UNIT 3 BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR

03/14 | Timmy
INTRODUCTION

Behavior depends on the integration of numerous processes within the body. This
integration is provided by the nervous system, with the help from the endocrine system.
Experiences and behaviors are based on the activation of our nervous system, and that an
understanding of its functioning is important for the study of psychology.

LESSON PROPER
NEURONS

Neurons are the

central building blocks
of the nervous system, 100
billion strong at birth.
Like all cells, neurons
consist of several
different parts, each
serving a specialized
function.
A neuron’s outer surface is made up of a semipermeable membrane. This membrane
allows smaller molecules and molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it, while
stopping larger or highly charged molecules.
The nucleus of the neuron is located in the soma, or cell body. The soma has branching
extensions known as dendrites. The neuron is a small information processor, and dendrites serve
as input sites where signals are received from other neurons. These signals are transmitted
electrically across the soma and down a major extension from the soma known as the axon,
which ends at multiple terminal buttons. The terminal buttons contain synaptic vesicles that
house neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers of the nervous system.
Axons range in length from a fraction of an inch to several feet. In some axons, glial cells
form a fatty substance known as the myelin sheath, which coats the axon and acts as an
insulator, increasing the speed at which the signal travels. The myelin sheath is crucial for the
normal operation of the neurons within the nervous system: the loss of the insulation it provides
can be detrimental to normal function.
Information moves along a neuron in the form of a neural impulse called an action potential – an
electrochemical impulse that travels from the cell body down to the end of the axon. Each action
potential is the result of movements by electrically charged molecules, known as ions, in and out
of the neuron.
 ACTION POTENTIAL

An action potential is defined as a sudden, fast, transitory, and propagating change of the
resting membrane potential. Only neurons and muscle cells are capable of generating an action
potential; that property is called the excitability.
But what causes the action potential? From an electrical aspect, it is caused by a stimulus
with certain value expressed in millivolts [mV]. Not all stimuli can cause an action potential.
Adequate stimulus must have a sufficient electrocal value which will reduce the negativity of the
nerve cell to the threshold of the action potential. In this manner, there are subthreshold,
threshold, and suprathreshold stimuli. Subthreshold stimuli cannot cause an action potential.
Threshold stimuli are of enough energy or potential to produce an action potential (nerve
impulse). Suprathreshold stimuli also produce an action potential, but their strength is higher
than the threshold stimuli.
So, an action potential is generated when a stimulus changes the membrane potential to
the values of threshold potential. The threshold potential is usually around -50 to -55 mV. It is
important to know that the action potential behaves upon the all-or-none law. This means that
any subthreshold stimulus will cause nothing, while threshold and suprathreshold stimuli
produce a full response of the excitable cell.
Is an action potential different depending on whether it’s caused by threshold or
suprathreshold potential? The answer is no. The length and amplitude of an action potential are
always the same. However, increasing the stimulus strength causes an increase in the frequency
of an action potential. An action potential propagates along the nerve fiber without decreasing or
weakening of amplitude and length. In addition, after one action potential is generated, neurons
become refractory to stimuli for a certain period of time in which they cannot generate another
action potential.
From the aspect of ions, an action potential is caused by temporary changes in membrane
permeability for diffusible ions. These changes cause ion channels to open and the ions to
decrease their concentration gradients. The value of threshold potential depends on the
membrane permeability, intra- and extracellular concentration of ions, and the properties of the
cell membrane.
An action potential has several phases; hypopolarization, depolarization, overshoot,
repolarization and hyperpolarization.
Hypopolarization is the initial increase of the membrane potential to the value of the
threshold potential. The threshold potential opens voltage-gated sodium channels and causes a
large influx of sodium ions. This phase is called the depolarization. During depolarization, the
inside of the cell becomes more and more electropositive, until the potential gets closer the
electrochemical equilibrium for sodium of +61 mV. This phase of extreme positivity is the
overshoot phase.

After the overshoot, the sodium permeability suddenly decreases due to the closing of its
channels. The overshoot value of the cell potential opens voltage-gated potassium channels,
which causes a large potassium efflux, decreasing the cell’s electropositivity. This phase is the
repolarization phase; whose purpose is to restore the resting membrane potential.
Repolarization always leads first to hyperpolarization, a state in which the membrane potential
is more negative than the default membrane potential. But soon after that, the membrane
establishes again the values of membrane potential.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous system refers to all neural tissue. This system is divided into the central nervous
system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The central nervous system includes the
brain (the part of the nervous system that resides in the skull) and the spinal cord.
 The peripheral nervous system includes the remainder of the neural tissue in the rest of the
body. Afferent nerves carry signals from the body to the CNS, whereas efferent nerves carry
signals from the CNS to the body. The PNS consists of the somatic system, which carries
messages to and from the sense receptors, muscles, and the surface of the body (for conscious
sensory functions and voluntary motor functions), and the autonomic system, which connects
with the internal organs and glands (for automatic and involuntary functions, such as the beating
of the heart). The sensory nerves of the somatic system transmit information about external
stimulation from the skin, muscles, and joints to the central nervous system. That is how we
become aware of pain, pressure, and temperature variations. The motor nerves of the somatic
system carry impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles, where they initiate action.
The nerves of the autonomic system run to and from the internal organs, regulating processes
such as respiration, heart rate, and digestion.
Nervous systems are found in almost
all multicellular animals, but vary greatly
in complexity. The only multicellular
animals that have no nervous system at
all are sponges and microscopic bloblike
organisms called placozoans and
mesozoans. The nervous systems of
ctenophores (comb jellies) and cnidarians
(e.g., anemones, hydras, corals and
jellyfishes) consist of a diffuse nerve net.
All other types of animals, with the
exception of echinoderms and a few
types of worms, have a nervous system
containing a brain, a central cord (or two
cords running in parallel), and nerves
radiating from the brain and central cord.
The size of the nervous system ranges
from a few hundred cells in the simplest
worms, to on the order of 100 billion
cells in humans.

At the most basic level, the function of the nervous system is to control movement of the
organism and to affect the environment (e.g., through pheromones). This is achieved by sending
signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others. The output from the
nervous system derives from signals that travel to muscle cells, causing muscles to be activated,
and from signals that travel to endocrine cells, causing hormones to be released into the
bloodstream or other internal fluids. The input to the nervous system derives from sensory cells
of widely varying types, which transmute physical modalities such as light and sound into neural
activity. Internally, the nervous system contains complex webs of connections between nerve
cells that allow it to generate patterns of activity that depend only partly on sensory input. The
nervous system is also capable of storing information over time, by dynamically modifying the
strength of connections between neurons, as well as other mechanisms.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system acts more slowly, indirectly

affecting the activities of cell groups throughout the body.
It does so by means of hormones, chemicals secreted by
the endocrine glands into the bloodstream and transported
to other parts of the body, where they have specific
effects on cells that recognize their message.
Hormones act in various ways on cells of different
types. Each target cell is equipped with receptors that
recognize only the hormone molecules that act on that
cell. The receptors pull those molecules out of the
bloodstream and into the cell. Some endocrine glands are
activated by the nervous system, and others are activated
by changes in the internal chemical state of the body.
In many ways, the hypothalamus, which is located in the lower middle part of the brain,
controls much of the endocrine system by regulating the pituitary gland, which is located directly
below and outside the brain. The hypothalamus is often called the control center of the endocrine
system.

One of the major endocrine glands is the pituitary gland. This gland is partly an outgrowth of
the brain and lies just below the hypothalamus. The pituitary has been called the ‘master gland’
because it produces the most different hormones and controls the secretion activity of other
endocrine glands. One of the pituitary hormones, growth hormone, has the crucial job of
controlling the body’s growth.

The Pancreas is the organ regulates the level of sugar in the bloodstream by secreting insulin.
The Thyroid is the gland, which is located in the neck, regulates metabolism through the
secretion of hormones. The outside part) secretes hormones that regulate sugar and salt balances
and help the body resist stress; they are also responsible for growth of pubic hair, a secondary
sexual characteristic. The adrenal medulla (inside part) secretes two hormones that arouse the
body to deal with stress and emergencies: epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine
(noradrenaline).
Gonads. In females, the ovaries produce hormones that regulate sexual development,
ovulation, and growth of sex organs. In males, the testes produce hormones that regulate sexual
development, production of sperm, and growth of sex organs.
 SAMPLE SITUATION

NEURODEGENERATIVE DISORDERS
Neurodegenerative disorders are illnesses characterized by a loss of nervous system
functioning that are usually caused by neuronal death. These diseases generally worsen over time
as more and more neurons die. The symptoms of a particular neurodegenerative disease are
related to where in the nervous system the death of neurons occurs. The death of these neurons
causes problems in balance and walking. Neurodegenerative disorders include Huntington’s
disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Alzheimer’s disease, other dementia disorders, and
Parkinson’s disease. In this section, Alzheimer’s disease will be discussed in more depth.

Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s disease is the most common cause of dementia in the elderly. In 2012, an
estimated 5.4 million Americans suffered from Alzheimer’s disease. Payments for their care are
estimated at $200 billion. Roughly one in every eight people age 65 or older has the disease. Due
to the aging of the baby-boomer generation, there are projected to be as many as 13 million
Alzheimer’s patients in the United States in the year 2050. Symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease
include disruptive memory loss, confusion about time or place, difficulty planning or executing
tasks, poor judgement, and personality changes. Problems smelling certain scents can also be
indicative of Alzheimer’s disease and may serve as an early warning sign. Many of these
symptoms are also common in people who are aging normally, so it is the severity and longevity
of the symptoms that determine whether a person is suffering from Alzheimer’s. Alzheimer’s
disease was named for Alois Alzheimer, a German psychiatrist who published a report in 1911
about a woman who showed severe dementia symptoms. Along with his colleagues, he examined
the woman’s brain following her death and reported the presence of abnormal clumps, which are
now called amyloid plaques, along with tangled brain fibers called neurofibrillary tangles.
Amyloid plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and an overall shrinking of brain volume are
commonly seen in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients. Loss of neurons in the hippocampus is
especially severe in advanced Alzheimer’s patients. Many research groups are examining the
causes of these hallmarks of the disease.
 One form of the disease is usually caused by mutations in one of three known genes. This
rare form of early-onset Alzheimer’s disease affects fewer than five percent of patients with the
disease and causes dementia beginning between the ages of 30 and 60. The more prevalent,
late-onset form of the disease probably also has a genetic component. One particular gene,
apolipoprotein E (APOE) has a variant (E4) that increases a carrier ‘s probability of developing
the disease. Many other genes have been identified that may be involved in the pathology.
Unfortunately, there is no cure for Alzheimer’s disease. Current treatments focus on managing
the symptoms of the disease. Because decrease in the activity of cholinergic neurons (neurons
that use the neurotransmitter acetylcholine) is common in Alzheimer’s disease, several drugs
used to treat the disease work by increasing acetylcholine neurotransmission, often by
inhibiting the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft. Other clinical
interventions focus on behavioral therapies such as psychotherapy, sensory therapy, and
cognitive exercises. Since Alzheimer’s disease appears to hijack the normal aging process,
research into prevention is prevalent.

SUMMARY
o All human (and animal) behavior is a product of biological structures and processes,
highly organized on multiple interconnected levels. Understanding these biological
precursors of behavior can lead to treatments for psychological disorders, such as
drugs that influence neurotransmitter function.
o The nervous system is highly specialized and hierarchical in its structure, but
neuroplasticity gives the brain some flexibility to adapt its structure and function.
o Though interconnected with and regulated by the nervous system, the endocrine
system produces effects on behavior in a distinct way: endocrine glands secrete
hormones into the bloodstream, allowing hormones to reach and interact directly with
target organs.
o While many behaviors are learned as a result of experience within a particular
environment, the very capacity to learn such behaviors has a genetic basis, and such
capacities only persist because they contribute to the fitness of organisms.
o The endocrine system acts more slowly, indirectly affecting the activities of cell
groups throughout the body. It does so by means of hormones, chemicals secreted by
the endocrine glands into the bloodstream and transported to other parts of the body,
where they have specific effects on cells that recognize their message