BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering Department
2nd Semester, School Year 2019-2020

Geotechnical Engineering 02: Foundation Engineering_________________________________

COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL
In mechanics of material course, you learned that changes in the
normal stresses in any object always produce corresponding normal
strains, and the integration of these strains over the length of the
object is its deformation or displacement. Most civil engineering
projects impart load onto the ground, which produces corresponding
increase in the vertical stress. These stress increase in the vertical
effective stress induce vertical strains in the soil, which cause the
ground surface to move downward. We call this downward movement
settlement. When settlement occurs in a large area, it is sometimes
called subsidence.

The decrease in volume results from the reduction of the void ratio of
the soil extruding of water and air from the soil. If the saturated soil is
subjected to the weight of the structure and water is subsequently
squeezed out, the resulting soil compression can cause undue building
settlement. The settlement at the ground surface is the sum of the
elastic settlement, consolidation and secondary compression.

𝑆 = 𝑆𝐸 + 𝑆𝑃 + 𝑆𝑆

Immediate Elastic Settlement

It is caused by the elastic deformation of the soil without any change in

volume. It is the elastic compression of the underlying soil that takes place
immediately upon the application of the load on footing. When a saturated
compressible clay layer is subjected to a stress increase, elastic settlement
occurs immediately. This amount of settlement is usually very small.

𝑞𝐵(1 − µ2 )
𝑆𝐸 = 𝐼𝑝
𝐸

Primary Consolidation Settlement

It is caused by the increase in effective stress

caused by the external applied load in the soil
layer and will result to deformation in soil
mass, rearrangement of the soil particle and
the dissipation of water that occupies the
void spaces.

𝝈′ + ∆𝝈′ = 𝝈′ 𝒇

Consolidation

If any of you lacks wisdom, ask our generous God.

He will give it to you and will not rebuke you for asking.—James 1: 5
Sources of change in effective stress:

𝝈′ = 𝝈 − 𝒖

 Placement of large fill

Change in total stress
 Placement of finite sized external loads
 Change in groundwater table Change in pore water pressure

Piston and Spring Analogy

A piston and spring is located inside a

cylinder. The cylinder is filled with water and
small drain holes are present in the piston.
These components represent an element of
soil at some depth in the ground, with the
spring representing the soil solids, the water
representing the pore water, and the drain in
the holes representing the soil voids through
which the pore water must flow.

At a time we apply an additional load to the piston, the water carries virtually all additional load and the
water pressure increases. This additional pressure is known as the excess pore water pressure.

Consolidation (Oedometer) Test

To predict consolidation settlement in a soil, we need to know its stress-strain properties. This is normally
involves bringing a soil sample to the laboratory, subjecting it to a series of loads, and measuring the
corresponding settlements.

Pre-consolidation Stress

It is the greatest vertical effective stress that the soil has ever experienced. It is the stress on the point
where the slope of the consolidation curve changes. The effective stress at the point B on the graph above
and the point 2 on the graph below shows the pre-consolidation stress of the soil.

If any of you lacks wisdom, ask our generous God.

He will give it to you and will not rebuke you for asking.—James 1: 5
Elastic Deformation

All materials deforms when subjected to an applied load, if the material return to its original size and
shape when the load is released, it is said to have experienced elastic deformation. The graph (b) shows
the elastic deformation of soil during its loading.

Plastic Deformation

If all of this deformation is retained when the load is released, it said to have experienced plastic
deformation. The graph (c) shows the plastic deformation of soil during unloading.

Consolidation Curve

Consolidation tests are very sensitive to sample disturbance. Very high-

quality samples produce distinct curves. However, it is difficult to obtain pre-
consolidation stress from poor- quality samples because the curve near the
transition between the recompression and virgin curves becomes much
more rounded.

Cassagrande Procedure for Pre-consolidation Stress

Cassagrande developed methods of adjusting laboratory consolidation test results in attempt to

compensate for nominal sample disturbance effects. The Cassagrande procedure determine the pre-
consolidation stress from laboratory data.

1. Locate the point of the minimum radius on the consolidation

curve (point A).
2. Draw a horizontal line through point A.
3. Draw a line tangent to the laboratory curve at point A.
4. Draw the line that bisects the angle formed by the lines from
step 2 & 3.
5. Extend the straight portion of the virgin curve upward until it
intersects the bisecting line drawn in step 4. This identifies
point B. The vertical effective stress at point B is the pre-
consolidation stress.

Relation of Void Ratio, Strain & Consolidation Settlement

𝑽𝒗
𝒆= ∆𝒉
𝑽𝒔 𝜺=
𝒉
𝑽𝒗
𝒆= ∆𝒆
𝟏 𝜺=
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒐
𝒆 = 𝑽𝒗
𝑺𝑷
𝜺=
𝑯

Note! The change in the volume of void will reflect to the change in the height of the soil mass which is the
consolidation settlement.

If any of you lacks wisdom, ask our generous God.

He will give it to you and will not rebuke you for asking.—James 1: 5
Compression Indices:

For Compression Index, 𝑪𝑪 :

(It is the slope of the Virgin Curve)

𝑒𝑎 − 𝑒𝑏
𝐶𝐶 =
𝜎′
log ( ′ 𝑏 )
𝜎𝑎
𝐶𝐶
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
1+𝑒
For Recompression Index /Swelling Index, 𝑪𝑺:

(It is the slope of the Recompression Curve)

𝑒𝑐 − 𝑒𝑑
𝐶𝑆 =
𝜎′
log ( ′𝑑 )
𝜎𝑐
𝐶𝑆
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
1+𝑒
Empirical Formula for Compression Index, 𝑪𝑪 :

Skempton (for remolded clay) 𝐶𝐶 = 0.007 (𝐿𝐿 − 7)

(for undisturbed clay) 𝐶𝐶 = 0.009 (𝐿𝐿 − 10)

1+𝑒 2.38
Rendon – Herrero 𝐶𝐶 = 0.141 𝐺𝑆 1.2 ( )
𝐺𝑆

Nishida (for all clays) 𝐶𝐶 = 1.15(𝑒 − 0.27)

Nagaraj and Murty 𝐶𝐶 = 0.2342 𝐿𝐿(𝐺𝑆 )

Empirical Formula for Recompression Index /Swelling Index, 𝑪𝑺:

Nagaraj and Murty 𝐶𝑆 = 0.0463 𝐿𝐿(𝐺𝑆 )

1 1
The range of Cs in most cases 𝐶𝑆 ≅ 𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑜 𝐶
5 10 𝐶

Overconsolidated Soil Layer

This is the condition in where the vertical effective stress in the field
was once higher than its current magnitude. There are many process
that can cause the soil to become over-consolidated, including:

 Extensive soil erosion or excavation such that ground

surface elevation is now much lower than it once was.
 Surcharge loading from a glacier, which has since melted.
 Surcharge loading from a structure, such as storage tank,
which has since been removed.
 Increase in the pore water pressure, such as from a rising groundwater table.
 Chemical changes in the soil, such as accumulation of cementing agents.

𝝈′ + ∆𝝈′ = 𝝈′ 𝒇

Consolidation

If any of you lacks wisdom, ask our generous God.

He will give it to you and will not rebuke you for asking.—James 1: 5
For Overconsolidated Soil Layer:

When 𝜎 ′ 𝐹 > 𝜎 ′ 𝑐 and 𝜎 ′ 𝑐 > 𝜎 ′ :

𝑪𝑺 𝑯 𝝈′ 𝒄 𝑪𝑪 𝑯 𝝈′ 𝒇
𝑺𝑷 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( ′ ) + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( ′ )
𝟏+𝒆 𝝈 𝟏+𝒆 𝝈𝒄

When 𝜎 ′ 𝐹 < 𝜎 ′ 𝑐 and 𝜎 ′ 𝑐 > 𝜎 ′ :

𝑪𝑺 𝑯 𝝈′ 𝒇
𝑺𝑷 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( ′ )
𝟏+𝒆 𝝈

Oveconsolidation Parameter:

Overconsolidation Ratio:

𝜎′𝑐
𝑂𝐶𝑅 =
𝜎′
Overconsolidation Margin:

𝑂𝐶𝑀 = 𝜎 ′ 𝑐 − 𝜎 ′

Normally Consolidated Soil Layer

The soil is said to be normally consolidated if it is currently at its highest

vertical stress it has been experienced.

When 𝜎 ′ 𝑐 = 𝜎 ′ :

𝑪𝑪 𝑯 𝝈′ 𝒇
𝑺𝑷 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( ′ )
𝟏+𝒆 𝝈

Underconsolidated Soil Layer

The soil is said to be underconsolidated when the initial effective stress is greater than the
preconsolidation stress, which means that the soil is in the process of consolidating under a previously
applied load.

Compressibility of Sands & Gravel

The principle of consolidation apply to all soils, but the consolidation described above and the methods
of assessing consolidation status in the field stated, are primarily applicable to clay and silts. It is very
difficult to perform reliable consolidation test on most sands because they are more prone to sample
disturbance, and this disturbance has a significant effect on the test results

If any of you lacks wisdom, ask our generous God.

He will give it to you and will not rebuke you for asking.—James 1: 5
Another characteristic of sand and gravel are their high hydraulic conductivity, which means any excess
pore water drains very quickly. Thus, the rate of consolidation is very fast, and typically occurs nearly as
the load is applied.

Secondary Consolidation Settlement

It is caused by plastic adjustment of soil fabrics.

It is an additional form of compression that
occurs at constant effective stress with respect
to time. It is primarily due to particle
reorientation, creep and decomposition of
organic materials. It always time dependent.
𝑪𝜶 𝑯 𝒕
𝑺𝑺 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( )
𝟏 + 𝒆𝑷 𝒕𝑷

where:

𝒕 It is the time after the application of load.

𝒕𝑷 It is the time required to complete consolidation settlement. In theory, this is

infinite, but for practical problems we can assume it occurs when 95% of the
consolidation in the field is complete.

Secondary Compression Index, 𝑪𝜶

It defines the rate of secondary compression. It can be defined either in terms of either void ratio or strain:
∆𝒆
𝑪𝜶 = −
∆𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝒕)
𝑪𝜶
𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 =
𝟏 + 𝒆𝑷

Void Ratio at the end of Consolidation Settlement, 𝒆𝑷

For Over-Consolidated Soil Layer:

When 𝜎 ′ 𝐹 > 𝜎 ′ 𝑐 and 𝜎 ′ 𝑐 > 𝜎 ′ :

𝝈′ 𝒄 𝝈′ 𝒇
𝒆𝑷 = 𝒆 − 𝑪𝑺 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( ) − 𝑪 𝑪 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( )
𝝈′ 𝝈′ 𝒄

When 𝜎 ′ 𝐹 < 𝜎 ′ 𝑐 and 𝜎 ′ 𝑐 > 𝜎 ′ :

𝝈′ 𝒇
𝒆𝑷 = 𝒆 − 𝑪𝑺 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( ′ )
𝝈

For Normally Consolidated Soil Layer:

When 𝜎 ′ 𝑐 = 𝜎 ′ :

𝝈′ 𝑭
𝒆𝑷 = 𝒆 − 𝑪𝑪 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( )
𝝈′

If any of you lacks wisdom, ask our generous God.

He will give it to you and will not rebuke you for asking.—James 1: 5
Problem 01

A 2.1 layer of clay is buried beneath a 3m stratum of very compact granular soil. Compact sand underlies
the clay. The layer of granular soil is composed of material having a unit weight of 20.46 kN/m3. The clay
unit weight is 16.52 kN/m3. A laboratory compression test on a sample of the clay indicates a compression
index of 0.40 and a natural void ratio of 1.30. A planned building loading will cause a 26.38kPa stress
increase at the middle of the clay layer. The past maximum pressure was 95.94kPa and the Cs value was
0.10

a. What amount of primary compression occurs in the clay for the indicated conditions?

b. How much primary compression of the clay layer would result if the groundwater table was at the
ground surface (all other condition remains)?

Problem 02
𝐶𝛼
A soft clay with a height of 10m has a property of secondary compression ratio ( ) of 0.018. Assuming
1+𝑒𝑃
that the consolidation settlement will be 95% complete 40 years after the fill placed, compute the
secondary compression settlement that will occur over the next 30 years.

Problem 03

Assume a buried stratum of clay 1.83m thick will be subjected to a stress increase of 33.6kPa at the center
of the clay. The magnitude of the pre-construction soil overburden pressure Po= 48kPa at the center of
clay layer. A laboratory compression test indicates that the clay has a pre-consolidation pressure of 72kPa.
Compression index is 0.30 and the value of swell index is 0.05. Void ratio of clay is 1.50.

a. Compute the settlement due to primary compression of clay.

b. If full consolidation settlement will require approximately 8 years, compute the settlement due
to secondary compression of clay over a period of 20 year time span. Assume secondary
compression index 0.008.

c. Estimate the total settlement to be expected over 20 year time span considering the effect of
secondary compression.

Problem 04

A rigid 3m square footing is concentrated over a loose sand layer as shown on the figure. It carries a total
load of 710kN. Compute the elastic settlement of the 3m footing if the poisson’s ratio of soil is 0.32,
modulus of elasticity of soil is 16MPa, influence factor is 0.88.

Problem 05

The figure shows a soil formation of 5m sand and 6m clay. The

groundwater table is 4m below the ground surface. If a fill with a
unit weight of 17kN/m3 and a height 2m is placed on the ground,
find:
𝜸 = 𝟏𝟓𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 = 𝟏𝟔𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑
a. The primary consolidation settlement of the clay layer if it
is normally consolidated with a compression index of 0.38
and a void ratio of 1.52.

b. The total consolidation settlement of the clay 5 years after 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 = 𝟏𝟖𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑

the completion of primary consolidation settlement. Time

for completion of primary settlement is 2 years.
Secondary compression index is 0.02

If any of you lacks wisdom, ask our generous God.

He will give it to you and will not rebuke you for asking.—James 1: 5
Problem 06

The sand in the figure has a height of 4.8m. The groundwater table
is 3.4m below the ground surface. The unit weight of sand above
the water table is 17.31 kN/m3 and has a saturated unit weight of
18.10 kN/m3 below the water table. The sand overlies a clay layer
1.2m thick having a saturated unit weight of 16.5 kN/m3 and a void
ratio of 1.70. The over consolidation ratio is 2.0. Compression
Indices are Cs = 0.04 and Cc = 0.35.

If a square footing 3m x 3m resting on the sand layer carries a

column load of 3500 kN. The base of the footing is 1.2m below the
ground surface, compute the settlement due to consolidation of
the clay layer.

Problem 07

A soil profile is shown in the figure. Laboratory consolidation tests were conducted on a specimen
collected from the middle of the clay layer. The field consolidation curve interpolated from the laboratory
test results is also shown. Calculate the settlement in the field caused by primary consolidation for a
surcharge of 48 kN/m2 applied at the ground surface.

Problem 08

Two footing “A” and “B” rest in a layer of sand 2.7m thick. The bottom of the footings are 0.90m below
the ground surface. Beneath the sand layer is 1.8m clay layer. Beneath the clay layer is a hard pan. The
water table is at a depth of 1.8m below the ground surface. The layer of granular soil is composed of
material having a saturated unit weight of 20.46 kN/m3 and a unit weight of 18.45 kN/m3. The clay
saturated unit weight is 16.52 kN/m3. A laboratory compression test indicates that the clay has a pre-
consolidation pressure of 72kPa. Compression index is 0.30 and the value of swell index is 0.05. Void ratio
of clay is 1.50. Determine:

a. The stress increase at the center of clay layer assuming that footing “A”, with a dimension 2m x
1.8m, distributes a pressure at an angle of 2 vertical to 1 horizontal.

b. The size of the square footing “B” so that the settlement of the clay layer is the same beneath
footing “A” and “B”.

c. Determine the settlement beneath footing “A”.

Note! Neglect the effect of the load of the two footing with each other.

If any of you lacks wisdom, ask our generous God.

He will give it to you and will not rebuke you for asking.—James 1: 5