WELL LOGGING IN THE U.S.S.R.

C
bY
Richard L. Caldwell
Mobil Oil Corporation
Field Research Laboratory
Dallas, Texas

ABSTRACT

Logging research in the U.S.S.R. is carried out in a number of in-

sti tutes, including (1) in Moscow the All-Union Research Institute for
Nuclear Geophysics and Geochemistry, the I. M. Gubkin Institute for the
Petrochemical and Gas Industry, and the All-Union Scientific Research
Institute of Geophysics (VNI I) and (2) in various branches of these in-
stitutes outside of Moscow, as for example the Volga-Ural Branch of VNI I.

International conferences on well logging were held in Poland in

1962 and in 1965. A U.S. exchange delegation visit to the Soviet Union
in 1965 included many aspects of well logging. From these meetings and
the published Russian language literature on well logging, the author
has compiled a review of recent developments in well logging in the
U.S.S.R. The principal topics covered in this review are acoustical and
nuclear logging methods and log interpretation.

Acoustic logs are used in open and cased holes in much the same
way as in the U.S. - acoustic velocity logs for porosity; acoustic ampli-
tude logs for studying the elastic properties of rocks, for fracture
location and for indicating cement bonding of casing.

A variety of radioactivity logs are in widespread use. The gamma-

gamma log has been developed
primarily for evaluation of cement behind
pipe and in minerals prospecting; it is used to a lesser extent for form-
ation density determination. Pulsed neutron logs are in widespread use
and are run in both open and cased holes.

Log interpretation work includes studies of high salinity formation

waters and high sal ini ty muds, identification of fractured reservoirs,
and the use of computers for log analysis. Computers are used in gamma-
ray log interpretation; to provide a lithologic log from the combi,nation
of several logs; and by means of “self-learning” programs to make statis-
tical analyses of suites of logs for providing various geological and geo-
physical parameters.

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I NTRODUCTI ON

In the U.S.S.R. well logging includes all methods for obtaining inform-
ation using instruments lowered into the borehole - electrical, acoustic,
nuclear, caliper, magnetic and other logs; sampling (cores, liquid and gas)
and other well techniques such as perforating and logging while drilling.
These activities all come under the heading of Industrial Geophysics.

Two international conferences on well logging have been held in Poland,

one in September 1962 in Krakow and the other in October 1965 in Warsaw.
The Russians were well represented at both conferences. In the fall of 1965,
a U.S. exchange delegation in petroleum geophysics visited the Soviet Union;
their discussions included many aspects of well logging - research, field
operations, and interpretation. This paper is based on attendance at these
meetings and on the published Russian language literature on recent develop-
ments in well logging.

As a member of the U.S.A.-U.S.S.R. petroleum geophysics exchange, visits

were made to eleven different technical activities in four areas of the
U.S.S.R. These are listed in Table I. At the symposia in Poland on nuclear
geophysics, Russian scientists were present from a number of these activities
plus many others which we had not visited in the U.S.S.R. Pub1 ications in
the field of logging continue to be numerous, as indicated by the bibliogra-
phy of recent titles at the end of this paper.

The principal topics which I shall discuss are acoustic and nuclear
logging and log interpretation. A brief description will be given of a
borehole camera for seeing fractures. In acoustic logging, the principal
center is the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Geophysics (VNII)
in Moscow and its Volga-Ural Branch in Oktyabriskiy. At the branch insti-
tute considerable effort is devoted to electrical logging (particularly the
laterolog) and to log interpretation, including experiments with cores and
the use of computers for processing well logging data. In nuclear logging
the two outstanding institutes are in Moscow: the Gubkin Institute and the
Institute of Nuclear Geophysics and Geochemistry. Computer usage is also
an important part of the work of these institutes. At the Gubkin Institute
approaches to log analysis using pattern recognition techniques have been
developed.

TRAINING OF LOGGING ENGINEERS

In the Soviet Union the bulk of basic scientific research is concen-

trated in the specialized institutes of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, not
in the universities, which are primarily devoted to teaching. Th i s separa-
tion of the instruction-oriented university and the research-oriented academy
institute is one of many differences between American and Russian science.
The training of technical personnel for the petroleum industry is carried out
primarily in technical institutes where the separation is not so sharp since
both research and teaching functions are combined in one place. One of these
institutes which we visited is concerned with the training of geophysicists,
engineers and other technical personnel for the oil industry. This is the
Moscow Institute of the Petrochemical and Gas Industry, also called the Gub-
kin Institute, named for I. M. Gubkin, one of Russia’s outstanding geologists,
Its function is to train specialists for all phases of the oil and gas indus-
try from exploration to transportation. Its history dates back to 1918 when

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 TABLE I

C
Technical Activities Visited on Tour of Petroleum Geophysics in the U.S.S.R.

1. U.S.S.R. State Ministry for Geology, Moscow.

2. All-Union Geophysical Research Institute for the Oil Industry,

Moscow.

3. All-Union Geological Research Institute for the Oil Industry,

Moscow.

4. Moscow Institute of the Petrochemical and Gas industry (1-M.

Gubkin Institute), Moscow,

5. Volga-Ural Branch of the A 11-Union Geophysical Research lnst itute,

Oiktyabriskiy, Bashkirian A .S.S.R. (VUFNI BGeofizika),

6, Bashkirian Oil and Gas Exp loration Trust, Oktyabriskiy.

70 Krasnodar Branch of the All-Union Geophysical Research Institute.

8. All-Union Geological Oil Research Institute, Leningrad.

9. All-Union Geological Research Institute, Leningrad.

10. Moscow State University Geophysics Department.

11. Pseople's Exhibition of Economic and Industrial Achievement,

Geology-Geophysics Pavilion.

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Lenin ordered the founding of the Moscow Mining Academy. Today the Gubkin
Institute has 13,000 students (5,000 full time), including its six branches
outside of Moscow. The faculties include petroleum geology; geophysics and
geochemistry; petroleum industry chemistry and technology; mechanics; radio-
activity, electronics and automation; and economics and social science. This
is the largest school of higher education for the training of scientific and
engineering staff and for scientific investigations in the field of oil, gas
and petrochemicals. In the period from 1940 to 1965 there were 12,000 grad-
uates. The library contains 500,000 volumes; teaching faci 1 ities include the
use of movies, language phonograph laboratories, electronic computers and
teaching machines. The chair in well logging is held by Professor V. N.
Dakhnov, the author of many significant texts on this subject. The staff in
well logging publishes many papers in the institute proceedings, in Soviet
journals and in nomographs and books devoted exclusively to well logging. A
number of these are listed in the bibliography.

During the normal study course students obtain a broad training in gen-
eral engineering as well as specialized training related to petroleum in-
dustry problems. As a rule during the last co1 lege years, students combine
their education with practical experience at the enterprise in which they
will have to work after their graduation. The number of graduate students
is about 400. Graduate students are guided by leading scientists of the
Institute who are also recognized leaders in the field of oil, gas and petro-
chemicals. The Institute includes many recreational facilities including a
gymnasium, shoot i ng range, access to swimming pools, etc. The program of
general study includes indoctrination of students in Marx-Lenin philosophy
by required courses in the department of Social Sciences.

In the faculty of gas and oil geology there are departments in:

A. Geology of Exploration for Oil and Gas Deposits

1. Theoretical fundamentals of oil and gas exploration - Prof.

A. A. Baki rov
2. Industrial oil and gas geology - Prof. M. A. Zhdanov

B. Geophysical Methods of Exploration for Commercial Mineral Deposits

1. Industrial Geophysics (Well Logging) - Prof. V. N. Dakhnov

2. Field Geophysics (Seismic, Gravity, Electric, Magnetics, etc.) -
Prof. L. A. Ryabinkin.

The industrial Geophysics Section teaches and does research on electrical,

radioactive, magnetic, and other methods of well logging; prepares geological
cross sect ions; determines the presence of economic deposits; obtains necess-
ary data for structural reconstructions; calculates oil and gas reserves; and
plans field development programs. They also study the condition of producing
wells and fracturing operations.

Another institute, also in Moscow but which we did not visit, is heavily
committed to nuclear logging research - The Al I-Union Research Institute of
Nuclear Geophysics and Geochemistry. The head of the nuclear research here
is Professor F. A. Alekseev. He is the author of numerous significant pape rs
in the field of nuclear logging and geochemistry and has edited a series of
important books entitled Nuclear Geophysics. These books have been especia 1lY
useful for following the progress of nuclear logging work in the U.S.S.R.

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ACOUSTIC LOGGING

In the early 1960s, borehole experiments on acoustic logging for por-

osity (compressional wave velocity) and fracture location (amp1 i tude) were
conducted by N. I. Khalevin eng coworkers in the Siberian Branch of the
Academy of Science, U.S.S.R. ’ They used pulsed sources and continuous
C
waves at 85 and 2,000 cycl es/second. Of the two frequencies the higher one
gave better differentiation of lithology and of fractured, porous zones;
fractured intervals were indicated by a sharp decrease in the intensity of
the dominant harmonic waves. They found little correlation between velocity
and attenuation. Using a low frequency transmitter and pulses, they obtained
Lamb waves whose amplitudes correlated with fracture porosity, as seen in
Figure 1. As an illustration of their measurements they used a distance of
five meters between transmitter and receiver and measured the maximum ampli-
tude of the received signal. At station recordings every three to four meters
over a 100 meter interval, they observed the complete wave. In zones indicat-
ed by cores to be fractured 1 imestone, they found maximum attenuation of the
amplitude of the Lamb’s wave and concluded this to be the most sensitive part
of the wave train to heterogeneities in the rock. They decided that contin-
uous logging of the maximum amplitude of the Lamb’s wave would be an effect-
ive way of locating fractured limestones. Al though they recorded waves in
cased holes too, they found the results here less definitive although reflect-
ing to a considerable extent the physical properties of the rocks.

At the Geophysics Institute in Moscow (VNII), Mrs. T. V. Shcherbakova

described to us acou tic amplitude measurements for studying the elastic
propert i es of rocks.
t The acoustic tool she described is designated LAK-1
and operates on 3-conductor cable. The tool has two magnetostrictive trans-
mi tters (frequency 35-40 KC) and one piezoelectric receiver above them. The
barium ti tunate receiver has a resonance frequency of 120 KC. The trans-
mitters are directional and the instrument is pressed against the side of the
borehol~ e by a bowspri ng. The receiver to first transmitter spacing is 1.25
meters and the distance between transmitters is 0.7 meters; the overall tool
length is 3.5 meters and the diameter is 10.2 cm. Logging speed is 3,000
meters per hour. Each transmitter is on for 10 microseconds to give a 20
microseconds cycle. Amplitude modulation of an oscilloscope trace is used
to give a presentation of the acoustic wave train similar to our microseismo-
graph. Frequency analysis of the received signal can be made by stopping
the logging tool.

Two records are presented on the LAK log (see Figure 2). One channel
records the oscillations received by the receiver due to the pulse from the
close transmitter; the other channel records the oscillations received from
the pulse sent by the remote transmitter. Usually a time scale in fractions
of a second is given at the top of the log. An optical system is used to
transfer the traces on the scope to recording, photographic paper. The micro-
seismogram recording does not give accurate determinations of the velocity,
especially if the velocity is large, but is used rather to study amplitude
and frequency characteristics. The signal pattern changes in going from
shaly carbonate to clean carbonate to gas-saturated carbonates (extinction
of the direct wave), to water-saturated sandstones. Hi gher frequencies are
seen in carbonates than in sandstones. Model studies have shown that frac-
tured rocks have lower velocity and lower amp1 itude. Shear waves are more
sensiti’ve to fractures (greater reduction of amplitude) and hence, have a

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 FIGURE 1
RESULTS OF ACOUSTIC PULSE LOGGING

LAMB’S WAVE AMPLITUDE AVERAGE VELOCITY IN m/set

0
- 2 000 - 4000 t50130

Light and porous

siliceous rock

End of casing

Fractured, porous (3%) 1

limestone t

Fractured, porous (8%)

limestone

Tight limestone i
i

1. LAMB’S WAVE VELOCITY

2. TRANSVERSE WAVE VELOCITY
3. LONGITUDINAL WAVE VELOCITY
(After N.I. Kholevin)

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 C

FIGURE 2
EXAMPLE OF LA K LOG
l-CLAY, 2-SANDSTONE, 3-LIMESTONE
4-SHALY LIMESTONE 5-ANHYDRITE
(After G.V. Dakhnov, A.L. Perel’man, G.Ya. Rabinovich and
T.V. Shcherbakova)

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greater extinction rati o. For determination of the velocity of clean
rot ks , the Wylie equati on is used with good results. For other rocks, they
use the Kozlov theoreti cal equation rather than that of Gassman. Neverthe-
less, determination of porosity of shaly rocks is still a problem.

In some cases, a disturbed zone is seen in the rock close to the bore-
hole, due to mechanical stresses of drilling and/or invasion of drilling
fluid. This is especially important when there is drilling fluid invasion
into gas-bearing rocks, thereby causing a variation in the observed acous-
tic velocity. By using sufficiently long spacings the effect of the dis-
turbed zone on velocity determinations can be avoided.

LAK logs have been successfully used to identify various rock litho-
logies; the basis for this subdivision isthe difference in the velocities
of wave propagation and the difference inattenuation of various rock types.
Salts and anhydrite can be differentiated on the LAK log from shales and
sandstones by high velocity. Halite is characterized by a long duration of
the acoustic si gnal . The LAK logging has been especially useful for litho-
logy identification under conditions where the drilling fluid is strongly
mineralized, in which case neither the electrical nor the neutron log may
be reliable. Gas-bearing layers can be distinguished on the LAK log by in-
creased attenuation. Several reservoirs were discovered this way in wells
of the Stary region. Fractured zones are seen on the LAK logs by a sudden
decrease of the phase line and of the duration of the wave pattern. At the
present time, there are no data showing the degree of accuracy of distinguish-
ing fractured rocks by the LAK diagrams.

Acoustic velocity and amplitude logs are in general field use. Where
both logs are desired, usually two sondes are used - one for velocity and
one for amplitude, requiring two trips into the hole. We saw two acoustic
logging tools, each having a single transmitter and two receivers, one
meter apart. In one tool the transmitter-to-first-receiver spacing was 1.5
meters and in the other, 2.5 meters. The difference in travel time between
the two receivers is recorded. For amplitude logging three cycles of the
compressional wave (using a window about 125 microseconds wide) are used,
and the average amplitude based on the area under the oscillations is re-
corded. Thus, the amplitude log in common field use for fracture location
is a compressional amplitude log. As usual, fractures are indicated by a
1ower amp1 i tude, The amplitude logs which we saw taken with this system
showed large calipe r and shale effects, and our hosts agreed that these ef-
fects severely 1 imi t ed the usefulness of this log for fracture location.

For cement eva 1uation acoustic amplitude and scattered gamma-ray logs
are used. The LAK ogs referred to in the preceding paragraphs are also
used for cement eva 1 uation. In uncemented parts of the hole, the log shows
casing collars. In sections of the hole where the cement bonding is good,
the amplitude drops; in some cases, where the cement is especially good, the
velocity of the formation was obtained, although it was stated that this is
not true compressional velocity of the rock. We saw examples of logs taken
in a well requiring a cement repair job in which logs were run before and
after the squeeze job. In another example we saw how the amplitude changes
as the cement seizes the pipe; logs were run at one-hour intervals for the
first six hours and every 24 hours for several days. These data were com-
pared with the results of laboratory studies on the sealing of cement using
a steel pipe with the cement ring around the outside of it. Various degrees

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of bonding were achieved by a sector having no cement. The results of
these laboratory experiments are compared with signals obtained in the
field from a regular logging tool, in an effort to evaluate the use of the
acoustic log for indicating quality of cement.
C
V. I. Soroko, et al, describe in a Soviet patent a sonar device for
the investigation of the shape of cavities formed by leaching of salt de-
posits.5 This is similar in principle to the Dowel1 service in this coun-
try. A continuous tie-in is made to magnetic north to give the orienta-
tion 0.f the acoustic signal. The acoustic transducer is stationary but a
rotating reflector permits scanning of the walls of the cavity through a
full 360” at any particular depth of the tool in the cavity. The use of
a stationary transducer and rotating reflector eliminates the use of rotat-
ing contacts in the input to the amplifier. The rotating reflector oper-
ates under the high hydrostatic pressure at the depth of the tool. The
surface recording is a circular plot consisting of radial vectors; the
length of each vector is a measure of the radius of the cavern at that
azimuth.

BOREHOLE PHOTOGRAPHY

We were shown several examples of photographs of Lorehole walls taken

for studying fractures in oi 1 and gas reservoi r rocks. Quantitative eval-
uation of the distribution of fractures is of practical and scientific in-
terest in the study of fractured reservoi rs. A borehole camera was develop-
ed for fracture location because experience showed that acoustic amplitude
and so1Iic logs were often unreliable for fracture diagnosis, primarily be-
cause of caliper and shale effects. The downhole camera was developed by
VUFNI IGeofiziki. The camera, in a hermatically sealed case with a diameter
of 11 cm and a length of about 1.5 m, is lowered into the hole on a single
conductor logging The camera case has a viewing
cable. window of thick,
clear glass with a diameter of 6 cm. A mi rror at the window reflects the
borehole wall image into the camera lens. The window is pressed against
the borehole wall by a bowspring; the diameter of the photographed portion
is abolJt 7 cm. The fi lm is normal 35 mm; the cassette capacity is 240
frames for one trip into the hole.

In order to obtain pictures upon completion of drilling, the mud is

removed from the hole and replaced by fresh, reasonably clear water. To
avoid excessive turbidity of the water, the photographs are usually taken
during the descent of the camera into the hole, Orientation of the camera
is not known. Sample photographs taken in carbonate rock are given in
Figure 3; as many as four fractures are seen in the
7 cm diameter pictures.
Some of the fractures are 2 mm in width. The photographs are used to de-
termine a coefficient of fracture density. However, they have found that
the density of fractures has
no appreciable practically
relation to the
productivity index of a well. , productivity Rather
depends mainly on the
presence of fractures with large openings. We1 1s having no coarse fractures
show ploor productivities or no production at all. Fluid flow, i f achieved
at all, i5 only after repeated acid treatment. A nomograph published in
Leningrad in 1962 is devoted to the problem of rock fractures and oil and
gas reservoi rs .7

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 FIGURE 3
EXAMPLES OF BOREHOLE PHOTOGRAPHY
COMPUTEIR ANALYSIS OF LOG DATA

In the analysis of geophysical and geological data the volume of

data to be handled is often large and the accuracy of the ,interpretation
is directly related to the experience of the interpreter, the complexity C
of the initial information and the operations performed upon it. Corn-
puters can be used to handle large amounts of data, make corrections to
the basic data, perform calculations, and carry out a logical investiga-
tion of the data according to some predetermined method. In addition,
statistical and pattern recognition techniques can be used for data analy-
sis in a manner different from that usually used by the geophysical in-
terpreter or log analyst. Both approaches to computer processing of well
log data have been used in the U.S.S.R.

One of the early examples of the first approach was made in 1962
when L., I. Vyatkin pub1 ishe an algorithm for the interpretation of gamma
ray logs for uranium assay. !I The program was written to include the im-
portant parameters affecting a natural gamma ray log, starting with the
usual iinterpretation formula:

s “1 “2
Q = KohK
P

whe re : Q- mean uranium content in the ore body, in percent

s - area of the anomaly on the log, pr/hr.cm
h - apparent thickness of the anomaly as seen on the log , cm
radioactive equilibrium coefficient
KP -
“1 - correction for absorption in the drilling fluid
“2 - correction for absorption in the housing of the logg ing
tool and/or casing
115 pr/hr/.Ol% U
K. -

This application is, of course, simply a straightforward use of the com-

puter to perform corrections and calculations formerly made by hand. Only
the portions of the gamma ray logs which show anomalies (high readings)
are punched onto the tape for analysis by the computer. The simple algorithm
developed for this analysis led to the programming of geophysical problems
more compl icated structurally and logically.

Allso about 1962, computers began to be used to evaluate various em-

pirical relations of well log data and rock properties. The computer was
useful for making
statistical comparisons of laboratory core data and
field ‘log data. For example, a number of papers had been pub1 ished show-
ing empirical relations between resistivity log data and core permeability.
One of these relations, by Pernikov, was a method of finding the permeabil-
i ty of oi 1 saturated zones from “the geophysical parameter of filtration”
determined from the specific resistivities of the oil layer and the zone
invaded by mud f i 1 trate. He had derived an empirical correlation claimed
to be valid for continental Middle Paleozoic rocks of Bashkir and Tatary.
Petroslyan applied the method to core and log data from 161 wells in the
Tuimazy oil field and to 18 wells from two other fields, using a computer
to perform the calculations and make the comparison of core permeability
and log derived permeabi 1 i ty.9 Petros ‘yan concluded that Pernikov’s re-
sults were completely unsubstantiated and he declared them to be invalid

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for application in
the Volga-Ural province or in any other region. Other
relations, such as
resistivity to porosity and relative resistivity to
volume moisture content of soils, were evaluated for their appl icabi 1 i ty
under definite geological conditions. In many cases statistical testing
did not sustain the recommendations of the advocates of the methods. From
these evaluations a number of statistical methods for studying properties
of reservoir rocks using geophysical data and, in particular, well log data
were developed. A long (44 pages) paper by A. I. Solomasov discusses
statistical methods for obtaining curves relating geophysical data and
properties of reservoir rocks and their application to the study of data
from individual wells and from a large area.10

A. Statistical Methods

The goal of a statistical interpretation of geophysical data is

the establ ishment of meaningful, useful relations between geophysical para-
meters and reservoir properties as determined by core measurements and
actua 1 product ion. The first steps of the statistical approach are the
selection of the geophysical properties to be used, the choice of the
initial combination of properties to be tried (which the author calls a
complex), determination of the correlations between the geophysical data
and reservoir rock properties, and analysis of the effect of errors in
the basic data (both geophys ica 1 and reservoir) . Solomasov develops
these concepts for correlation of two properties - geophysical and reser-
voir - and then applies the method to specific geological problems such as
the making of a map of mean permeabi 1 ity of a given zone in an oil field.

In general, the more geophysical values included in the complex,

the more favorable are the results. However, the complexity of correlation
increases with increase in the number of values used, He further treats
the accuracy of reservoir properties as determined from geophysical data
by the use of the derived correlation dependence. This is, of course,
the principal question in the analysis of the method: how good is the
result obtained from geophysical data (e.g. well logs) using the statis-
tical treatment? Finally, he evaluates the practical applicability of
the relation by using it on actual field data for a number of different
purposes. These include: (1) to revea 1 differences between separate
zones in a we1 1, (2) to study reservoir property variations over an area,
(3) to calculate mean values of a reservoir property in a given formation
or zone, (4) to plot maps of the mean values of the reservoir property
for blocks of land, and (5) to plot maps of equal values of a geophysical
property.

The conclusions of the author at the end of his paper are given in
Appendix I. The calculations called for in this statistical treatment can
be programmed for a computer. The 1964 book, Problems of Nuclear Geo-
phys i cs , edi ted by A. I. Kholin of the Gubkin Institute in Moscow, contains
several papers on the use of computers for the processing and interpreta-
t ion of geophys i ca 1 data. ” Appendix II is the table of contents of this
book. A new book in 1966 edited by Sh. A. Guberman, also of the Gubkin
Institute, is devoted exclusively to eological and geophysical interpre-
tations through the use of computers. 72
Appendix I I I is the table of
contents of this book. There are numerous other papers on this subject in

- 12 -
the retcent 1 i terature, including one presented at the conference in Poland
in 196Ij.13

B. Self-Learnins Proqrams and Pattern Recognition

C
In well logging, whether for petroleum, coal, metals or other
minerals, the geologist is faced with the problem of identifying rocks
and ores by the use of one or more logs. The solution would be best if
all the parameters recorded by the logs were independent. In reality
this is not true so the geologist or log analyst must try to decide
which logs are most useful and rely heavily on them. This is frequently
done on the basis of experience and intuition. However, this can also
be done using a computer, first to reach a decision based on all the logs
ava i lable and second, to determine objectively which logs in the suite
are providing the most information toward the solution of the problem.
Guberman has used this approach to machine solving of geological problems.
We shall consider three of several problems which he has described in his
papers on “using a computer with a ‘self-learning’ or pattern recognition
program”.

1. Recognition of Litholoqy

As an example of ‘self-learning ’ he discusses recognition of

lithology in a given well using a suite of logs: electrical resistivity,
self potential , natural gamma ray, acoustic, density, neutron, etc. As
a further simplification of the problem of lithology recognition he as-
sumes that it is required to separate a multitude of rock layers into two
classes, sands tone and 1 imes tone.

Let us introduce a n-dimensional space of parameters, in which

a definite point will correspond to each layer characterized by n parameters.
Each parameter can assume any numerical value. Our problem consists of
separaaing in the n-dimensional space the points belonging to limestone
from those of sands tone. This can be done by a recognition program.

This program necessitates showing the computer several

layers of each class (sandstone and 1 imestone). To “show” a layer means
to introduce into the computer a set of n numbers (al, az--an): the input
vector,, and to state to which class it belongs. The machine educates it-
self on the basis of the known examples, i.e., it develops rules for classi-
fication in the form of a dividing surface or a set of criteria. After the
learning period is completed the machine is ready “to be examined”, i.e.,
to be given an unknown layer to see if it can classify it either as sand-
stone or 1 imestone.

Using a recognition program the machine can accomplish a

complicated interpretation because the position of a point in an n-dimen-
sional space is determined by the values of all the parameters simultaneous-
ly. This results in obtaining more complete information from the available
data and thereby increasing the accuracy of the identification and efficiency
of geological investigations in general.

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 2. Recoqn i t ion of 0 i 1 Saturated Zone

The machine is programmed to recognize an oil saturated zone

on the basis of a pattern of complex log data found by its own “experience”
to be typical of layers known to be oil saturated. This is called “self-
learning ‘I because the machine is “taught” by demonstration. The special
feature of the program is that identification of oil-bearing strata based
on previous analyses of the log is not fed into the machine. Rather the
program itself works out identification of oil-bearing or water-bearing
strata on the basis of a total set of log data available to it on a number
of strata known to belong to these categories from production history.
This is the “learning” process. The machine uses certain criteria (not
specifically identified in the paper) for deciding that a particular area
is either oil-bearing or water-bearing, The machine then can interpret
an unknown stratum in the 1 ight of the entire compendium of well log data.
The number of errors in identification is approximately one third of that
which occurs when log analysts interpret the data by the usual interpreta-
t ion procedures.

Such programs permit objective assessment of the “informativ-

ity” of the various methods of logging, including nuclear logs. For this
purpose the number of errors made by the program in identification of oil-
bearing and water-bearing layers using the whole suite of logs was compared
with the identifications made when one log was excluded from the suite.
If the number of errors did not increase, this meant that the log in question
introduced no new information into the set of logs used for solving the
problem at hand. If, on the other hand, the number of errors increased,
this meant that the informativity of the log differed from zero. The higher
the increase in errors the more informative was the log in question. Each
identification worked out by the program contains values for a number of
we1 1 log parameters. It is possible to assess how often each parameter
appears in the identification. This assessment can serve as another index
of the relative informativity of For the problem
the parameter concerned.
of oil-water identification specific data are given on the informativity
of the gamma ray log and the neutron-gamma-ray log as part of a complete
set of logs on various wells in different fields in both carbonate and
shaly sand reservo i rs. The data showed that both logs contained high
informativity for the purpose of oil-water differentiation.

3. Neutron Loq Cal ibration

Guberman and Ovchinnikova di;zuss the calibration of neutron

logs us ing the “informativityl’ technique. They say that use of this
statistical calibration method makes it possible to extract from neutron-
gamma-ray logs more information than can be obtained when separate reference
strata in the borehole are used for calibration.

This paper is concerned with two interrelated problems -

1) the reduction of neutron logs to a standard form, and 2) the hypothesis
that porosities as read from neutron logs have a stable distribution within
a given area and given depth range. The first point does not have to do
with merely relabel ing scales. A linear transformation is applied to the
observed deflections on the log. Thus, if l’s” is the observed deflection,
a transformed deflection “S” is obtained from the relation

S = a+bs.

- 14 -
The determination of the parameters a and b is based on the hypothesis
men t iolned above. A given neutron log in an area is taken as the stand-
ard. Over the depth range of interest this log is sampled, usually at
l-meter intervals, and a frequency distribution of readings is obtained.
From this distribution, the f i rst and second moments are computed. The C
values of a and b for the neutron log of any well in the same region are
determined by requiring that the first and second moments of its distri-
bution of sampled log deflections be equal to those of the standard.

If it works successfully, this method has several advantages.

All neutron logs run in a given region are put on a standard basis. If
just one log can be calibrated against known porosities, then all logs
would be so calibrated. Absolute sensitivity, and other properties
peculiar to a given type of neutron logging tool, are transformed to a
standard. Thus, old logs or new logs run under conditions which are not
completely certain may be interpretable on an absolute scale. The prob-
lem of satisfactory calibration of individual tools in the laboratory and
in the field would be obviated. A good check may be available to verify
that the proper transformation has been applied, at least for logs run
in open hole. If a washout section exists with a radius of about 20 cm
or more (I ‘m quoting the authors here), then the log deflection should
be approximately that for an infinite water medium and therefore a known
and easily reproducible situation. The same check could be made in a
cased hole, but the response would be that due to casing surrounded by
an infinite medium of cement.

Figure 4 and Table I I show the results of applying the

method to five wells in Russia. Neutron-gamma-ray logs were used. The
abscissa is
actually S - 5, where 3 is the average deflection for the
standard log. To check statistically the hypothesis that the distribu-
tions obtained represent the same basic law of distribution, the authors
appl ied Kolmogorov’s goodness-of-f it test. The results seem to support
the hypothes is. A final point made by the authors is worth quoting: “In
conclusion, one more circumstance must be indicated. A number of stable
and clearly expressed maxima are observed on the porosity-distribution
curves for the Turei and Famen deposits of Tatary. It could be assumed
that each of the maxima is determined by the contribution of a rather
homogeneous bench of layers. Concrete ana lys is of NGL diagrams shows,
howeve r , that the contribution to each maximum on the distribution curves
is from layers which are spread over the entire section. In this connec-
tion, the following question is of interest: Why, in rather wide deposit
intervals (up to 400m), the formation of which occurred during prolonged
geological periods, were layers with definite and distinct porosity values
formed in preference to layers with intermediate porosity values, of which
there are comparatively few? Obviously, this question requires special
consideration on the part of geologists.”

It seems clear that if the authors’ basic hypothesis holds up,

they have made a significant contribution to the field of log analysis.
Such mczthods could be particularly useful in the U.S. because of the wide
variet,y of neutron logs from different service companies. One thing which
the authors apparently overlooked or felt was insignificant is the fact

- 15 -
 Number Number
of of Area u,mm r elr,mm
curve borehole

489 Bavlin 46.8 1 -215

484 Bavlin 66.8 1.43 -292
4107 Aznakaev 60.6 1.29 -220
4108 Aznakaev 59.9 1.26 -213
4109 Aznakaev 59.1 I,28 -200

TABLE II
RESULTS OF STATISTICAL STUDY OF LOGS

Lenhsl. ns.

Amplitude diwibwion calves on NGL diagrams after scale reduction:

l-Tume;, Famea, and Pna deposita; b-.%mcnnn deposits (the C&en)

FIGURE 4
STATISTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LOGS

- 16 -
that they used neutron-gamma logs and associated the log deflections
with porosity only. It seems unlikely that these logs are not also
affected by salinity and 1 i thology. Thus, the determination of por-
osity by this method might be subject to question. However, the pro-
cedure of normalizing neutron logs by using the characteristics of the C
distribution of deflections of a standard log can stand or fall on its
own merits. The authors may be reading too much into the results from
their statements in the one paragraph quoted. They might have tried
some statistical tests on the reality of the peaks in the distributions.
From the curves, the true existence of the peaks looks somewhat doubt-
ful.

NUCLEAR LOGGI NG

Recent developments in nuclear logging in the U.S.S.R. are assoc-

iated with the use of pulsed neutron logs in petroleum exploration and
production, and elementary analysis of rocks for the quantitative eval-
uation of solid mineral resources. ‘5 Theoretical work continues to be
extensfve and to contribute to the basic understanding of nuclear log-
ging. Two review papers by 0. A. Kozhevni kov, an active young worker
in neutron theory, have comprehensive bibliographies which serve as
references to the recent theoretical developments in nuclear geophysics
in the U.S.S.R.16 Development of new multichannel analyzers and equip-
ment for automatic analysis and processing of materials is receiving
much attent ion. Gamma-gamma logging is not widely used for formation
density but is used for cement evaluation and for obtaining the average
concentration of heavy elements in rocks in solid minerals exploration.

A. Gamma-Gamma Methods

A recent book, Gamma Method for Density Measurement, treats

the physical principles and practical applications of gamma-gamma logging.
The relationship between source energy, source-detector spacing, rock
dens i ty , chemi*cal composition, and energy of radiation detected determine
the response of the gamma-gamma probe. In one application the measured
scattered radiation depends only on the density of the rocks (or cement)
and in the other, the chemical composition of the rock is very important
(large photoelectric absorption of low energy radiation by elements of
high atomic number).

Scattered gamma-ray logs for cement evaluation are in common use.

Their first cement log used a single channel gamma-gamma system (similar
to that described in a 1958 paper in the Bulletin of the AAPG by Caldwell
and Sippel). The single channel apparatus had no orientation and the re-
sul ts were not rel iable. The next development was to use a single gamma-
ray source and three gamma-ray detectors equally spaced around the axis
of the logging tool. Lead shielding between the source and detector pre-
vented direct transmission of gamma rays. Centralizers at top and bottom
of the tool keep it centered in the borehole. They also tried eccentric
tool positioning with a bowspring but with less favorable results. A
centra’l ized version with three detectors has been in use since 1960. 21

- 17 -
 1 yburra.
a
- 600 L?UO N 75 20 25 300-I
DEPTH

I
IN (
METERS

640
-

660
-

6aa
-

7/;$
A

.- I CEMENTOGRAM /

FIGURE
CEMENTOGRAM
5
LOG
CALIPER LOG

Figure 5 is an example of one of these three-trace logs which they called

a cemen togram; also shown on the figure is a caliper log of the hole.
Recently they have started using four detectors. Interpretation of the
three trace logs is complex but is aided by laboratory results in which
various cementing conditions were “logged” using a steel pipe and cement;
rings of various sizes. When the three curves more or less ride on top
of each other, it is concluded that the cement is uniform around the
pipe. Divergence of one or more of the curves indicates irregular cement-
ing or channeling. The model results also help to interpret logs ob-
tained when the pipe is not centered in the hole.

- 18 -
 B 8, Pulsed Neutron Loqqing

.,7 Pulsed neutron logging is in common use, in both open and cased
holes. In Bashkir alone, 200 we1 1s are logged a year in this way. The
figure may be as much as 1,000 wells a year for the entire country. These
logs are used for evaluating quantitatively oil and gas saturation, for C
detect’ing shifts in the contours of gas and oil in formations during pro-
duct ion and for locating flooded zones in gas and gas condensate reser-
voirs.;l8 In carbonate rocks the method is used to identify water zones
down to a porosity of 10% and a mineralization of 50 g/l of chloride. In
sandstone the limits are 15% porosity and a salinity of 30 g/l.

Radioactive logs are widely used for production problems. In one

example a pulsed neutron log failed to show an oil-water contact in open
hole because of mud-f i 1 trate invasion. Two days after casing and cement-
ing, the contact was still not evident. Thirty days after cementing, the
oil-water contact was indicated very clearly. In another case the neutron-
lifetime log located a specific layer which was introducing water into a
gas we’ll. After this layer was cemented off, the well again produced gas.
For locating gas-l iquid contacts, neutron-gamma-ray and pulsed neutron
(with a 200 psec window at 1100 psec) logs are used. To locate oil-water
contacts a 200 Clsec window is used with a delay of 1600, 1800 or even
2000 set, selected for the particular problem (porosity, salinity, bore-
hole size) .

The design of downhole neutron generators is covered in the

book (240 pages), Portable Neutron Generators in Nuclear Geophysics. 19
The tool in field use is made in Kiev on a production basis. The ac-
celerator section is lf meters long. A transformer gives 30 Kev which
feeds a single stage voltage doubler to give 60 Kev accelerating poten-
tial. Operation is at 400 cycles per second and 107 neutrons per second.
The detector package consists of seven boron trifluoride counters oper-
able to 50°C. They are currently working on extending the operating range
to 110°C. At one location we visited there were eight pulsed neutron log-
ging tools. Each tool usually makes 5 to 10 trips into the hole before
requiring repair.

C. Gamma-Ray Spectrometry

Spectrometry of natural gamma radiation and of neutron induced

gamma rays is used to determine the elemental composition of rocks. This
has been applied especially to evaluation of solid mineral resources.22
Yakubson at the Gubkin Institute and Blyumentsev at the Institute for
Nuclear Geophysics and Geochemistry are active in the field of neutron
induced gamma-ray spectrometry.

Yakubson18 described the use of capsuled neutron sources of dif-

ferent energy (PO-Be and PO-B) in boreholes and spectrometry of gamma
rays from capture, inelastic scattering and induced radioactivity.23 He
investigated the various factors complicating quantitative interpretation
of the data. They include the background gamma radiation originating in
borehole equipment as a result of capture of neutrons of varying energy,
the effect on the shape of the gamma-ray spectra of changes in rock proper-
ties and in borehole conditions, the intensity of the capture gamma rad-

- 19 -
iation, and the limited depth to which the method can be used. The in-
vestigation of ores of metals in the iron group (iron, nickel and
chromium) was used to illustrate the practical possibilities of the
method. Using capture radiation spectrometry, it is possible unequivo-
cally to detect these minerals in borehole cross-sections and, under
certa in cond i t ions, to assess the content of individual elements (Fe,
Ni and Cr) .

The prospects of using fast neutron inelastic scattering gamma-

ray spectrometry to detect coal was discussed, using consecutive ir-
radiation of the rock with neutrons from polonium-beryllium and polonium-
boron sources. The intensity of the gamma radiation from the inelastic
scattering of fast neutrons by carbon nuclei was determined. Exper imenta 1
and calculated data on the depth limitations of the method were quoted.
The influence on the measurements of changes in the composition of the
coal (humidity, content of mineral impurities and of ash) were evaluated.

Induced-activity gamma-ray spectrometry was also discussed by

Ya kubson. Both thermal and fast neutron activation were considered and
the possibility of differentiating between them by consecutive irradia-
tion from sources with different energy spectra is discussed. The prac-
tical use of fast neutron borehole activation analysis is illustrated by
the example of assessing the silicon content of various types of alumo-
sil icate rocks and the fluorine content of fluorite ores. The SGS-1
spectrometer for analysing the spectral composition of gamma radiation
in boreholes is now being produced in quantity in the USSR. It consists
of a borehole instrument with a detachable data unit (80 or 42 mm in
diameter) and a SO-channel analyser.

Blyumentsev described the results of studies on the use of capture

gamma-ray spectrometry to detect and evaluate i ron-bear i ng rocks and ores. 24
The various types of rocks in which iron ore is associated were investigated
with respect to their capture gamma-ray spectra, It was found that iron is
the only element that emitted high energy gamma rays; this renders the
method very promising for identifying iron. The basic principles for assess-
ing the iron content of the rock are: (1) recording the integral or dif-
ferential component of the n-gamma radiation in the range characteristic
of the capture radiation of iron; (2) separation of the ‘Ii ron” and “rock”
components in the n-gamma spectrum by solving a system of two or three
linear equations (silicate or silicate/carbonate ores).

The method
is described in detai 1 in Blyumentsev’s papers and
information is given
on model studies, equipment used, measurement pro-
cedu res , processing of the spectra, and exper imenta 1 measurements in
boreholes in iron ore deposits. The spectral characteristics of the n-
gamma radiation are described in detail and illustrated by tables, fig-
ures and spectra, General information is given on the types of borehole
gamma-spectrometers at present in production or nearly ready for pro-
duction in the USSR, These are:

- 20 -
 1. SGS-1 multi-channel apparatus in which the pulse spectrum
to be investigated is transmitted to the surface via a normal
logging cable with amplitude-time transformation in the bore-
hole instrument;
C
2. The DSGS-3 two-channel apparatus operating on a three-strand
logging cable, in which the spectrum is analyzed in the bore-
hole instrument under control from the surface;

3. The SGS-L stabil ized two-channel spectrometer in which the

spectrum is transmitted to the surface for analysis by any
standard logging cable; the effect of the cable is eliminated
by a blocking system, and automatic regulation in accordance
with a reference signal is used to ensure stability.

D. Natural Radioactivity

Numerous measurements (490 samples) of the natural radioactivity

of carbonate rocks have been carried out by Larionov at the Gubkin Insti-
25
tute using scintillation counters and a lOO-channel pulse height analyzer.
He is ,the editor of a 19262 book entitled Nuclear Geology and Geophysics,
which is 351 pages long. Both the radioactivity of the whole rock and of
i ts cornponen ts , the soluble part and the insoluble residue, were made.
A compirehensive analysis of the physico-chemical and 1 ithological-petro-
graphic properties was made for all the samples analyzed. The absolute
value of natural radioactivity in sedimentary (including carbonate) rocks
was found to be considerably lower than previously assumed. The relation-
ship of the U, Th and K content to the clay content of the carbonate
rocks was investigated. The total natural radioactivity of carbonate
rocks rreflects quite accurately clay content and insoluble residue content.
Potassium is associated with the most finely dispersed component of the
insoluble residue, and as a result spectrometric analysis for potassium
is a means of assessing the content in carbonate rocks of the clay frac-
tion with a particle size of 0.001 mm. In a large number of cases dolo-
motized 1 imestones and secondary dolomites show, along with an overall
increase in radioactivity, a sharply reduced potassium content. The po-
tassiurn-radium ratio is proposed as an indicator of zones of secondary
dolomi te.

- 21 -
CONCLUSION

Practically every type of logging which is used in the U.S. is found

in the U.S.S.R. On our exchange vis it to the Soviet Un ion in every city
which we visited, there was discussion or at least ment ion of we1 1 logging -
either research, field operations or interpre tation. A substantial fraction
of all the technical material presented during our tour was on this subject.
Logging is widely used not only for petroleum exploration and production
but also for the evaluation of solid mineral resources.

Shortage of multiconductive cable has been a serious hindrance to

the development of many logging techniques. Electrical logging is not
particularly advanced, lacking focused logs and digital interpretation
,‘;tiniTues. Radioactivity logging is developed to high technical stand-
pulsed neutron logs are widely used in open and cased holes.
Gamma-gamma logging is used more for cement evaluation than for forma-
tion density. Acoustic log recording of the complete wave form similar
to the microseismograms in the U.S. is in use. Acoustic velocity logs
appear to be not so widely used. A new manual on log interpretation
treats primarily use of electrical and radioactive logs for formation
evaluation. 28
The Russians are using computers for several novel ap-
proaches to log interpretation which have not been tried in this country.
Many comprehensive books on various aspects of we1 1 logging are in the
Soviet 1 iterature and new ones appear every year.

- 22 -
 APPENDIX I

Conclusions of A. I o Solomasov in “Application of Statistical Methods

for Studying Reservoir Properties of Rocks According to the Exploitation-
Geophys i ca 1 Data”, pp 88-117 of book Geophysical Surveys in We1 Is, C
Editor S. G. Komarov, “Nedra” Pub1 ishing House, Moscow 1964.

The following conclusions can be made on the basis of the above

discuss ion:

1.. The statistical method of studying the relation between geophy-

sical and reservoir properties of a layer makes it possible:

a) To determine the existence of a correlative dependence be-

tween the properties studied.

b) To determine the regression and correlation coefficients

necessary for the evaluation of its practical applicability.

c) To obtain additional information about reservoir rock proper-

ties from existing geophysical data.

2 II The correlation dependence designed for quantitative study of a

reservoir property should be characterized not only by the correlation
and regression coefficients but also by the statistical error.

3 I* The correlation relations among the geophysical and reservoir

properties, which are characterized only by the regression equation, are
of an illustrative value.

4. When determining reservoir properties in separate cross-sections,

the criterion for appl icabi 1 i ty of the method is the ratio of the mean
quadra,tic error of a separate determination to the mean quadratic deviation
of the reservoir property from its mean value in the layer. If this ratio
exceeds 0.5, the relation studied cannot be used for a practical solution
of the given problem.

5. The ratio mentioned in point 4 is also a criterion for the relevance

of drawing a map of equal values of the reservoir property. A criterion for
determining the maximum degree of detail of the map is given (Equation 28 of
text) . If this criterion exceeds a certain value (O.85), the correlation
is too poor to justify drawing a map.

6. Any correlation relationship can be used for drawing a map of

the mean values of the reservoir property in blocks, providing there
exists a corresponding variation of the geophysical property over the
area. A condition for the applicability of a relation is: the absence
of overlap between the confidence intervals of the mean values of the
adjacent blocks. This criterion is revealed in the process of map drawing.

7. The criteria mentioned are true not only for the relations dis-
covere’d in the statistical interpretation process, but also for any other
relation whose error has been calculated according to these procedures.

- 23 -
 APPENDIX II

Table of Contents of book, Problems of Nuclear Geophysics by A. I. Kholin,

Pub1 i shi ng House “NEDRA”, Moscow, 1964

Table of Contents

Title Author Page

Introduction 3

SECTION I. Present State and the Perspectives of Development

of Nuclear Geophysics Methods.

Basic problems in scientific research F. A, Alekseev 5

concerning the development of nuclear V. N. Dakhnov
geophysics methods

Present state and the perspectives of A. S. Shi rokov 12

applied nuclear geophysics methods in
exploration

Di rect and reverse problems of Sh. A. Guberman 17

nuclear geophysics D. A. Kozhevnikov
K. 1. Yakubson

SECTION II. Problems of Theory; Physical and Mathematical

Modeling of Nuclear Geophysics Problems.

High temperature effect on the distri- D. A, Kozhevnikov 26

bution of thermal neutrons in rocks

Analysis of the limits of applicabil- D. A. Kozhevnikov 40

ity of age-approximation in neutron trans-
fer theory

Application of the calculation technique A, E. Kulinkovich 51

in the solution of nuclear geophysics R. A. Rezvanov
p rob 1ems

Large-scale interpretation of geo- Sh. A. Guberman 64

physical data with the use of a self-
programming routine (computer)

Approximate modeling of the passage N. M. Blinova 74

of gamma rays through rot ks K. %o Yakubson

Modeling of problems concerning the Sh. A. Guberman 85

determination of gas-saturation in N. M. Mar’enko
the terr i genous reservoi rs, accord i ng A. 1. Kholin
to neutron methods

- 24 -
APPENDIX II Continued - page 2

--‘fi tle Author Page

Study of porosity and gas saturation Sh. A. Guberman 94 C

effect in carbonate reservoirs on Chan Si
the readings of neutron methods

SECTION III. New Methods and New Trends in the Application of

Nuclear Geophysics.

The Moessbauer effect and the A. Yu. Al eksandrov 109

possibility of its application A. N. Karasev
in nuclear geophysics K. P. Mitrofanov
L. S. Polak
A. A. Sorokin

Exploration according to the de1 ayed V. S. Avzyanov 123

coi nc i dence method 0. A. Barsukov
A. K. Nikulin

The possibi 1 i ty of using thermal Sh. A. Guberman 127

neutron temperature for the study K. I o Yakubson
of rocks

The appl ication of the capture K. I. Yakubson 144

gamma-ray spectromet ry and of the G. A. Nedostup
induced activity for the investiga-
tion of material composition of rocks

SECTI Old IV. Problems of Radiometric Instruments Improvement

Increasing the accuracy and thermal Ya, Ya. Gorski i 167

stabi 1 :i ty of radiometric instruments
for the investigation of very deep wells

Instruments for the spectrometry of E. A, Bogdanovich 180

gamma-radiation in we1 1s G. A. Nedostup

Errors of radiometric instruments Ya, Ya, Gorski i 187

caused by the absorption of charge
in the integral condensers

Analytiical method for the increase of Sh. A- Guberman 194

resolving capacity of geophysical D. A* Kozhevnikov
i nst rurnents

SECTION - V. Economics of Nuclear Geophysics

Economic efficiency of the application NO GO Feitel ’ man 204

of nuclear geophysics in the exploration
and exploitation of some commercial minerals

- 25 -
 APPENDIX II I

Combined interpretation of Geological and

Geophysical Data by Computers

Edited by Sh. A. Guberman, Gubkin Institute, Moscow

Transactions of the Moscow institute of Petrochemical and Gas Industry,

I - M. Gubkin, Number 62, Pub1 i shing House “NEDRAIl, Moscow, 1966.

Table of Contents

Title Author Page

Using self-learning programs for the

solution of geological problems Sh. A. Guberman 3

General approach to the problem of V. I. Loginov

pattern recognition Ya. I o Khurgin 15

Real itation of the Kora-3 program I. N. Nyuberg

with the computer “Strela” M. %a Ovchinni kova 21

Model i ng of the “general ized image” I. M. Churginova

algorithm in the electronic digital G. A. Gorvits 25
computer “Ural-2”

Evaluating the effectiveness of geo- K. N. Milovidov 31

I physical field investigations for
the location of producing layers

Analysis of the effectiveness of Sh. A. Guberman 37

different recognition programs for M. I_. lzvekova
the solution of geological problems I o M. Churinova

Application of pattern recognition 6. N. Zverev 42

algorithms for the interpretation D, D. Khalilov
of geophysical data in Bashkiriya ID V. Golovatskaya

Distinguishing between oil- and water- Sh. A. Guberman 47

bearing layers in carbonate deposits 0. I e Ryabykh
of the programs “Kora-3”’ and “the gcn-
era1 ized image”

Evaluation of the productivity N. 1 0 Zakharova 53

prospects of the formerly uninterw V. K. Popov
preted thin carbonaceous-terrigenous
Miocene layers of Western Predkavkazle,
by computer analysis of geophysical data

- 26 -
APPENDIX III Continued - Page 2

Title Author Page

On the possibility of applying digital A. A. Valui ski i 69 C

computers for the stratification of I 0 P. Zhabrev
sediments according to mineralogical
data

Results obtained in the appl ication G. Kh. Sherman 77

of the pattern recognition algorithm M0 Yu. Gauberg
to the separation of producing layers
in we1 1 cross-sections of Saratov
Povol zh ‘e

Using the object recognition algorithm L. 1. Vorob’eva as

“the general ized image” for a combined Uu. V. Devingtal’
interpretation of geophysical data from A. A. Makimov
the fields of the Perm’ region

Procedures and results of computer V. K. Popov a9

appl icetion (pattern recognition A. A* Valuiskii
programs) for different rock series D. Kh. Di nmukhametov
in Western Predkavkaz ‘e

The possibility of distinguishing E. A. Bars 109

producing and non-producing layers Sh. A. Guberman
according to content and composition S. S. Kogan
of organic matter in ground water
(using the Bukhara-Karshino oil-gas
region as an example)

Application of the self-learning Sh. A. Guberman 121

recogniition program to the study Yu F I D Pi kovski i
of the effect of oil on the mineral
composition of rocks

Evaluating prospective deposits of Sh. A. Guberman 126

hydrothermal ores with the use of T, M0 Maripov
recogn i t i on programs

Application of Monte-Carlo and G. N. Zverev 133

approximation methods to tbe A. T. Lisenenkov
problem of quant i tat ive i nterpreta-
tion of geophysical field data

Application of the least square A. P. Petrov 137

method to the study of multl- M.. M. Ellanskii
dimensional relations among rock
charac’teristics and geophysical
measurements

.- 27 -
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. The MOSCOW Order of the Red Banner of Labor Institute of Petrochemical

and Gas Industry, 1. M. Gubkin, published by the Ministry of Higher
and Secondary Education, Pub1 i shing House, “NEDRA”, Moscow (1965).

2. N. I. Khalevin, “Measurement of Rock Porosity by Sonic We1 1 Logging”,

Razvedochuaya i Promyslovaya Geofizi ka 3D, 3-9 (1960).

3. N. I s Khalevin, D. D. Barykin, “A System for Acoustic Investigation

i n Borehol es”, I zvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., No. 1, 69-78
(1961) e

4. G. V. Dakhnov, A. L. Perel’man, G. Ya. Rabinovich, T. V. Shcherbakova,

“Acoustical Logging Laboratory of the Type LAK-I”, Prikladnaya Geo-
fizika, 3, 163-176 (1965).

50 V. I. Soroko, E. F‘ Dubrov, S. MO Biryulov, I. I. Bykov, “Geodetector

for Use in Wells”, Patent No. 776836/26-35, published June 29, 1965,
Bulletin No. 13.

6. F. I. Kotyakhov and S. A. Serebrennikov, “Evaluation of the Distri-

bution of Fractures in Oil and Gas Reservoirs by Subsurface Photo-
graphy”, Geol. Nefti i Gaza, $, No. 11, 26-30 (ig64), available in
English translation from Associated Technical Service, Inc.
(translation 16S83R).

7. Manual for Studying Rock Jointing and Fractured Oil and Gas Raser-
vo’rs, 84 pages, Gostoptekhizdat, Leningrad (1962) 0

8. L. Iv Vyatkin, “Using the ‘Ural’ Computer in Gamma-Log Interpreta-

tion”, pp 124-129, in Problems lin Mining Radiometry, editor V. L.
Shashkin, Gosatomizdat Pub. House, Moscow (1962).

9. L. G. Petros’yan, Z. I. Kozina, I0 G. Guzanova, and V. A. Nichiporuk,

“Permeability of Oil Bearing Layers from Electrical Log Data”, Prik-
ladnaya Geofizika, 33, 169-175 (1962)

10. A. I o Solomasov, “Application of Statistical Methods for Studying

Reservoir Properties of Rocks According to Exploitation-Geophysical
Data”, pp 88-117 in Geophysical Surveys in Boreholes, Editor Se G.
Koma rov J Pub1 i shi ng House “NEDRA”, Moscow (1964)

11. Problems of Nuclear Geophysics, Editor A. I. Kholin, 214 pages,

Pub1 i shing House, “NEDRA”, Moscow (1964) o

12. Complex Interpretation of Geological and Geophysical Data by Computers,

Editor Sh. A. Guberman, 144 pages, Pub1 i shi ng House “NEDRA”, Moscow
(1966) 0

- 28 -
13. Sh. A. Guberman, M.L. Iznekova, and 0. I. Ryabkh, “The Informative-
ness of Nuclear Geophysical Methods Applied to Geophysical Research
Data in Identifying Oil-Bearing Strata Using A Learning Program”,
Paper SM68/51, IAEA Symposium on Radioisotope Instruments in Industry
and
- Geophysics, Warsaw, Poland (1965). C
14. Sh. A. Guberman and M. I. Ovchinnikova, “Some Possibilities for Using
the Statistical Characteristics of a Geological Section”, Izv. Geophys,
Ser. No. 7, 1021-1029 (1964).

l5* F. A. Alekseev,“Present Position and Future Trends in Nuclear Geophysics”,

Paper SM68/29, IAEA Symposium on Radioisotope Instruments in Industry
and Geophysics, Warsaw, Poland (1965) e
-

16, D. A. Kozhevnikov,and A. L. Polyachenko, “Theoretical Investigations

in Nuclear Geophysics in the U.S.S.R.ll, Paper SM68/58a, ibid.

D. A. Kozhevnikov, “Overall Pattern and Characteristics of the Station-

ary Distribution of Neutrons”, Paper SM68/58b, ibid.

17* F. A. Alekseev and D. F. Bespalov, “Results of Using a Pulsed Neutron

Generator to Solve Certain Problems of Industrial Geophysics”, Paper
SM68/60b, ibid.

D. F. Bespalov, A. S. Mints and A. S. Shkolnikov, “A Small Neutron Tube

For Use in Borehole Logging Equipment”, Paper SM68/60a, ibid.

D. F. Bespalov, et al, “Some Results of the Use of Pulsed Neutron-Neutron

and Neutron-Gamma Logging”, Paper SM68/60c, ibid.

D. F. Bespalov, “A Borehole Neutron Generator for Pulsed Neutron-Neutron

Lo’ggingll, Paper SM68/60d, ibid.

D. M. Srebrodolsky, et al, tVse of Pulsed Neutron Logging Methods to

Study Oil and Gas Boreholesll, Paper SM68/60e, ibid.

18. Yu. V. Konplev and Yu. A. Kitsenko, “The Possibility of Using Radioactive
Pulse Methods of Investigation in Locating Flooded Zones in Gas and Gas
Colndensate Fields”, Gaz. Prom. 11, No. 6, 5-g (1966) o

19. Portable Neutron Generators in Nuclear Geophysics, Editor S. I. Sabosina,

?40 pages, Gosatomizdat, Moscow (1962) o

20. Gamma Method for Density Measurement, V. A. Artsibashyev, 196 pages,

zomi zdat, Moscow (1965) .

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21. V. A. Bulanova and V. V. Kholidilov, “Examples of Cementogram 1nter-
pretat i on”, Nef ty. Khoz., 2, No. 2, 26-‘30 (1965) .

22. Problems in Mining Radiometry, Editor V. L. Shashkin, 244 pages,

Gosatomizdat, Moscow (1962).

23. K. I. Yakubson and E. Eife, “Use of Neutron-Induced Gamma-Radiation

Spectrometry to Investigate the Elemental Composition of Rocks in Bore-
ho1 es”, Paper SM 68/52, IAEA Symposium on Radioisotope Instruments in
Industry and Geophysics, Warsaw, Poland (1965).

24. A. M. Blyumentsev, et al, “Neutron Radiative Capture Gamma Spectrometry

As a Method of Determining the Composition of Iron-Bearing Rocks and
Ores”, Paper SM 68/53, ibid.

25. V. V. Larionov and M. D. Shvartsman, “Natural Radioactivity of Carbonate

Rocks”, Paper SM 68/56, ibid.

26. V. V. Larionov, Nuclear Geology and Geophysics, Editor V. N. Dakhnov,

3.51 pages, Gostoptekihizdat, Moscow (1963).

27. A. K. Berzin, D. F. Bespalov, V. M. Zaporozhets, S. A. Kantor, D. I.

Leipunskaya, V. V. Sulin, I. I. Feldman and Yu. S. Shimelevich, “Present
State and Use of Basic Nuclear Geophysical Methods for lnvestiqatinq
Rocks and Ores”, Atomic Energy Review, Vol. IV, No. 2, 59-l 11 ,-I nte;nation-
al Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna (1966) .

28. M. G. Latyshova, Practical Manual for Interpretation of Diagrams of Geo-

physical Methods of Investigation of Oil and Gas Wells, Editor D. I.
D’yakonova, 172 pages, Publishing House “NEDRA’I, Moscow (1966).

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