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IJSE
38,2 Employment situation of women
in Pakistan
Mahpara Begum Sadaquat and Qurra-tul-ain Ali Sheikh
98 Karachi University, Karachi, Pakistan

Received April 2010

Abstract
Accepted May 2010 Purpose – This paper is an attempt to analyze the study of low female work participation rate in
Pakistan due to the religious, traditional, cultural values, the colonial ideology and the evolution of
social institution that restrain women entry into the labour market.
Design/methodology/approach – In order to explore the objectives, the paper develops the
classification of male and female age groups into three main categories, and analyze with the help of
descriptive and mean methodology.
Findings – The findings of this paper show that the women are suffering from market discrimination
and hence are pushed to separate low-paid and low-status jobs. Majority of women are employed in the
unorganized sectors. Mostly, women are concentrated in sector known for low level of productivity,
less income stability and low security of employment due to their dual role at home and workplace.
Organized services sector is mostly government services, and provides employment to a small
proportion of women. The rate of unemployment among women is consistently higher than that of
men, both in rural and urban areas.
Research limitations/implications – The statistics are reflective of two hard-core realities. The
first factor is that women with no education or with some basic education are allowed to work due to
intensive poverty and high rate of inflation; and the second factor is that the existing socio-cultural
norms continues to strengthen gender discrimination and are a source of a massive wastage of the
human capital available in the country.
Practical implications – An analysis of structure of women employment reveals some qualitative
improvement in the employment, due to high literacy rate and educational levels.
Social implications – Increasing levels of female labour force participation rate is a poverty-induced
phenomenon; a larger part is to be traced by improvement in literacy and education levels of women.
There is some qualitative improvement in the employment, as women’s share in secure and better paid
jobs in the organized sector appears to be higher. With the increase in educational levels of women, faster
growth of women’s employment is observed in modern sectors and white-collar jobs. Government
machinery, non-governmental organizations and progressive political parties should focus on the
education of women if they want to enhance the status of women in Pakistan by implementing special
schemes and programmes for absorbing them into different occupations, particularly in organized
sector so as to improve their structures of employment as well as status of jobs.
Originality/value – Classification of male and female age groups is done into three main categories,
i.e. age ten to 14, 25-29 and 55-59 for young, adult and old groups, respectively. This paper provides the
clear picture of women problems and causes.
Keywords Women workers, Employment, Unemployment, Pakistan
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
International Journal of Social Men and women are pillars of society, without their equal participation in all spheres of
Economics life no society can progress properly. As far as the capabilities of women are concerned,
Vol. 38 No. 2, 2011
pp. 98-113
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0306-8293
The authors would like to thank Dr Nuzhat Ahmad (Director, AERC) for comments and
DOI 10.1108/03068291111091981 suggestions. All errors and omission, of course, remain the responsibility of the authors.
they are not less than men. From the Stone Age, women have been equally participating Employment
in socio-economic life with men but women labour force participation (LFP) has not of women
given the same consideration as men’s work have received. The status of women is as
second-class citizen which is reinforced by the narrow vocational opportunities in Pakistan
available to them. Their contribution remains invisible as most of them have to work in
the unorganized and informal sector which encompasses all kinds of work, such as
casual frame work, labour in family enterprises and private crafts, private schools or 99
unskilled labour in houses.
Moreover, a large invisible female labour force cannot be properly utilized in the
best interests of the country.
In every circumstance, in every set of key of development and socio-economics status,
women have fared worse than men in all area and in all level of population. In every
society, female has a vital role to develop the nation. She always plays a specific and
crucial role, whether visible or not. In our society, women act as mother, wife, sister and
perform very important role. She always depends upon men for survival in their society.
There is a very clear difference between male and female entitlement such as, in work,
employment, earnings, education, health status and decision-making powers. Women
average earning is time after time or constantly very lower than those of men.
It is also important that women are very active in the unorganized or informal sector
but they are earning very low. Women literacy rate are also very lower as compare to
men literacy rate in every region. Social Policy Development Centre (SPDC, 2007-2008)
in Social Development in Pakistan: Annual Review, reported five categories of level of
education include:
(1) illiterate;
(2) below primary level (no formal education, kinder-garten and nursery);
(3) primary level (primary and middle);
(4) matriculation level (matriculation and intermediate); and
(5) degree (graduate, post-graduate professional).

According to the SPDC report, progress was made in all the four categories for males
and females during 1990-1991 to 2007-2008. In spite of the improvement, the proportion
of labour force with primary and above primary level education continued to be low at
52 per cent in 2007-2008. Paltry, 6 per cent of the labour force has acquired education
up to degree level.
Moreover, gender gaps in the level of educational attainment are visible. The
illiteracy level among the female labour force is higher, i.e. 75 per cent (2007-2008),
compared to that of male labour force, i.e. 37 per cent (2007-2008). The proportions of
below primary and primary education level in the male labour force are twice the
proportion in the female labour force. Although women are entering in the higher
educational institutions in larger numbers, this does not ensure their subsequent entry
into the labour force. Neither has this factor helped in addressing the restrictions on LFP
and the gender discrimination that are prevalent in the labour market.
SPDC (2007-2008) in Social Development in Pakistan: Annual Review, explains the fact
that LFP rates of females remain low at all levels of education. Surprisingly, the female
LFP rate actually falls as education level rises to matriculation. Though it continues to
be higher (29 per cent) at the degree level, it is low when compared to the male LFP rates,
IJSE which is 90 per cent. The female LFP has been rising for illiterate individuals and women
38,2 with primary-level education; there is actually some decline in the LFP for women with
matriculation and those holding a degree. Of the female population, 71 per cent with a
degree do not constitute a part of the labour force. The statistics are perhaps reflective of
two hard-core realities. Those with no education or with some basic education are
allowed to work due to intense poverty and inflation; and existing socio-cultural norms
100 continues to strengthen gender discrimination and are a source of a massive wastage of
the human capital available in the country.
In the agricultural sector in rural areas, female has always been accompanying to male
participation, and limited to short-term work available at the time of implant and yield of
crops. In the case of Pakistan, women in rural areas are mostly unpaid workers. Women
are now available in political sector but due to their low literacy rate they are not enjoying
the high positions in politics. Political space has always been dominated by men.

2. Literature review
Women in Pakistan participate fully in economic activities in the productive and
reproductive spheres. The economic value of women’s activities in the reproductive
sphere and unpaid work as a family labourer in the productive sphere has not been
recognized as productive and is not accounted for in the national statistics.
The nature and sphere of women’s productivity in the labour market is largely
determined by socio-cultural and economic factors. Women do not enter the labour
market on equal terms vis-à-vis men. Their occupational choices are limited due to social
and cultural constraints, inherent gender bias in the labour market, and lack of
supportive facilities such as child care, transport and accommodation in the formal
sector of the labour market. Women’s labour power is considered inferior because of
employers’ predetermined notion of women’s primary role as homemakers. As a result
of discrimination against female labour, women are concentrated in the secondary sector
of labour market. Their work is low paid, low status, casual and lacks potential upward
mobility.
During the 1970s, many researchers worked on the women participation in labour
force and found out that the women faced discrimination in pay, fringe benefits and
opportunities for advancement and access to interesting jobs. Additionally, women were
still expected to perform the majority of household and child securing task, regardless of
their work status.
During the 1980s, many researchers worked on the LFP of women and some of their
findings are discussed here. In the high-paid jobs, and sectors also the employment of
women is very much limited and their advancement slow as against men. Even in the
manufacturing industries, women are excluded from many skilled jobs and are
concentrated in the lower paid jobs and industries (Subramanian, 1977; Banerjee, 1985).
Chaudhry and Nosheen (2009) analyzed the determinants of women empowerment in
Southern Punjab of Pakistan. Considering multidimensional nature of women
empowerment, authors estimated the cumulative index for women using four indices,
i.e. personal autonomy, family decision making, domestic economic decisions, and
political autonomy. The results demonstrated that women empowerment is considerably
influenced by education, access to media, socio-cultural norms of the community, job of
women and household participation rate. The major emphasis of this study was on the
women empowerment in terms of their participation in household economic activities.
 Khan et al. (2005) have focused on hazardous nature of home-based work of women Employment
and children. They have investigated the contribution of women and children to the of women
total family income and the impact of increased income on raising household nutrition,
health and education. The study has concluded that household size is significantly and in Pakistan
positively influencing the decision of household to engage in home-based work while
living condition index inversely.
Naqvi and Shahnaz (2002) have examined the effects of various demographic, 101
socio-economic and human capital-related factors on women participation in economic
activities. They have used cross-sectional data from Pakistan Integrated Household
Survey (1998-1999) for the age group of 15-49 years. The probit and multinomial logit
model has been used to estimate the parameters. The probit estimates indicate that
marital status, primary education, number of children and female head of households
are inversely related with women’s participation in economic activities.
Azid et al. (2001) have studied the factors influencing female participation in cottage
industry of Pakistan. The main objective of the study is to analyze the economic
behavior of the female workers involved in the business of embroidery. The study has
concluded that number of the children, age of the females, education, poverty status
have a positive and significant impact on female LEP.
Rehana and Rizwana (1998) found out that the participation of women in paid
economic activities has increased in almost all the countries and Pakistan is not an
exception. The female LFP rate has increased for two reasons: first, more women are
entering in the labour force; and second, the methodology to collect labour force data is
improved (Census Report of Pakistan, 1998). However, in Pakistan the female entry in
the labour force is resulting in increase in unemployment rate among females.
However, the quantitative increase in female participation in market production has
neither led to qualitative improvements in their lives nor to equality of opportunity and
treatment between males and females at home and in the labour market. In emerging
global economic scenario, the role of females in a country’s economic development is
becoming critical. This will be a major issue in the next century, as welfare of a society
cannot be improved unless specific measures are undertaken to improve the
socio-economic status of women.
Aly and Quisi (1996) has discussed socio-economic factors that affect Kuwaiti
women’s labour market participation decision. The study concludes that females’ wage
rate and education are positively related with LFP rate. It has been also found that
marital status, the number of children and age is inversely related with LFP rate.
Malik et al. (1994) investigated the factors, which influenced female LFP in economic
activities. He has explored that women’s age, education and the number of dependents
do not significantly determine market time. Women labour supply is significantly and
positively affected by women wage rate and predicted male wage rate.
Ibraz (1993) investigated the women participation in productive activities that are
geared directly or indirectly towards productive utilities of some kind in his
village-based study for Rawalpindi district for the year 1989-1990. The study concluded
that institution of purdah and segregation of sexes, which confine women and their
activities to the private domains, act as effective cultural device in creating hindrance to
women productive roles.
Kozel and Alderman (1990) have analyzed the factors affecting work participation
and labour supply decision in the urban areas of Pakistan. He has used ordinary least
IJSE square regression and Tobit model to estimate the correlates. The study concludes that
38,2 the women work participation rises with an increase in the expected earning, wages and
level of education.
Status of women as second-class citizen was reinforced by the narrow vocational
opportunities available to them. They were discouraged from competing with men by
their upbringing and the overt discrimination they had to confront within the job
102 market. Moreover, different problems such as attitude of the society members, prejudice
and unrecognizing, which the working women encountered with regard to their status
and role in the economic life adversely affected the utilization of their talent and working
capabilities (Khalid, 1990).
A very few number of females are facing the husband’s opposition towards their jobs.
Reasons for those who do have the community and familial censure leading to male
ego-problems neglect of children, housework and female ill health. Relatives (in-laws)
criticize their paid employment because they are afraid of their morals will become loose;
they become too independent and forget their actual status (Hafeez, 1983).
Shah (1986) made an attempt to interpret the changes in women role in Pakistan between
1951 and 1981 and its adequacy in relation to national targets. The study concluded
that the socio-economic status (ownership of durable goods, husband’s education and
observance of purdah) of the family has a negative impact on women LFP decision.
In this age of inflation and rising prices, resulting of economic tension, the Pakistan
middle-class working women feel that it is incumbent upon them to contribute to their
family well beings, relieving anxiety in the hand-to-mouth existences.

3. Objective
The main objective of this study is to understand the specific aspects of women
employment in Pakistan related to:
(1) work participation;
(2) employment structure; and
(3) status of employment.

3.1 Work participation

The female work participation rate (FWPR) in developing countries is very low, and
Pakistan is no exception. Apart from uncertainty and inadequacy of concepts and
definitions used in measuring women’s employment which provides statistical
explanation, the real causes for their low employment are to be found in the religious
tradition, cultural values, the colonial ideology and the evolution of social institutions that
restrain women’s entry into labour market (Varghese, 1991 p. 203). Thus, social traditions,
in general, have come in the way of participation of women in the away-from-home
economic activities in all the countries (Papola, 1993, p. 49). But, the force of tradition had
been overcome by factors like literacy and education levels of women in countries where
women’s participation rates are higher in labour market. However, the common feature is
that women, as weaker section and on gender consideration, suffer from market
discrimination and hence, pushed to separate low-paying and low-status jobs (Townsend,
1988) – periphery in the context of employment or feminizations of occupations.
A distinct change is increasing levels in the LFP rates of women. LFPR increased as
per population census 27.57 per cent in 1981 and 31.98 per cent in 1998. There is a wide
variation between male and female LFP rates. It is 50.6 per cent for males as compared Employment
to only 2.1 for females in 1981 and it is 59.24 per cent for males as compared to only of women
2.23 for females in 1998, resulting in very low overall participation rate compared to
other countries, although the male participation rate is affected by the level of in Pakistan
industrialization, agricultural development, educational attainment, economic norms,
etc. but in case of Pakistan the participation rate is primarily offset by the low level of
female participation (Government of Pakistan, 1998). 103
During the last two decades, the participation rate of women in paid economic
activities has increased in almost all the countries and Pakistan is no exception. Results
show that during the period of (1990-2008), the work participation rates of males in
Pakistan decreased, while the participation rate of women is increased. A look at the
age-wise work participation rates reveal clearly the declining male participation rates
and inclining in the female participation rate (Table I).
Table I can also classify male and female age groups into three main categories:
(1) age (10-14): young group;
(2) age (25-29): adult age group; and
(3) age (55-59): old age group.

Between ten and 14 age groups, we can easily observe decline in male work
participation rates, which is mainly due to expansion of education; but the increasing
FWPR is shared by all age groups. Between (25 and 29) age group, we can observe
minute decline in male work participation rates while sharp increased in FWPRs due to
the multiple factors like high price level, high dependency ratio and high unemployment
rates prevailing in the country. Even in the old age group (55-59), we can observe slight
increase in male work participation rates due to the high inflation, high unemployment
and high poverty rate, but the increased in the FWPRs is shared by all age groups even
at the old age as well. In Figure 1, after viewing the results as a whole, the evidence is
overwhelming that the male-female difference in LFP rate has dropped sharply in
Pakistan between 1990-1991 and 2007-2008 (Table II). This may be a result of
changing social attitudes towards the participation of women in the workforce, or may

1990-1991 1999-2000 2007-2008

Age group Male Female Male Female Male Female

10-14 19.22 6.91 18.30 2.80 17.10 9.70

15-19 55.21 13.18 58.30 7.20 53.90 17.60
20-24 87.72 13.96 85.20 14.10 85.10 21.00
25-29 97.88 14.07 95.80 18.20 96.30 21.20
30-34 97.87 14.07 97.10 19.50 97.60 22.60
35-39 97.87 13.88 97.60 21.20 97.80 27.00
40-44 98.30 17.55 97.50 22.30 97.80 26.50
45-49 97.34 17.85 96.70 22.70 97.50 26.20
50-54 94.56 16.45 94.90 19.50 95.60 22.00
55-59 90.46 13.79 90.60 17.80 92.50 25.50
60 þ 62.04 8.69 60.70 13.00 59.50 15.50
Total 81.67 13.67 81.15 16.20 80.97 21.34 Table I.
Age-specific LFP rate
Source: Computed from the Federal Bureau of Statistics (1990-1991, 1999-2000, 2007-2008) (per cent)
IJSE 100.00
38,2
80.00

60.00

104 40.00

20.00

0.00
10-14 25-29 55-59
Male 1990 19.22 97.88 90.46
Female 1990 6.91 14.07 13.79
Male 2000 18.3 95.8 90.6
Female 2000 2.8 18.2 17.8
Male 2008 17.1 96.3 92.5
Figure 1. Female 2008 9.7 21.2 25.5
Age-specific LFP rate
Source: Federal Bureau of Statistics (1990-1991, 1999-2000, 2007-2008) on the
(per cent)
basis of three categories of male and female age groups

Percentage of change in
Differences of male-female between 1990 and 2008
Age group 1990-1991 1999-2000 2007-2008 Male Female

10-14 12.31 15.50 7.40 211.03 40.38

15-19 42.03 51.10 36.30 22.37 33.54
20-24 73.76 71.10 64.10 22.99 50.43
25-29 83.81 77.60 75.10 21.61 50.68
30-34 83.80 77.60 75.00 20.28 60.63
35-39 83.99 76.40 70.80 20.07 94.54
40-44 80.75 75.20 71.30 20.51 51.00
45-49 79.49 74.00 71.30 0.16 46.78
50-54 78.11 75.40 73.60 1.10 33.74
55-59 76.67 72.80 67.00 2.26 84.92
60þ 53.35 47.70 44.00 24.09 78.37
Table II. Total 68.00 64.95 59.63 20.857 56.10
Male-female differences
in labour force Sources: Computed from the Federal Bureau of Statistics (1990-1991, 1999-2000, 2007-2008) based on
participation rates Table I; percentage formula is given in Appendix 1

be the effect of years of governmental attempts to reduce discriminatory sentiment

against female workers (Javed and Birjees, 1993).
Between 1990 and 2008, the percentage change in men was 20.857 per cent, while for
women, it was 56.10 per cent. Another interesting fact is the difference in work participation
rates is an increasing function of all age groups of females but decline of males in age group
(10-14 and 45-49). In the case of men, there is smaller difference for younger age groups and
for women there are larger differences in work participation rates in the older age groups.
Thus, the figures between 1990 and 2008 point to the fact that work participation rates of Employment
women in Pakistan besides being high, increased rather sharply. No doubt, for males, of women
participation rates declined mainly to school age group, and for all age groups in respect of
males the decline in participation rates is marginal for all age groups between 20 and 58. in Pakistan
But for women, the rise is considerable and is to be seen in all age groups, leading to the
conclusion that women are largely being included in employment in Pakistan. This trend is
a common characteristic one in all South Asian countries, though varies widely between 105
countries. However, LFP rates for women have shown a rising trend after 1999-2000. But
this quantitative increase in female participation in market production has neither led to
qualitative improvements in their lives nor to equality of opportunity and treatment
between males and females at home and in the labour market.

3.2 Employment structure

The low levels of work participation apart and increasingly excluded from employment;
even this low proportion of women’s employment is mostly concentrated in sectors
known for low levels of productivity, incomes and stability and security of employment.
Employment distribution by industrial group shows that majorities of working females
are absorbed in agriculture, community service and manufacturing sectors. Agriculture
remained the main sector employing females. The second largest sector employing
females was manufacturing before 1990s and after 1990s it is community services. The
shift from manufacturing to community services could be due to a decline in industrial
activity in the country and the limited employment generating capability in the
occupations where females are concentrated. The share of female workers in the
construction sector is small but rising consistently, but the share of urban females
working in construction has remained stagnant, whereas in rural areas it has gone up.
The number of females employed in financial institutions increased during the 1980s,
but declined in the 1990s. Wholesale and retail trade is employing a growing fraction of
working females.
These adverse economic conditions may have a disproportionate effect on females as
they are concentrated in the low-paying and non-regulated section of the labour market.
In a sense, agriculture provides employment to majority of female work force.
Majority of the women in rural areas engage in agricultural activities as unpaid family
workers.
Table AI in Appendix 2 gives the clear pictures of percentage distribution of
employed persons ten years of age and above by major industry division, area and sex
reveal the fact more effectively that nearly 80 per cent of women workers are engaged in
agricultural activities. If shift in employment has taken place between 1990 and 2008,
major shift for women is from agricultural labourer category to cultivators. The major
finding of this paper is that, the status of women during these periods has shifted from
agricultural labourers to unpaid family workers. The share of women in household
industries increased (pharmaceutical and garment), but in the sector like service,
transport, storage and communication, the better paying ones, the share of women
surprisingly declined. The reasons could be the lack of skills and low literacy rate among
females.
According to the periods of 1990-1991 and 2007-2008, only marginal changes in the
employment of women by sectors are distinct. It means that women, compared to men,
are provided with either low-paying or unpaid work. Women are increasingly working
IJSE in the labour force but their voices are often excluded from international debates. The
38,2 unemployment rate for women is many times higher for every age group; they are last to
get jobs and first to lose them. There are no laws that contain explicit provisions for
equal remuneration for equal work for women, protection of women from sexual
harassment at workplaces, protection of labour rights for domestic workers and
protection of labour rights of home-based workers. Major barriers responsible for low
106 female participation rate include inadequate recognition of their contribution, women’s
immobility, ignorance about opportunities and societal perception of women as lower
status dependents. The major challenge is to create acceptance of a more public and
active role for them that opens the pathways for their empowerment (Country Gender
Profile Final Report, 2008).
Agriculture also is the dominant employment source of majority of females in most of
the South Asian countries. In Pakistan, for example, agriculture accounts for 65 per cent
of total employment, but women’s share is 73 per cent in this sector. In manufacturing
and community, social and personal services, nearly 2.41 and 2.18 per cent, respectively,
of all women workers in Pakistan are employed. Women workers in non-agricultural
activities (manufacturing and services) are bumped in low-wage occupations and
informal segments of these sectors. In professional, technical, administrative and
managerial categories, the employment of women is very low in Pakistan. The relative
quality of women could be known by their employment in the organized and unorganized
segments of manufacturing and services sectors. Majority of women in these two sectors
are employed in the unorganized sector, and hence their share in organized sector is very
low. In Pakistan, 90 per cent of total employment is in the unorganized sector, but,
a higher proportion of women workers are in this sector. In organized sector, women’s
share of employment is very small. Organized service sector is mostly government
services, and provides employment to a small proportion of women.
Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz in 2006 has approved Ministry of Women Development,
for reserving 10 per cent quota for women board in all government departments. This
10 per cent reserved quota is now extended up to 15 per cent. Apart from this, women
compete in the 90 per cent on open merit. This 10 per cent will further be increased with
the passage of time to the 50 per cent of the total population of Pakistan.
President Pervez Musharraf in 2008 took a landmark decision and ensured women’s
representation in political structures of the country through the reservation of 33 per cent
seats for them in all three tiers of local government and 17 per cent in the national and
provincial legislatures. The reservation of seats for women brought more than 40,000
women to the local government institutions and 205 in the national and provincial
assemblies and the Senate.
The pie charts are showing the percentage distribution of employed persons ten years
of age and above by major industry division (Figures 2-4).
Every job has been classified in terms of its industry, which refers to the production of
main goods or services at the work place. Figure 2 shows percentage distribution of
employed persons ten years of age and above by major industry division of both sexes.
Agriculture sector shows the highest percentage (47.46) of both sexes, community, social
and personal services, wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels
and manufacturing are the other sectors showing somehow the same participation
of sexes, i.e. 13.27, 13.24 and 12.23, respectively, while the other sectors show very low
contributions of both sexes.
 1990-91 Employment
0.89% 13.27% 0.06% of women
5.24%
in Pakistan
47.46%

107
13.24%

6.62%
0.83% 12.23% 0.15%

A B C D E F G H I J Figure 2.
Percentage distribution
Notes: Alphabets A-J represent different sectors: A, agriculture, forestry, hunting of employed persons
and fishing; B, mining and quarrying; C, manufacturing; D, electricity, gas and ten years of age and above
water; E, construction; F, wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels; by major industry division
G, transport, storage and communication; H, financing, insurance, real estate and (per cent) of year
business services; I, community, social and personal services; J, activities not 1990-1991
adequately defined

1999-00
14.20% 1.50%
0.00%

5.00%
48.40%

13.50%

5.80%
0.00% 11.60% 0.00%

A B C D E F G H I J Figure 3.
Percentage distribution
Notes: Alphabets A-J represent different sectors: A, agriculture, forestry, hunting of employed persons
and fishing; B, mining and quarrying; C, manufacturing; D, electricity, gas and ten years of age and above
water; E, construction; F, wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels; by major industry division
G, transport, storage and communication; H, financing, insurance, real estate and (per cent) of year
business services; I, community, social and personal services; J, activities not 1999-2000
adequately defined

Figure 3 shows percentage distribution of employed persons ten years of age and above
by major industry division of both sexes. Agriculture sector shows the highest
percentage (48.40 per cent) of both sexes, community, social and personal services,
wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels and manufacturing are the other
sectors showing somehow the same participation of sexes, i.e. 14.20, 13.50 and 11.60,
respectively, while the other sectors show very low contributions of both sexes.
IJSE 1.41%
13.66% 0.10%
38,2 5.46%

14.62%

108 44.65%

6.29%
0.7% 0.12%
12.99%

Figure 4. A B C D E F G H I J
Percentage distribution
Notes: Alphabets A-J represent different sectors: A, agriculture, forestry,
of employed persons
ten years of age and above hunting and fishing; B, mining and quarrying; C, manufacturing; D,
by major industry division electricity, gas and water; E, construction; F, wholesale and retail trade and
(per cent) of year restaurants and hotels; G, transport, storage and communication; H,
2007-2008 financing, insurance, real estate and business services; I, community, social
and personal services; J, activities not adequately defined

Figure 4 shows percentage distribution of employed persons ten years of age and
above by major industry division of both sexes. Agriculture sector shows the highest
percentage (44.65 per cent) of both sexes, community, social and personal services,
wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels and manufacturing are the other
sectors showing somehow the same participation of sexes, i.e. 13.66, 14.62 and 12.99,
respectively, while the other sectors show very low contributions of both sexes.
Of the total employed persons during 2007-2008 (44.6 per cent) were engaged in
agricultural and allied industry, which is 2.8 per cent points less as compared to
1990-1991 (47.45 per cent). The decline of employment in agriculture sector has been
noted for both males and females. However, the non-agriculture sector has experienced a
gain in employment. For instance, employment in manufacturing sector has increased
by more than 0.76 per cent points from 12.23 per cent in 1990-1991 to 12.99 per cent in
2007-2008 wholesale and retail trade and community, social and personal services each
has increased by 1 per cent and transport, storage and communication by about one
percentage point. Female employment in manufacturing sector has almost doubled from
1.68 per cent in 1990-1991 to 2.41 per cent in 2007-2008.

3.3 Status of employment

The employment status of the labour force yields interesting results. The percentage of
males in the group of self-employed increased over time. For females, unpaid family
helper (UFH) is the largest category of employment. Thus, the adverse labour market
situation for females is indicated not just by the rise in unemployment, but also by
the categorization of more than 50 per cent of the workers as UFHs. The share of UFHs
and self employed has changed. For the females, the share of UFH is lower and share
of self-employed is higher. The reason could be as mentioned earlier, better access
and coverage of areas where female activity is better recorded. Given the very small
fraction of educated employed females and the slow economic growth, currently it is
difficult to say whether the increase in education alone can help to improve the
employment status and consequently reduce poverty among females.
 Besides low representation of women in the government and public sector Employment
employment, women occupy a low share in regular wage and salary earners, i.e. jobs in of women
secure and stable category pointing to their status in employment. During the period of
1990-2000, the share of women as employers and self-employed increased slightly and in Pakistan
then decreased in year 2007-2008. Similarly, the share of women as employees increased
during 1990-2000 and then, declined during the period of 2007-2008 (Table III).
Another fact to be noted in the status of employment of women is the proportion of 109
main and marginal workers. This shows the type of employment women are associated
with and the insecurity and instability thrust upon them by the society. Surprisingly,
large percentage of women workers are in self-employed status, usually in agriculture
and other low-earning household-based activities as women workers form barely
27.10 per cent in the category of employees on wage or salary basis in 1990-1991 and
decreased to 22.00 per cent in 2007-2008. In 1990-1991, about 15.35 per cent of women
workers were self-employed and they are decreased to 12.80 per cent in 2007-2008. The
results show 57.28 per cent accounted for as UFHs, which is increased to 65.00 per cent in
2007-2008, leading to the conclusion that women are still at a disadvantage in
employment status.
The issue of underestimation of females’ contribution is widely discussed in the
literature. Comparison of female labour force participation rates (FLPR), under old and
improved definitions, reveals that FLPR increases substantially with improved
definition that means better coverage of activities. However, the larger inflow of female
labour force has also resulted in a higher unemployment rate among females.
It is generally opined that women are unwilling to join labour market and therefore,
their participation rates are very low. The rates of unemployment among women and
men are continuously changing over time both in rural and urban areas from 1990-1991
and 2007-2008. The picture continues even in 1990s though with less severity (Table IV).
In urban areas the unemployment rate has been observed higher than the rural
areas through out the period (1990-1991, 1999-2000 and 2007-2008).
The unemployment rate among males in urban areas has been slightly higher than
the unemployment rate among males in rural areas, whereas the unemployment rate
of females belonging to urban areas has almost been double of the females of the rural
areas during the period from 1999-2000 to 2007-2008. The figures reveal that
unemployment rates for women increased slightly, i.e. 16.83 to 17.30 per cent during
1990-2000 and then, decreased to 8.50 per cent in the year 2007-2008.

1990-1991 1999-2000 2007-2008

Employment Both Both Both
status sexes Male Female sexes Male Female sexes Male Female

Employers 1.68 1.88 0.26 0.80 0.90 0.10 0.90 1.20

Self-employed 42.25 46.12 15.35 42.20 46.40 16.70 34.20 39.60 12.80
Unpaid family
helpers 21.54 16.39 57.28 21.40 16.70 50.10 28.90 19.70 65.00
Employees 34.53 35.60 27.10 35.60 36.00 33.10 36.00 39.50 22.20 Table III.
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Distribution of employed:
employment status and
Source: Computed from the Federal Bureau of Statistics (1990-1991, 1999-2000, 2007-2008) sex (per cent)
IJSE
All areas 1990-1991 1999-2000 2007-2008
38,2
Total 6.28 7.80 5.20
Male 4.54 6.10 4.30
Female 16.83 17.30 8.50
Rural
110 Total – 6.94 4.70
Male – 5.43 3.90
Female – 14.04 6.90
Urban
Total – 9.92 6.30
Male – 7.46 5.00
Table IV. Female – 29.62 17.70
Unemployment rate by
area and sex (per cent) Source: Computed from the Federal Bureau of Statistics (1990-1991, 1999-2000, 2007-2008)

Although the unemployment rate in rural areas for both men and women is lower than
that in the urban areas, as shown in Table IV, the case in point is the quality and
productivity of employment in the rural areas. There is little evidence to show that levels
of wages have gone up in the rural areas of the country. There are no data available to
support or reject the contention that unemployment in the rural areas may have reduced
actually because of underemployment.
Owing to lack of authentic data or a study, it is not possible to comment on the creation
of employment in the informal sector. Similar is the case for the formal sector as well where
reliable data on employment generation through Pakistan’s Public Sector Development
Programme-funded projects and private sector employment are not generated regularly
due to lack of a properly functioning labour market information system.
Some changes in the pattern and structure of women’s employment are perceived in
Pakistan as in other South Asian countries. An analysis of structure of women
employment reveals some qualitative improvement. No doubt, majority of women are
employed in low wage, insecure jobs in the unorganized sector and lower level jobs in the
organized sector, at the same time the share of secure, better paid jobs in the organized
sectors appears to be higher in providing employment for women.
Recently after 1990-1991, faster growth of women’s employment is observed in
modern sectors like information technology and white-collar jobs which is mainly due to
increase in the educational levels of women. Also, the expansion of electronics and
garment sector in manufacturing provided more employment, for women.

4. Conclusion and policy implication

Women employment is small and status low though they are important pillars in society.
They are employed in unstable, insecure and ill-paid jobs. In the world, women constitute
one-third of total work force. During the last 19 years, the work participation rates of
women increased as compared to men. In respect of women work participation rates,
there are larger differences in the older age groups. Moreover, women’s employment is
mostly concentrated in sectors known for low levels of productivity, incomes and
stability and security of employment. Agriculture provides employment to majority of
female work force. It implies that women, in comparison with men, are provided with
either low-paying or unpaid work. In the higher paying jobs, and sectors also, the
employment of women is very much limited and their advancement is slow as against Employment
men. Another interesting fact is that in non-agricultural activities (manufacturing and of women
services) women are bumped in low-wage occupations and informal segments of these
sectors, consequently, their share in organized sector is very low. in Pakistan
Regarding the status of employment, women occupy a low position. They are mostly
employed in unsecured and unstable jobs with low salary. Surprisingly, large percentage
of women workers are in self-employed status, usually in agriculture and other 111
low-earning household-based activities as women workers form barely 27.10 per cent in
the category of employees on wage or salary basis in 1990-1991, and decreased to 22.00 in
2007-2008. In 1990-1991 about 15.35 per cent of women workers were self-employed and
they are decreased to 12.80 in 2007-2008. The results show 57.28 per cent accounted for
as UFHs which is increased to 65.00 per cent in 2007-2008, leading to the conclusion
that women are still at a disadvantage in employment status.
There is increasing levels in FLPRs. Though a part of it is poverty-induced
phenomenon, a larger part of it is to be traced to improve literacy and education levels of
women. There is some qualitative improvement in the employment, as women’s share in
secure and better paid jobs in, the organized sector appears to be higher. With the increase
in educational levels of women, faster growth of women’s employment is observed in
modern sectors and white-collar jobs. Government machinery, non-governmental
organizations and progressive political parties should focus on the education of women if
they want to enhance the status of women in Pakistan by implementing special schemes
and programmes for absorbing them into different occupations, particularly in organized
sector so as to improve their structures of employment as well as status of jobs.

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Shah, N.M., Abbasi, N. and Alam, I. (1976), “Inter-district and inter-provisional differentials in Employment
correlates of female labor force participation”, The Pakistan Development Review, Vol. 15
No. 4, pp. 424-45. of women
in Pakistan
Appendix 1. Age-specific labour force participation rate of males (ASLFPR)
Formula:
ASLFPR of male 2008 2 ASLFPR of male 1990 113
% change in between 1990 and 2008 of male ¼
ASLFPR of male 1990

ASLFPR of female 2008 2 ASLFPR of female 1990

% change in between 1990 and 2008 of female ¼
ASLFPR of female 1990

Appendix 2

1990-1991 1999-2000 2007-2008

All areas All areas All areas
Both Both Both
Major industry division sexes Male Female sexes Male Female sexes Male Female

Agriculture, forestry,
hunting and fishing 47.45 39.13 8.32 48.40 44.40 72.90 44.65 29.34 15.31
Mining and quarrying 0.15 0.15 0.12 0.11
Manufacturing 12.23 10.55 1.68 11.60 12.10 8.40 12.99 10.58 2.41
Electricity, gas and water 0.83 0.82 0.01 0.70 0.70
Construction 6.62 6.46 0.16 5.80 6.60 0.50 6.29 6.22 0.07
Wholesale and retail trade
and, restaurants and hotels 13.24 12.85 0.39 13.50 15.30 2.60 14.62 14.26 0.37
Transport, storage and
communication 5.24 5.18 0.07 5.00 5.80 0.20 5.46 5.42 0.04
Financing, insurance, real
estate and business services 0.89 0.87 0.03 1.41 1.36 0.05 Table AI.
Community, social and Percentage distribution of
personal services 13.27 11.33 1.94 14.20 14.10 15.10 13.66 11.48 2.18 employed persons ten
Activities not adequately years of age and above by
defined 0.06 0.06 1.50 1.70 0.30 0.10 0.10 major industry division,
Total 100.00 87.40 12.60 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 79.58 20.42 area and sex

Corresponding author
Mahpara Begum Sadaquat can be contacted at: s.mah.para@hotmail.com

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