analysis, we have that
a) The order of bandstop transfer function is twice that of the lowpass prototype
and therefore will always be even.
b) The bandstop transfer function may be separated into a sum of a lowpass
transfer and a highpass transfer function and
c) H BS  0   H BS     1 , which is a typical bandpass filter.
NB: If the lowpass prototype filter, has a ripple in either the passband or the
stopband, then H BS  0  and H BS    may not be unity.

Page 13 of 21
Poles and Zeros
If H LPP s  is factored as:
M
K  s   k 
H LPP  s   N
k 1

 s   
k 1
k

Then,

CASE I: k is real
Then the transfer function for bandpass filter is

M
 B s 
K   2 p 2  k 
k 1 s  0
H BS  s   N   [15]
 B ps 
  2
k 1  s  0
2
 k 

To determine corresponding bandstop filter poles, let
B ps
 k  0 or
s  02
2

B ps  k s 2  02   0 or
Bp
s2  s  02  0
k
Hence, the two poles corresponding to the one lowpass prototype,  k , are
2
Bp1 Bp
s1,2    4o2 [16]
2k 2  k
2

B 2p
In practical bandstop filters, 4  2
o then equation [16] becomes
2k

Bpj B p2
s1,2   4o  2
2
[17]
2k 2 k
NB: Since numerator and denominator of the transfer function is multiplied
by s 2  02  in order to form the above quadratic equation, it follows that two
transfer function zeros are introduced at  j o .
Therefore, each real pole in H LPP s  will yield a pair of complex conjugate poles
in H BS  s  and two zeros at  j o .

Page 14 of 21
Example 8: Given k  1, o  5, and B p  2, find the bandstop poles and
zeros.
Solution:
2
Bp j B 2 j 22
s1,2    4o2  2p    4 52   2
2k 2 k 2 1 2 1
j
 1  100  4
2
 1  j 4.9
In addition, the resultant zeros will be at s   j 5.

CASE II:  k  j k  k is real 

To determine the corresponding bandpass filter zeros, we solve the numerator
of equation [15] as
B ps B s
  k  0 or 2 p 2  j k  0 , then
s  0
2 2
s  0
Bp
s2  j s  02  0
k
Hence, the two zeros corresponding to the one lowpass prototype zero,  j k
are

2
jB p j Bp
s   4o2 [17]
2k 2 k
2

Consequently, the four bandstop zeros corresponding to the two lowpass

prototype zeros at  j k are:
2
jB p
j Bp
s1,2    4o2 [18]
2k 2  k
2

2
jB p j Bp
s3,4    4o2 [19]
2k 2  k2

In summary, each pair of conjugate imaginary zeros in H LPP s  will yield two
pair of conjugate imaginary zeros in H BS  s  , and two pair of conjugate
imaginary poles at  j o .

Page 15 of 21
Example 9: If o  5, o  5, and B p  2, and there are two lowpass prototype
zeros located at  j 3. Find the poles and zeros bandstop filter.
Solution:
2
jB p
j Bp j2 j 22
s1,2    4 2
    4  52 
2 3 2 3
o
2k 2  k
2 3

j j 4
   100
3 2 9
j
   j 5.011
3
 j 4.68 or  j 5.33

2
jB p j Bp j2 j 22
s3,4    4 2
   4  52 
2  3  2 33
o
2k 2  k2

j j 4
   100
3 2 9
j
  j 5.011
3
 j 5.33 or  j 4.68
There are two conjugate imaginary poles introduced at  j 5.

CASE III: k  k  j k
To determine the bandpass filter poles, we set the denominator of equation
[15] to 0 and solve as follows:

B ps Bp
 k  0 or s 2  s  02  0
s 
2 2
0 k
Then the two poles corresponding to the one lowpass prototype pole
 k  k  j k , are
2
Bp
1 Bp
s   4o2
2k 2 k2

Bp
 
2k
Substituting the value of k in  , we get

Page 16 of 21
 2
1 Bp 1 B p2 1 B p2
  4o2   4  2
 4o2
2 k
2
2  k  j k 
2
2
o
 k  j k  k  j k 

1 B p2
  4o2
2  k
2
 jk k  jk k   k 2

1 B p2
  4o2
2  k
2
  k  j 2k k
2


1 
B p2  k2   k2  j 2k k   4o2
2  k
2
  k  j 2k k
2
 2
k
  k  j 2k k
2


2 2

1 B p  k   k  j 2B pk k
2 2

 4o2

 
2
2  k2   k2   2k k 
2

    2  
2 2
2
k
  k2 k k   k4  2 k2  k2   k4  4 k2  k2

  k4  2 k2  k2   k4

 
2
  k2   k2

Hence,  
1 B p  k   k  j 2B pk k
2 2 2 2

 4o2

 
2
2 2  2 k k


  j 2B    4
B p2  k2   k2 2
p k k 2

       
2 2 o
2 2 2 2
k k k k

B    
2
p
2
j 2B  
2 2

  4 
k k 2 p k k

       
2 o 2
2 2 2 2
k k k k

1
 Rk  jI k
2

Where Rk 

B p2  k2   k2   4 2
and I k 
2B p2k k

   
2 o 2

k
2
  k2 2
k
  k2

 I 
Then M k  Rk2  I k2 and k  tan1  k 
 RK 
Therefore,

Page 17 of 21
  B     B    
s1    2 p k 2  M k cos  k  j  2 p k 2  M k sin  k   [20]
 k  k 2   k  k 2  
 B     B     
s2    2 p k 2  M k cos  k   j  2 p k 2  M k sin  k    [21]
 k  k 2  k  k  2  
If there is a pole in the lowpass prototype at k  j k there will also be one at
k  j k resulting in the following two poles in the bandstop transfer
function:
 B     B    
s3    2 p k 2  M k cos  k  j  2 p k 2  M k sin  k   [22]
 k  k 2   k  k 2  
 B     B p k  k   
s4    2 p k 2  M k cos  k   j   M k sin  2   [23]
 k  k  k  k
2 2
2    

NB: s3  s1* and s4  s2*

Example 10: Given that k  1  j , o  5, o  5, and B p  2. Find the poles

of bandstop filter.

Solution:

Rk 

B p2  k2   k2   4 2

22 12  12 
 4 52   100
  1 
2 o
2 2
2
k
  k2 2
1

2B p2k k 2  22  11 8
Ik    2
  1 
2 2 2
2
 k 2 2
1 4
k

 100    2  100.02
2 2
Mk 

 Ik  1  2 
k  tan1    tan     1.15 or 178.85
0 0

R
 K  100 
 B     B    
s1,3    2 p k 2  M k cos  k  j  2 p k 2  M k sin  k  
 k  k 2   k  k 2  
 2 1  178.85   2 1  178.85   
   2 2  100.02 cos   j  2 2  100.02 sin   
 1  1  2  1  1  2  
1
  1  0.1004  j 1  10.0005  
2
 0.4498  j 5.5

Page 18 of 21
  B     B    
s2,4    2 p k 2  M k cos  k  j  2 p k 2  M k sin  k  
 k  k 2   k  k 2  
 2 1  178.85   2 1  178.85   
   2 2  100.02 cos   j  2 2  100.02 sin   
 1  1  2  1  1  2  
1
  1  0.1004  j 1  10.0005  
2
 0.5502  j 4.5

Example 11: Given that the lowpass prototype is a 4th order Butterworth
filter, o  100, and B p  20. Find the poles and zeros of the corresponding
bandstop filter.

Solution:
From the previous question, the Butterworth poles are
s1,4  0.3827  j 0.9239 and
s2,3  0.9239  j 0.3827
Then, the bandstop poles are obtained as follows:

a) s1,4  0.3827  j 0.9239

Rk 

B p2  k2   k2   4 2

202  0.38272  0.92392 
 4 1002   40282.8242
  0.3827 
2 o
2 2
2
k
 k 2 2
 0.9239

2B p2k k 2  202   0.3827  0.9239 

Ik    282.8327
 2   2   0.38272  0.92392 
2 2

k k

 40282.8242   282.8327   40283.8171

2 2
Mk 

 Ik  1  282.8327 
k  tan1    tan     0.4023 or 179.6
0 0

 RK   40282.8242 

 B     B     
s1,3    2 p k 2  M k cos  k   j  2 p k 2  M k sin  k   
 k  k 2  k  k  2  

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  20  0.3827  179.6 
   40283.8171cos  
 0.3827  0.9239
2 2
 2 
 20  0.9239  179.6   
j  40283.8171sin  
 0.3827  0.9239
2 2
 2 
1
  6.95301  j 219.072 
2
 3.452  j109.536
 B     B     
s2,4    2 p k 2  M k cos  k  j  2 p k 2  M k sin  k   
 k  k 2   k  k  2  

 20  0.3827  179.6 
   40283.8171cos  
 0.3827  0.9239
2 2
 2 
 20  0.9239  179.6   
j  40283.8171sin  
 0.3827  0.9239
2 2
 2 
1
  8.3538  j182.118 
2
 4.177  j 91.059

b) s2,3  0.9239  j 0.3827

Rk 

B p2  k2   k2   4 2

202  0.92392  0.38272 
 4 1002   39717.1758
  0.9239 
2 o
2 2
2
k
 k 2 2
 0.3827

2B p2k k 2  202   0.9239  0.3827 

Ik    282.8327
   0.9239  0.38272 
2 2
2
k
  k2 2

 39717.1758    282.8327   39718.1828

2 2
Mk 

 Ik  1  282.8327 
k  tan1    tan     0.408 or 179.592
0 0

 RK   39717.1758 

 B     B    
s1,3    2 p k 2  M k cos  k   j  2 p k 2  M k sin  k  
 k  k 2  k  k 2  

Page 20 of 21
  20  0.9239  179.592 
   39718.1828 cos  
 0.9239  0.3827
2 2
 2 
 20  0.3827  179.592   
j  39718.1828 sin  
 0.9239  0.3827
2 2
 2 
1
  17.7675  j 206.947 
2
 8.884  j103.473

 B     B    
s2,4    2 p k 2  M k cos  k   j  2 p k 2  M k sin  k  
 k  k 2  k  k 2  

 20  0.9239  179.592 
   39718.1828 cos  
 0.9239  0.3827
2 2
 2 
 20  0.9239  179.592   
j  39718.1828 sin  
 0.9239  0.3827
2 2
 2 
1
  19.1866  j191.6393 
2
 9.593  j 95.820
The transform will also introduce four pair of conjugate imaginary zeros at
 j100.

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