Mega Part2 cb1

Turbulence and Aeroacoustics
Research team of the Centre Acoustique

École Centrale de Lyon & LMFA UMR CNRS 5509
École doctorale MEGA - Février 2015
Aéroacoustique avancée
Christophe Bailly, Christophe Bogey & Olivier Marsden

Ecole Centrale de Lyon & LMFA - UMR CNRS 5509
http://acoustique.ec-lyon.fr
1
From Computation Fluid Dynamics to
Computational AeroAcoustics
2
x Turbulent flows q
Free shear flows : subsonic turbulent jets Reynolds number ReD = u j D/ν
Prasad & Sreenivasan (1989) Dimotakis et al. (1983)

ReD ≃ 4000 ReD ≃ 104
Kurima, Kasagi & Hirata (1983) Ayrault, Balint & Schon (1981) Mollo-Christensen (1963)
ReD ≃ 5.6 × 103 ReD ≃ 1.1 × 104 ReD = 4.6 × 105
3 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

x Turbulent flows q
Turbulence theory
Large scales L, u′
u′ L L2 /ν viscous time
ReL = = ∼
ν L/u′ convective time
Energy input to create turbulence (power per unit

volume)
u′ dEc ρu′2 ρu′3
∼ ∼
L dt L/u′ L
Kolmogorov scales (smallest scales) lη , uη
Tavoularis (2003) uη lη
Relη = ∼1
passive scalar mixing ν
Sc ≃ 2000
Dissipation of energy (power per unit volume) at
the smallest scales
u2η
ρǫ ∼ µ 2
lη

x Turbulent flows q
Turbulence theory
Balance between production and dissipation
ρu′3 u2η
∼µ 2 =⇒ L/lη ∼ Re3/4
L
L lη
Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)

grid of spacing ∆x1 ∼ lη
Total number of grid points in 1-D, n1 ∼ Re3/4
L
9/4
and in 3-D, ndof ∼ ReL
Time step ∆t ∼ ∆x1 /c∞ (for sound, but M ≪ 1)
Tc L Lc∞ 1
nt ∼ ∼ ′ ∼ ′ ∼ Re3/4
L
Arnold Kolmogorov
∆t u ∆t u ∆x1 Ma
(1903-1987)
Total cost
1
ndof × nt ∼ Re3L
Ma

x Turbulent flows q
DNS of turbulent channel flow : mesh in the transverse direction x2
x2 Deardorff, J. Fluid Mech. (1970), ndof = 6720
Kim, Moin & Moser, J. Fluid Mech. (1987)

ndof = 192 × 129 × 160 ≃ 4 × 106
2h U 1 ( x2 ) Reh = 3300, Re+ = 180, (Re+ )3/4 /n2 ≃ 0.38
cost∼ Re+3 ∼ 6 × 106
Cray XMP, 40s /time step, 250h CPU
x1 Moser, Kim & Mansour, Phys. Fluids (1999)
ndof = 384 × 257 × 384 ≃ 38 × 106
Ud 2h Reh = 10950, Re+ = 590 , (Re+ )3/4 /n2 ≃ 0.46
Re2h =
ν cost∼ Re+3 ∼ 2 × 108
fully turbulent for Hoyas & Jiménez, Phys. Fluids (2006)
Re2h ≥ 1800 ndof = 6144 × 633 × 4608 ≃ 17.9 × 109
Reh = 43600, Re+ = 2003, (Re+ )3/4 /n2 ≃ 0.47
(Ud bulk velocity) cost∼ Re+3 ∼ 8 × 109
Marenostrum Computer (Barcelona, Spain)
Re+ = uτ h/ν 25 TB of data, 6 × 106 h monoCPU

x Turbulent flows q
DNS of plane channel flow
Laadhari, Phys. Fluids (2007)

ndof = 512 × 385 × 512 ≃ 101 ×
106
Reh = 20100, Re+ = 1000
(Re+ )3/4 /ny ≃ 0.46
cost∼ Re+3 ∼ 109
IBM SP4 / CINES
Iso-surfaces of the streamwise fluctating velocity u1′

(red u1′ /Uc = 0.12, blue u1′ /Uc = −0.12)

x Turbulent flows q
Theory of Kolmogorov : energy cascade for high Reynolds numbers
ǫ ≃ u′3 /L
E(k)
E(k) = CK ǫ2/3 k−5/3
Dν (k) = 2νk2 E(k)

ǫ
0 kL ∼ 1 kλ g ∼ 1 klη ∼ 1 k
integral scale Taylor scale Kolmogorov scale
L/lη ∼ Re3/4
L
Z Z
3 ′2 ∞ ∞
u = E(k)dk ǫ= Dν (k)dk
2 0 0

x Turbulent flows q
Theory of Kolmogorov : energy cascade
8
10
Z +∞
(1)
10
6
u1′2 = E11 (k1 )dk1
−∞
∼ k1−5/3
Reλg
4
10
2 × E11 (k1 )/(ǫν 5 )1/4
◦ 23 boundary layer (Tielman, 1967)

23 cylinder wake (Uberoi & Freymuth, 1969)
▽ 37 grid turbulence (Comte Bellot & Corrsin, 1971)
10
2 ⊳ 72 grid turbulence (Comte Bellot & Corrsin, 1971)
130 homogeneous shear flow (Champagne et al., 1970)
+ 170 pipe flow (Laufer, 1952)
× 282 boundary layer (Tielman, 1969)
✷ 308 cylinder wake (Uberoi & Freymuth, 1969)
0
10 △ 401 boundary layer (Sanborn & Marshall, 1965)
⊲ 540 grid turbulence (Kistler & Vrebalovich, 1966)
⊳· 600 boundary layer (Saddoughi, 1994)
⊙ 780 round jet (Gibson, 1963)
−2 • 850 boundary layer (Coantic & Favre, 1974)
10 ⊲· 1500 boundary layer (Saddoughi, 1994)
Pao (1965) ⊕ 2000 tidal channel (Grant et al., 1962)
△
· 3180 return channel (CAHI Moscou, 1991)
−4
10 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
k 1 lη

x Turbulent flows q
Theory of Kolmogorov : energy cascade
high k Fourier
small k intermediate k space
physical
space

x Turbulent flows q
Role of pressure
Taking the divergence of the Navier-Stokes equation,

∂ ∂ui ∂ui ∂p ∂2 ui
ρ + uj =− +µ 2 ρ = cst, ∇·u = 0
∂xi ∂t ∂x j ∂xi ∂x j
Pressure p satisfies Poisson’s equation

2 ∂ ∂ui ∂ui ∂u j
∇ p = −ρ uj = −ρ
∂xi ∂x j ∂x j ∂xi
In free space, the solution can be written as, (if p → cst as r → ∞)

Z
ρ ∂ui ∂u j dy
p( x) − p∞ = (y) where r = x−y
4π V ∂y j ∂y i r
Note that all the points y in the volume V contribute to the pressure
at the point x, nonlocal relation between velocity and pressure

x Turbulent flows q
Aerodynamic pressure
Z Z
1 ∂2 ρui u j dy 1 ∂2 dy
p( x) − p∞ = = ρui u j
4π V ∂yi ∂y j | x − y | 4π ∂xi ∂x j V | x − y|
Z
1 ∂2 1 1
∼ ρui u j dy ∼ O 3 as x → ∞
4π ∂xi ∂x j x V x
non-local aerodynamic pressure field,

but it decreases fast as x → ∞
p( x) S pp x2
10−2
x1
x r = x−y
10−4
kx2−6.67 Arndt et al. (1997)
StD = 0.22 ( f peak )
10−6
u ReD ≃ 3.9 × 104
y 10−8 kx2−6
V
kx2

x Turbulent flows q
2-D simulations must be proscribed ...
flow separation behind a rounded Helmholtz equation

leading edge (∇ · u = 0, homentropic flow p = p(ρ, s)
to simplify algebra)
∂ω
+ u · ∇ ω = ω · ∇ u + ν ∇2 ω
∂t
The term ω · ∇u is directly associa-

ted with the turbulent kinetic energy
(η = 0.125)
production (increase in the mean dis-
tance between fluid particles, sensiti-
vity to initial conditions)
Courtesy of Lamballais, Sylvestrini & Laizet
Int. Journal Heat Fluid Flow, 31, 2010 This term is zero in 2-D, no energy
cascade ! !

x Computational Aeroacoustics q
Characteristic scales
sound f ls
Strouhal number St =
field U∞
λa
U∞ or Uj
Mach number Ma =
c∞
Ratio between the source size ls and the

acoustic wavelength λ a ,
turbulent λa c∞ U∞ 1 1
= × = ×
flow ls ls U∞ f ls Ma St
As Ma → 0, λ a /ls → ∞ and sources are compact.

In any case however, ls remains larger than the characteristic length scale of the
shear flow which produces turbulence, e.g. the momentum thickness δθ for a
boundary layer or a jet.

Low-Reynolds number flow around a cylinder
Instantaneous fluctuating pressure field
Re D = 150 and Ma ≃ 0.33
St = f ( Re D )
λ a ≃ 16.5D
St D ≃ 0.184
U∞
300D
pw − p∞
Cp = ≃ 1.32
λa 1 2
ρ∞U∞ /2
= ≃ 16.5 D = 2 × 10−5 m
D Ma × St
Marsden et al., J. Comput. Acoust., 13(4), 2005

Laminar flow around a 2-D NACA 0012 airfoil
Ma = 0.29, Rec = 33300, chord c = 5 × 10−3 m, pressure and vorticity fields
λa
vorticity ωz , levels ±5 × 105 s−1
St = f c/U∞ ≃ 0.38
St = f × 2δ/U∞ ≃ 0.24 δ ≃ 4.92c/Re1/2
c (Roshko, 1955 ; Paterson et al., 1973)

Disparity of scales √
Isothermal jet, λ a /δθ ≃ Re D /( Ma × St) (Re D = 106 , Ma = 0.9, r/D ∼ 10)

p′a2 ∼ Ma7.5 u′a /u′ ∼ 10−4
θ =90o
p′a /p′ ∼ 10−3
u′a p′a
λa
δθ
uj
xc
D λ a /δθ ≃ 103
u′ p′ u′ /u j ≃ 0.16
laminar potential
Mollo-Christensen (1963), Re D = 4.6 × 105 core length xc

Turbulence and sound generation (aerodynamic noise)
Numerical constraints
Direct computation of aerodynamic noise (DNC)
∆x ∼ lη
Total number of grid points in 1-D, (fluid and acoustic domains)

L + λa 3/4 1 λa u j c∞ 1 1
nx ∼ ∼ Re L 1+ = = ∼
lη Ma L f L uj St × Ma Ma
Time step ∆t ∼ ∆x/c∞

Tc L Lc∞ 3/4 1
nt ∼ ∼ ′ ∼ ′ ∼ Re L
∆t u ∆t u ∆x Ma
Total cost
3
1 1 1
ndof × nt ∼ Re3L 1+ → Re3L , Ma ≪ 1
Ma Ma Ma4

x Aeroacoustic scaling q
Von Braun (1912 - 1977) / Saturn V
Acoustic Mach number Ma
uj
Ma = noise ∝ Man
c∞
Reynolds number Re D
uj D D2 /ν
Re D = = ∼
ν D/u j
viscous time
convective time
uj
D
nozzle
Strouhal number St
fD f non-dimension
St = =
uj u j /D frequency
x CFD versus CAA q
Apparently different disciplines
CFD – Computational Fluid Dynamics

CAA – Computational AeroAcoustics, related to propagation/radiation of sound
DNC – Direct Noise Computation, when CAA ∈ CFD !
DNS
LES CFD
Z/D DES
RANS
high-performance computing

x Supercomputing ressources q
Moores’ law
×2 every year
×2 every 1.5 years
Moores, Electronics, 38(8), 1965

x Supercomputing ressources q
Progress of computing power measured in FLOPs
Data from Nordhaus (2007), Koomey et al. (2011) and www.top500.org
18
10
Tianhe−2 (MilkyWay−2)
Titan − Cray XK7
15 IBM BlueGene/L Fujitsu − K computer
10 IBM Roadrunner SX−9
Earth Simulator SX−8
SX−6 Sony PS4

12 T3D
10
Paragon XP/S
SX−5 Sony PS3
SX−3 Dell Latitude E6400
Macbook (2.4GHzCore2Duo)
FLOPs
9
SX−2 Y−MP8
10 Cray 2 Dell Optiplex GX400 (P4)
Illiac IV X−MP4
Cray 1 Dell OptiPlex GXI (PII)
6 CDC 6600 Compacq Deskpro 386
10
VAX 11/780
IBM 3090
Apple IIe
3 IBM 704 Commodore 64
10
UNIVAC I
0 ENIAC
10
1950 1970 1990 2010 2030
Year

Different levels of representation/modelling in aeroacoustics
cs st
unsteady
i
s co
y
ph nal
analogies ved tio
hybrid methods o l ta
s
re pu DNC
om & WEM
c
&
incompressible compressible
CFD
statistical
models steady
DNC = Direct Noise Computation

WEM = Wave Extrapolation Methods

x Direct computation of aerodynamic noise q
High fidelity flow/noise simulation in a physically and numerically
controlled environment
non-reflecting
fluctuating pressure field boundary conditions
p′ outside of the flow & WEM
an error of 1% on
the aerodynamic
pressure field
yields an error
of 100% on the
acoustic field !
artificial turbulent
state at nozzle exit vorticity ω in the flow
to mimic turbulent BL
Barré et al., Int. J. AeroAcous. (2006)
Re D , Reδθ , u′e /u j Bogey & Bailly, J. Fluid Mech. (2007)

x Direct computation of aerodynamic noise q
DNC of a high ReD subsonic circular jet
Extrapolated pressure field with LEE as WEM (Bogey, 2005)

x Lighthill’s theory of aerodynamic noise q
The simplest wave equation from the conser-

vation of mass and Navier-Stokes equations
∂ρ ∂(ρui )
+ =0 (1)
∂t ∂xi

∂(ρui ) ∂ ρui u j ∂p ∂τij
+ =− + (2)
∂t ∂x j ∂xi ∂x j
Sir James Lighthill (1924-1998)
∂ ∂ ∂2
(1) − (2) = 0 and c2∞ ∇2 ρ = c2∞ (ρδij )
∂t ∂xi ∂xi ∂x j
2
∂2 ρ 2 2 ∂ Tij
− c∞ ∇ ρ = with Tij = ρui u j + p − c2∞ ρ δij − τij
∂t2 ∂xi ∂x j
Lighthill’s tensor
Lighthill, Proc. Roy. Soc. London (1952) & AIAA Journal (1982)

Interpretation of Lighthill’s equation ρ=Λ
≡ ∂tt − c2∞ ∇2 Λ = ∇ · ∇ · T
ρ ≃ Λnonlinear effects
ρ ≃ Λturbulence
In a uniform medium
at rest
ρ∞ , p∞ , c∞
ρ=0 ρ ≃ Λmean flow effects

Retarded-time solution of Lighthill’s equation
Z 2
1 ∂ Tij r dy
ρ ( x, t) = y, t −
4πc4∞ V ∂yi ∂y j c∞ r observer ( x, t)
By using r = x−y
2
x·y y
r = | x − y| ≃ x − +O x≫
x x
y x
∂ 1 xi ∂
❀− x≫y
∂yi c∞ x ∂t
x·y S
yx =
Z 2 x y
′ 1 xi x j ∂ Tij r O
ρ ( x, t) ≃ y, t − dy
4πc4∞ x x2 V ∂t
2 c∞ source volume V of turbulence
in the far-field approximation

Retarded-time solution of Lighthill’s equation
Solution of a non-homogeneous linear equation L(φ) = S
Free space Green function G∞ , L( G∞ ) = δ

φ = φ ∗ δ = φ ∗ L( G∞ ) = L(φ) ∗ G∞ = S ∗ G∞
Solution of Lighthill’s equation

L = ∂2tt − c2∞ ∇2 S = ∂2xi x j Tij G∞ ( x, t) = 1/(4πc2∞ x ) δ(t − x/c∞ )
2
∂ Tij 1 x
ρ( x, t) = S ∗ G∞ = ∗ δ t−
∂xi ∂x j 4πc2∞ x c∞

1 ∂Tij ∂ x 1 ∂Tij 1 xi ∂ x
≃ ∗ δ t− ≃ ∗ − δ t−
4πc2∞ x ∂x j ∂xi c∞ 4πc2∞ x ∂x j c∞ x ∂t c∞
as x → ∞

Some remarks about these subtle integral formulations
Crighton (1975), Ffowcs Williams (1992)
May we neglect the retarded time differences in the integral solutions ?
r | x − y| x x·y observer ( x, t)
t− = t− ≃ t− + +···
c∞ c∞ c∞ xc∞
difference x·y ls r = x−y

∼
in time emission xc∞ c∞
x
difference in time emission ls /c∞
∼ ∼ Mt
source turbulent time ls /u ′
S yx S
yx
❀ Yes if Mt ≪ 1, compact sources y y
(Mt turbulent Mach number) O
source volume V ∼ ls3 of turbulence

Insightful example (Crighton, 1974)
2 y2 u2 τ 2
u −
ls2
− 2
p′ = S with S (y, τ ) = ρ0 2
e ls
ls
√ 2 2 2
π ls M − u2 t− cx 1
′
p ( x, t) = ρ0 c20 2 1/2
e ls 0 1+ M 2
x≫y
4 x (1 + M )
M→0 √ M→∞
2 2 c20 2
π ls 2 u
− 2 t− cx √ − 2 t− cx
′
p ( x, t) = ρ0 c20 M e ls 0
p′ ( x, t) = ρ0 c20 π ls
Me ls 0
4 x 4 x
W ∼ M4 W ∼ M2
source frequency ∼ u/ls source frequency ∼ u/ls

acoustic frequency ∼ u/ls acoustic frequency ∼ c0 /ls

Simplification of the source term Tij′

Viscous effects as noise sources are negligible, Tij ≃ ρui u j + p − c2∞ ρ δij
Moreover, p′ = c2∞ ρ′ + ( p∞ /cv ) s′ for a perfect gas.

Hence for flows nearly isentropic, Tij ≃ ρui u j
For low Mach number isothermal flows Tij ≃ ρ̄ui u j ≃ ρ∞ ui u j

. . . but acoustic - mean flow interactions are definitively lost
Mean flow effects are contained in the linear compressible part

of the Lighthill tensor Tij
Aerodynamic noise source term ≡ non-linear part of Tij
The integral solution is a convolution product. In free space,

2
′ ∂ Tij ∂2 G∞ ∂2
ρ = G∞ ∗ = ∗ Tij = G∞ ∗ Tij
∂xi ∂x j ∂xi ∂x j ∂xi ∂x j

Crudest approximation for jet noise scaling
In the far field and for Mt ≤ 1 (compact sources)
Z 2
′ 1 xi x j ∂ Tij x
ρ ( x, t) ≃ y, t − dy
4πc4∞ x x2 V ∂t
2 c∞

1 ρ jUj2 jet nozzle diameter D
∼ D3
c4∞ x ( D/Uj )2 jet exit velocity Uj
Hence,
5
ρ j Uj 3
Wa ∼ Aρ j U j ( A = πD2 /4)
ρ∞ c5∞
Lighthill’s eigth power law (1952)
2
2 4 A ρj
p ′2 = Kρ∞ c∞ 2 M7.5 K ≃ 1.9 × 10−6
θ =90o r ρ∞

Jet noise scaling – acoustic efficiency η
η = Wacoustic /Wmechanical ≃ 1.2 × 10−4 (ρ j /ρ∞ ) M5
170
150 Wacoustic ∼ AUj8

OASPL90 (dB)
130 thrust = ṁ jUj

= Aρ jUj2
110
Wmechanical = Aρ jUj3 /2
90
0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0
Ma = Uj /c∞
Bogey et al. (2007), • Tanna (1977), ⊕ Lush (1971), H QinetiQ 1983 NTF data,
MolloChristensen (1964)
(free-field loss-less data scaled to a nozzle exit area A of 1 m2, Tj /T∞ = 1)

Jet noise scaling
Uj Uj /2
D 2D
T = ṁUj ∝ ρD2Uj2 same thrust T, −18 dB !

Engine Alliance GP7200 (A380, BPR = 8.7, Dfan = 2.95 m)
ṁs Vs
ṁ p Vp
ṁV0
BPR ≡ ṁs /ṁ p

ṁVj = ṁ p Vp + ṁs Vs
δV = Vj − V0
1
Trust T = ṁδV Propulsive efficiency η p =
1 + δV/(2V0 )
η p ր =⇒ δV ց =⇒ ṁ, BPR ր

Acoustic efficiency η for supersonic jet noise
η ∼ (ρ j /ρ∞ ) (Ffowcs Williams, 1963)
rocket engines
(solid and liquid propergol)
1.56 ≤ T ≤ 31100 kN
– combustion noise
– Reynolds number effects
Ref. Eldred, NASA SP-8072 (1971) & Candel (1983)

Spatial launchers at take off
Reduction of supersonic jet noise by water injection
Ref. Zoppellari & Juvé, AIAA 98-2204, LMFA & CNES.

x Other formulations derived from Lighthill’s analogy q
Vortex sound theory
Powell (1964), Howe (1975), Möhring (1978), Yates (1978) ...
Reformulation of Lighthill’s equation to emphasize the role of vorticity

in the production of sound
For incompressible flows, ∇ · u = 0, at low Mach number,
2

u
∇ · ∇ · (uu) = ∇ · (ω × u) + ∇2 L = ω×u Lamb’s vector
2
∂2 ρ 2 2
2
− c ∞ ∇ ρ ≃ ρ∞ ∇ · (ω × u)
∂t
❀ Example : noise radiated by two co-rotating vortices

x Vortex sound q
Rankine’s vortex : circular patch of uniform vorticity
ω = ωz with ω = ω0 = 2v0 /r0 if r ≤ r0 and ω = 0 else
0.2
 r

 u θ (r ) = v0 r ≤ r0
r0
 u θ (r ) = v0 r0 r > r0

uθ/(Γ/r0)
0.1
r
Γ 1
Γ= πr02 ω0 = 2πv0r0 6= 0 v0 =
r0 2π 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
r/r0

2 2


 ρv0 r
 p = p ∞ − 2 − 2
r ≤ r0
2 r0
pressure field

 ρv20 r02

 p = p∞ − r > r0
2 r 2

x Vortex sound q
Rectilinear vortex filament
(irrotational 2-D incompressible flow)
Velocity potential φ and stream function ψ
Γθ Γ
φ= ψ=− ln(r )
2π 2π
1 ∂ψ ∂φ ∂ψ 1 ∂φ Γ
ur = = =0 uθ = − = =
r ∂θ ∂r ∂r r ∂θ 2πr
Complex potential f = φ + iψ, z = x + iy
df
= u x − iuy = (ur − iuθ )e−iθ
dz
Γ df Γ −iθ Γ
f = −i ln z = −i e ur = 0 uθ =
2π dz 2πr 2πr

x Vortex sound q
Co-rotating vortices
Γ1 velocity at z1 induced by Γ2
❄
z1 Γ2 1
u1 − iv1 = −i
2π z1 − z2
zG ③
velocity at z2 induced by Γ1
Γ1 1
u2 − iv2 = −i
2π z2 − z1
z2
Γ1 (u1 − iv1 ) = −Γ2 (u2 − iv2 )
Γ2 ✲
center of the system :
Γ1 z1 + Γ2 z2 dz⋆G Γ1 dz1⋆ Γ2 dz2⋆

zG = and = + =0
Γ1 + Γ2 dt Γ1 + Γ2 dt Γ1 + Γ2 dt

x Vortex sound q
Co-rotating vortices
Γ1 Γ2
z − zG = ( z − z1 ) + ( z − z2 )
Γ1 + Γ2 Γ1 + Γ2
Γ2 |dz1 /dt| Γ1 + Γ2 1
z1 − z G = ( z1 − z2 ) ω= =
Γ1 + Γ2 | z1 − z G | 2π |z1 − z2 |2
The distance |z1 − z2 | remains constant (no velocity along z1 − z2)

and therefore the angular frequency ω is also constant.
Γ
if Γ1 = Γ2 = Γ, zG = (z1 + z2 )/2, ω =
4πl 2
if Γ1 = −Γ2, zG at infinity, uniform velocity of |z1 − z2 | at U = Γ/(πl )

x Vortex sound q
Co-rotating vortices – Powell (1964)
ey ✻
■
❅
u
❅
❅ Noise radiated by spinning vortices ?
❅
❅ T1
Z 2
l ✠ ω×u ′ ρ∞ ∂ ui u j r
ρ ( x, t) = y, t − dy
4πc2∞ x V ∂yi ∂y j c∞
①
ωt ✲
ex
l✒ local vorticity
❅ T2 incompressible flow, ∇ · u = 0 at low Mach

❅
u
❅
❅
❘
❅
number M = U /c∞ with U ∼ Γ/(4πl )
∂2 ρ 2 2
2
− c ∞ ∇ ρ ≃ ρ∞ ∇ · ∇ · (uu)
∂t
u2
≃ ρ ∞ ∇ · ( ω × u ) + ρ ∞ ∇2
2
Allan Powell

x Vortex sound q
Integral solution in the far field x ≫ y
Z 2 Z 2

ρ∞ 1 xi ∂ 1 ∂ u
ρ′ ( x, t) ≃ − (ω × u)i (y, t⋆ )dy + (y, t⋆ )dy
4πc2∞ x c∞ x ∂t V c2∞ ∂t2 V 2
Leading order-term in low Mach number flow ∼ O( M4 ) vs. O( M6 )
Taylor expansion of the retarded time variation about t − x/c∞

r x x·y
t⋆ = t − ≃ t− +
c∞ c∞ xc∞
Z 2 Z
∂ x 1 xj ∂ x
= (ω × u)i y, t − dy + y j (ω × u)i y, t − dy
∂t V c∞ c∞ x ∂t2 V c∞
The first term is zero by applying the divergence theorem

2
u
ω × u = ∇ · ∇ · (uu) − ∇ ❀ key role of the retarded time
2
x Vortex sound q
Integral solution in the far field x ≫ y
2 Z
′ ρ∞ xi x j ∂ x
ρ ( x, t) ≃ − y j ( ω × u )i y, t − dy
4πc4∞ x x2 ∂t2 V c∞
2-D problem Z +∞
G2D ( x1, x2 ) = G3D ( x1, x2, x3 )dx3
−∞
Position of the observer,

2
√
x1 = r cos θ, x2 = r sin θ, x3 = z r = x12 + x22 x= r 2 + z2
Z +∞ 2
Z
′ ρ∞ xi x j ∂
ρ ( x, t) ≃ − y j (ω × u)i (y, t⋆ )dy dz
4πc4∞ −∞ (r2 + z2 )3/2 ∂t2 V
√
t = t−
⋆
r2 + z2 /c∞ i, j = 1, 2

x Vortex sound q
Γ Γ2
( T1 ) ω × u = Γez × eθ = − er
4πl 4πl

2

2
Γ cos(ωt) Γ − cos(ωt)
∑ ω × u = − − =0
T ,T2 4πl sin ( ωt ) 4πl − sin ( ωt )
1
Observer at x1 = r cos θ, x2 = r sin θ
x j y j xi (ω × u)i = Γ2 /(4πl )
{[r cos θ l cos(ωt) + r sin θ l sin(ωt)] [−r cos θ cos(ωt) − r sin θ sin(ωt)]
+ [−r cos θ l cos(ωt) − r sin θ l sin(ωt)] [r cos θ cos(ωt) + r sin θ sin(ωt)]}
Γ2 2 2 Γ2 r 2
x j y j xi ( ω × u )i = − r l 2 cos (θ − ωt) = − [1 + cos(2θ − 2ωt)]
4πl 4π

x Vortex sound q
Z +∞
′ ρ ∞ Γ2 r 2 2 dz
ρ ( x, t) ≃ − 4ω cos (2θ − 2ωt ) 2 ⋆
4πc4∞ 4π −∞ (r + z2 )3/2
√
t = t−
⋆
r2 + z2 /c∞
Using the method of stationary phase (z̃ ≡ z/r)
Z +∞ r
1 irψ(z̃) dz̃ 1 iπ/4 2π
e ≃ e as r → ∞ (observer)
r2 −∞ (1 + z̃2 )3/2 r2 r 2ω/c∞
2ω √
ψ= 1 + z̃2
c∞
∂ψ 2ω z̃ ∂ψ
= √ = 0 in z̃ = 0
∂z̃ c∞ 1 + z̃2 ∂z̃
2 2 2

∂ ψ 2ω 1 2ω z̃ ∂ ψ 2ω
= √ − and thus = >0
∂z̃2 c∞ 1 + z̃2 c∞ (1 + z̃2 )3/2 ∂z̃2 z̃=0 c∞

x Vortex sound q
Sound radiated by spinning vortices
Powell (1963) - Howe (1998)
r
√ l 7/2 r π
ρ′ (r, θ, t) ≃ −ρ∞ 4 π M cos 2θ − 2ω t − +
r c∞ 4
√
1/ r decay of the pressure
power radiated per unit length in z, W ∼ M7 (❀ 2-D turbulence)
see also Kirchhoff vortex

vorticity σ = 1.2
pressure σ = 1.2
vorticity σ = 12.5
vorticity σ = 25
Barré et al., Theoret. Comput. Dyn, 2008

x Mean flow effects – Quiz q
Flow past a cavity : observer in a uniform medium U∞ , ρ∞ , c∞
How to interpret Lighthill’s equation ?
Introducing the following (arbitrary) decomposition,

ρ ≡ ρ∞ + ρ′ ui ≡ U∞ δ1i + ui′
+
U∞ Tij = ρui u j = (ρ∞ + ρ′ )(U∞ δ1i + ui′ )(U∞ δ1j + u′j )
✲
Lighthill’s equation provides
∂2 ρ ′ 2 2 ′ ∂2 ′ ′ ∂2 ′
2 ′
2 ∂ ρ
− c∞ ∇ ρ = (ρui u j ) + 2U∞ (ρu j ) + U∞ 2
Gloerfelt et al., 2003, J. Sound Vib., 266
∂t2 ∂xi ∂x j ∂x1 ∂x j ∂x1
∂2 ′ ′ ∂2 ρ ′ 2 ′
2 ∂ ρ
= (ρui u j ) −2U∞ − U∞ 2
∂xi ∂x j ∂t∂x1 ∂x1
∂ρ′ ∂ρ′ ∂
by using the conservation of mass + U∞ + (ρu′j ) = 0
∂t ∂x1 ∂x j

x Mean flow effects – Quiz q
In a uniform medium U∞ , ρ∞ , c∞ , sound is governed

+ by the convected wave equation
U∞ 2
∂ ∂
✲
+ U∞ ρ′ − c2∞ ∇2 ρ′ = 0
∂t ∂x1
2
∂ ∂ ′ ∂2 ρ ′ ∂2 ρ ′ 2 ′
2 ∂ ρ
+ U∞ ρ ≡ 2 + 2U∞ + U∞ 2
∂t ∂x1 ∂t ∂t∂x1 ∂x1
Gloerfelt et al., 2003, J. Sound Vib., 266
∂2 ρ ′ 2 2 ′ ∂2 ′ ′ ∂2 ρ ′ 2 ′
2 ∂ ρ
Lighthill Eq. =⇒ 2
− c∞ ∇ ρ = (ρui u j )−2U∞ − U∞ 2
∂t ∂xi ∂x j ∂t∂x1 ∂x1
– Mean flow - acoustic interactions are included in Tij

– Aerodynamic noise source term ≡ non-linear part of Tij

Mean flow effects are contained in the linear compressible part of the
Lighthill tensor Tij .
f
Tij − T̄ij = Tij + Tijl = ρui′ u′j + ρūi u′j + ρui′ ū j
For pratical applications, we often intend to get an estimate of the radiated

noise from an incompressible turbulent simulation which is less expensive.
In practice
( ′
u = ū + uaero mean flow interactions are lost
′
u = ū + uaero + acous mean flow interactions are included in Tijl

Mean flow effects must be removed from the source term Tij and must be reco-
vered by taking into account by a more complete wave operator in the second
step – i.e. the acoustic propagation.
Replace the D’Alembertian ∂2 /∂t2 − c2∞ ∇2

by the Linearized Euler Equations (LEE)
Acoustic Perturbation Equations (APE), sound propagation in an irrotational

mean flow (extension of vortex sound theory)
 ′
 ∂t ρ + ∂ xi (ρ ūi + ρ̄ui ) = 0
′ ′

∂t ui′ + ∂ x j (ūi u′j ) + ∂ xi ( p′ /ρ̄) = qm qm ≃ −(ω × u)′


∂t p′ − c̄2 ∂t ρ′ = 0
Ref. Howe (1998), Möhring (1999)

Ewert & Schröder, 2003, J. Comput. Phys.

x The Linearized Euler Equations q
Small perturbations arround a steady mean flow (ρ̄, ū, p̄)
(perfect gas, no gravity)
 ′ ′ ′

 ∂ t ρ + ∇ · ( ρ ū + ρ̄u )=0
∂t (ρ̄u′ ) + ∇ · (ρ̄ūu′ ) + ∇ p′ + (ρ̄u′ + ρ′ ū) · ∇ū = 0


∂t p′ + ∇ · [ p′ ū + γ p̄u′ ] + (γ − 1) p′ ∇ · ū − (γ − 1) u′ · ∇ p̄ = 0
Acoustic propagation in the presence of a flow (atmosphere, ocean, turbulent

flow, ...) is governed by the Linearized Euler Equations (LEE)
In the general case, this system cannot be reduced exactly to a single

wave equation.
Ref. Blokhintzev (1946)

Pridmore-Brown (1958), Lilley (1972), Goldstein (1976, 2001, 2003)

x The Linearized Euler Equations q
For a parallel base flow ūi = ū1 ( x2, x3 )δ1i , ρ̄ = ρ̄( x2, x3 ) (and thus p̄ cst),
the LEE can be recast into a wave equation based on the pressure,
L0 [ p ′ ] = 0
2

D̄ D̄ 2
∂2
2 ∂ ū1
L0 ≡ 2
− ∇ · c̄ ∇ + 2c̄ i = 2, 3 D̄ ≡ ∂t + ū1 ∂ x1
D̄t D̄t ∂xi ∂x1 ∂xi
From the (exact) Navier-Stokes equations, we can also form

an inhomogeneous wave equation based on L → L0 at
leading order, L [ p′ ] = Λ Lilley (1972)

d d2 π ∂ ∂π ∂u i ∂ ∂π ∂ui ∂u j ∂uk
− c2 +2 c2 = −2
dt dt2 ∂xi ∂xi ∂x j ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j ∂xk ∂xi

∂ui ∂ 1 ∂τij d2 1 ds d ∂ 1 ∂τij
Sir Geoffrey Lilley +2 + 2 −
∂x j ∂xi ρ ∂xi dt c p dt dt ∂xi ρ ∂x j
π = ln p π ′ ≃ (1/γ) p′ /p∞

x Mean flow effects q
Lilley’s equation
Seek a solution of the form p′ ( x, t) = ϕ ( x2 ) ei(k1 x1 −ωt) = ϕ ( x2 ) eik(ν1 x1 −co t)
k = ω/c∞ , ν1 = k1 /k = cos θ, M = ū1 /c∞
shear-layer thickness δ
2ν1 dM ′ h i
2 2 2
′′
ϕ + ϕ + k (1 − ν1 M ) − ν1 ϕ = 0
1 − ν1 M dx2
∼ k2 ∼ k/δ ∼ k2
High-frequency approximation,
2
ϕ′′ + k2 q( x2 ) ϕ = 0 with q( x2 ) = (1 − ν1 M ) − ν12
q( x2 ) < 0 exponential decrease

q( x2 ) > 0 periodic oscillations
Turning point given by q( x2⋆ ) = 0, cos θ ⋆ = 1/( M + 1)

Lilley’s equation
ū1 1 √
Harmonic source in a Bickley jet = β = ln(1 + 2)
uj cosh2 ( βy/δ)
St = 4.4 M = 0.5 λ∼δ
LEE (log10 (| p′ | + ǫ)) and

ray-tracing
high-frequency noise is diver-

ting away from the jet axis
shadow zone at angles close to

the jet axis, θ ⋆ ≃ 48.2o
(edge of the silence cone)

Lilley’s equation
Physical interpretation : wavelength matching at the interface,

c1 1 c2 1 x2
+ M1 = p′t
f cos θ1 f cos θ2
2 θ1
θ2
1
θ1 x1
ū1
pi′ pr′
180
150 cos θ1
cos θ2 = (0 ≤ θ1 ≤ π )
120 1 + M1 cos θ1
90
1
θ2
cos θ2⋆ = for θ1 = 0o (grazing incidence)

60
1 + M1
30
θ2 = f (θ1 ) for M1 = 0 : 0.1 : 1.5
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
θ1

x Hybrid method using source terms in LEE q
t
Identification of the source term S = [0, S1, S2, S3, 0] associated with LEE,
(unidirectional sheared mean flow)
f f ∂ui′ u′j ∂ui′ u′j

Si = Si − Si = −ρ̄ + ρ̄ (non-linear)
∂x j ∂x j
At least for a sheared mean flow, an hybrid method based on LEE

can be proposed : generalization to an arbitrary mean flow (open question !)
Ref. Bogey, Bailly & Juvé, 2002, AIAA Journal, 40(2) & AIAA Paper 2001-2255
Bogey, Gloerfelt, Bailly, 2003, AIAA Journal, 41(8)
Bailly & Bogey, 2004, IJCFD, 18(6)
Bailly, Bogey & Candel, 2010, Int. J. Aerocoustics
Colonius, Lele & Moin, 1997, J. Fluid Mech.

Goldstein, 2001, 2003, 2005, J. Fluid Mech.

x Model problem for numerical aeroacoustics q
Noise generated by vortex pairings in a mixing layer

x Model problem for numerical aeroacoustics q
Vortex pairing in a plane mixing layer
Winant & Browand, J. Fluid Mech. (1974)

x Vortex pairings in a mixing layer q
Configuration u1 ( x2 )/um = 1 + Ru tanh [ x2 /(2δθ )] δω = 4δθ
0.5
x2
✻ U1 ✲ ei(kr x1 −ωt) e−ki x1
O ✻ ✲ 0.2 kr δθ
δ
❄ω x1
✛ ✲
U2✲ λ = 2π/kr
0.0 ki δθ
U1 + U2 ∆U U1 − U2
um = Ru = =
2 2um 2um −0.2
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
ω δθ / um
U1 = 40 m.s−1 & U2 = 160 m.s−1 (Ru = 0.6, um = 100 m.s−1)

δω (0) ∆U
initial vorticity thickness δω (0) , Reω = = 12800
ν

Forcing at f0

Forcing at f0 /2

Forcing with broadband noise

Forcing at f0 and f0 /2, vortex pairing locations fixed around 75δω(0)

x Noise generated by a mixing layer q
Dilatation field Θ = ∇ · u on the whole domain
Wave fronts coming from pairing loca-

tion with a wavelength corresponding to
frequency f p = f 0 /2
λ f p ≃ 51δω (0)
Convection effects (particularly in the

upper rapid flow)
Noise generation by pairing process :

double spiral pattern, similar to quadru-
polar structure described in work of Po-
well (1964) and Mitchell (1995) on co-
rotative vortices

Dilatation field
t t + Tp /4
t + Tp /2 t + 3Tp /4

Lighthill’s analogy
∂2 Tij /∂yi ∂y j ∂2 Tij /∂t2
→ similar results but the time derivative form is more accurate

See Sarkar & Hussaini (1993), O(1/M2t )

Synthesis
f LEE without f
(a) Tij (b) (c) Tijt = Tij + Tijl (d) DNC
mean flow
❀ acoustic - mean flow interactions included in the linear part

of Lighthill’s tensor

Hybrid method based on LEE
(a) LEE (b) LES St = −∂ x j (ρui u j ) + ∂ x j ρui u j
instead of
SLEE = −ρ̄∂ x j (ui′ u′j ) + ρ̄∂ x j ui′ u′j
❀ overestimation of refraction effects

Hybrid method based on LEE
It remains one problem with the linearized Euler equations, as for any exact
formulation in the time domain taking into account the presence of a mean
flow : physical coupling between acoustic waves and instability waves, except
for a homogeneous flow or in the high-frequency domain (geometrical acoustics,
e.g. ray tracing)
LEE = generalization of the Rayleigh equation (1880) for a compressible pertur-
bation
A « simplified » formulation of LEE can be obtained by removing a gradient

term associated with refraction effects
Convected wave equation (e.g. APE)
Interesting numerical test case in the proceedings of the 4th CAA workshop
Agarwal, Morris & Mani, 2004, AIAA Journal, 42(1)
4th CAA workshop, NASA CP-2004-212954

Radiation and refraction of sound waves through a 2-D shear layer
(4th CAA workshop, NASA CP-2004-212954)
PML (Hu, 2001)

x2 ✻
❄
ρ̄( x2 ), ū1 ( x2 )
① ✲
x1
O ❆❑❆
❆
❆
✒ ❆
❆
S ❆
❆
❆
❆
❆
sound field instability wave

(Kelvin-Helmholtz for this case)
Thomas Emmert - 2004 - Diplomarbeit Technische Universtät München - ECL

« Simplified » formulation of LEE
by removing a gradient term associated to refraction effects
−4
x 10
6
−2
−4
−6
M j = 0.756 Tj = 600 K −8
−50 0 50 100 150
St = f 02b/u j ≃ 0.085
pressure along the line y = 15b
Bailly & Bogey, NASA CP-2004-212954. analytical solution
Agarwal, Morris & Mani (AIAA Journal, 2004)
LEE approximation not valid for low frequency applications

6= usual high-frequency approximation (geometrical acoustics)

Spatial stability of a compressible plane jet
hyperbolic tangent profile, M j = 2, δθ /b = 0.125, T∞ /Tj = 1
10
ωs b/u j = 0.14π
y/b
0
First acoustic mode k a1 b = 1.7 − 0.083i
Kelvin-Helmholtz mode k KH b = 0.65 − 0.05i
−10
0 10 20 30 40 50
x/b
100
profile at y/b = 0
50
profile at y/b = 5.7
and levels ×60
p′
0
Radiation of the KH mode only (not −50

the most amplified instability wave)
−100
Sabatini & Bailly, 2015, AIAA Journal, 53(3) 0 10 20 30 40 50
x/b
x Numerical implementation of integral formulations q
Source term formulation (space / temporal derivatives / Fourier’s space)
Ref. Sarkar & Hussaini, ICASE 93-74 (1993)
Bastin, Lafon & Candel, J. Fluid Mech., 335 (1997)
Lockard, J. Sound Vib., 229(4) (2002)
Gloerfelt, Bailly & Juvé, J. Sound Vib., 266(1) (2003)
Algorithm for retarded-time (time accumulation / source-time algorithm)

Ref. Sarkar & Hussaini, ICASE 93-74 (1993)
Brentner & Farassat, Prog. in Aero. Sci., 39 (2003)
Casalino, J. Sound Vib., 261 (2003)
Truncation of the source volume

Ref. Witkowska & Juvé, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 318 (1994)
Wang, Lele & Moin, AIAA Journal, 34(11) (1996)
Bastin, Lafon & Candel, J. Fluid Mech. (1997)
Martínez-Lera & Schram, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 124(6) (2008)

x Influence of solid surfaces q
Two main strategies for a theoretical approach
Use of the free space Green function G∞ by introducing a generalized func-

tion variable, which is valid over all space : Ffowcs Williams & Hawkings’
formulation
Use of the taylored Green function G0, which satisfies all the specified boun-
dary conditions
❀ illustration with flow-induced cylinder noise

x Ffowcs Williams & Hawkings’ formulation q
Arbitrary control surface Σ
uΣ
n = ∇ f / |∇ f |
ρ ( x, t) ?
′
turbulent f <0
flow volume V , f > 0,
closed by Σ
Σ/ f = 0
Generalized function H ( f )ρ′ as new unknown valid over all space, ( Hρ′ ) ?
∂2 Hρ′ 2
2 ∂ Hρ
′ ∂2 HTij ∂Fi δ ( f ) ∂Qδ ( f )
2
− c∞ = + +
∂t ∂xi ∂xi ∂xi ∂x j ∂xi ∂t
2

Tij = ρui u j + p − c∞ ρ δij − τij (Lighthill’s tensor)
h i ∂f h i
Σ Σ Σ ∂f
Fi = − ρui (u j − u j ) + pδij − τij Q = ρ(u j − u j ) + ρ∞ u j
∂x j ∂x j
Ffowcs Williams & Hawkings, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, (1969)

Two classical configurations for the surface control
where V , Σ can be restricted to V0, Σ0 respectively
cavity noise cylinder noise
Σ/ f = 0 Σ/ f = 0
✬ ✩
U∞ ✲
U∞✲ ✠
V0 ✲
✟✟
✟✟✟✟ f <0 V0
Σ0
f <0 ✲ Σ0

Integral solution
uΣ r r
Mr = · τ⋆ = t −
c∞ r c∞
Z
′ 1 ∂2 Tij (y, τ ⋆ ) dy
Hρ ( x, t) =
4πc2∞ ∂xi ∂x j V |1 − Mr | r
Z Z
1 ∂ 1 Fi (y, τ ⋆ ) dΣ 1 ∂ 1 Q (y, τ ⋆ ) dΣ
+ +
4πc2∞ ∂xi Σ r |1 − Mr | |∇ f | 4πc2∞ ∂t Σ r |1 − Mr | |∇ f |
1 volume integral ≡ volume outside the surface controle !

2 surface integrals ≡ controle surface
Lighthill’s tensor, quadrupole term.

loading noise, dipole term.
thickness noise, monopole term.
Helicopter noise applications : Farassat, Brentner, Myers, Prieur, . . .

x Curle’s formulation q
Non-porous surface u j − uΣj at rest uΣj = 0 ( Q ≡ 0)
Z Z
′ 1 ∂2 ⋆ dy 1 ∂ n j dΣ
Hρ ( x, t) = Tij (y, τ ) − pij (y, τ ) ⋆
4πc2∞ ∂xi ∂x j V r 4πc2∞ ∂xi Σ r
Z Z
1 xi x j ∂2 Tij 1 xi ∂pij
≃ (y, τ ) dy +
⋆
(y, τ ⋆ ) n j dΣ
4πc4∞ x x2 V ∂t 2 4πc3∞ x x Σ ∂t
in the acoustic far-field, with pij = pδij − τij
Compact surface ❀ retarded time negligeable if LΣ ≪ λ

Z
′ 1 ∂ x r = x−y
Hρ ( x, t) ≃ p y, t − cos θdΣ
4πc3∞ x ∂t Σ c∞
fluctuating force for a compact surface, LΣ θ

equivalent dipole source n
Σ
dimensionnal analysis, W ∼ U 6 power law V

x Influence of solid surfaces q
Taylored Green’s function
Formal solution of the wave equation
(∂2tt − c2∞ ∇2 ) p′ ( x, t) = s( x, t) x∈V
imposed boundary conditions on Σ = ∂V , e.g. ∂p/∂n = ∇ p · n = 0
initial conditions, p( x, t0 ) = f ( x) and ∂t p( x, t0 ) = g( x) at initial time t = t0
Taylored Green’s function G0

(∂2tt − c2∞ ∇2 ) G0 ( x, t|y, τ ) = δ( x − y)δ(t − τ )
solution which is zero for t < τ, that is G0 = 0 and ∂t G0 = 0
boundary conditions, e.g. ∂G0 /∂n = 0 on Σ
Solution given by the convolution product p′ = G0 ∗ s

(the term associated with the transient regime due to impulsive initial condi-
tions is neglected : steady regime)
... but the taylored Green’s function is generally unknown !

x Flow induced cylinder noise q
2-D cylinder D = 3.81 cm M = 0.12 ReD ≃ 1.1 × 105
URANS simulation (Fluent, RSM, two-layer method for BL)
physical domain [−8.5D; 16.5D ] × [−10.5D; 10.5D ]
55000 pts, 0.3 ≤ ∆y+ ≤ 1.1 on the cylinder circumference, ∆t ≃ 10−4 s
initial free-stream turbulence level around 1%
integration in the frequency domain (over two periods) for acoustics
1.5
Vorticity snapshot,
x2/D
0
contours 16 between
−1.5
ωD/U∞ = ±4.43
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x /D
1
Ref. Pérot, F. (Ph.D. Thesis, PSA Peugeot-Citroën)

Gloerfelt, Pérot, Bailly & Juvé, J. Sound Vib., 287, 2005

Mean pressure coeffcient C p Drag and lift coeffcients
1 0.3
0.2 0.48
0 0.1
Cp
CD
CL
0 0.47
−1 −0.1
−0.2 0.46
−2 −0.3
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t/T0
0 120 240 360
θ
f0 D
simulation at ReD = 1.1 × 10 5 St = ≃ 0.24
U∞
C̄D ≃ 0.47 Z
1 2π
◦ ◦ ◦ turbulent stream CL = 2
p sin θdθ ∼ f0
ρ∞ U∞ 0
△ △ △ uniform stream Z
1 2π
(ReD = 1.11 × 105, data from Batham, 1973) CD = p cos θdθ ∼ 2 f0
2
ρ∞ U∞ 0

Curle’s analogy (involving the free space Green function G∞ )
ZZ 2b Z b∞
H( f ) pb( x, ω ) = − bij G∞ dy −
T
∂
pb
∂G
ni dΣ
∂yi ∂y j ∂yi
V Σ
written in Fourier space, Z +∞

1 (1)
c
G∞ ( x|y, ω ) = H0 (kr ) b( x, ω ) =
φ φ( x, t)eiωt dt
4i −∞
b0
Tailored Green’s function G
ZZ 2b
H( f ) pb( x, ω ) = − bij G0 dy
T
∂
∂yi ∂y j
V
Z b∞ ZZ 2b
b0 = Gb∞ + c ∂G b ∂ Gs
G Gs ❀ pb ni dΣ = Tij dy
∂yi ∂yi ∂y j
= incident + scattered Σ V

Curle’s analogy
Surface integral Volume integral
pressure levels between ±5 Pa pressure levels between ±0.5 Pa

dipole-like field at frequency f 0 lateral quadrupole field at f 0

Curle’s analogy
Surface integral Surface integral

x2 component (lift) x1 component (drag)

dipole-like field at frequency f 0 dipole-like field at 2 f 0

Tailored Green function Gloerfelt et al. J. Sound Vib., 287, 2005
Contribution of Gs Contribution of G0

dipole-like field at frequency f 0 lateral quadrupole field at f 0
aerodynamic sources located at x1 ≃ 1.5D behind the cylinder – producing a

quadrupole field at f 0, whose scattered field is a dipole field at f 0.
Curle surface integral ≡ scattering of aerodynamic sources by the cylinder

x Cavity noise q
Aeroacoustic feedback loop L/Uc + L/c = n/ f (rectangular cavity)
Principal mechanism at rather high Mach numbers
Rossiter formula (1964)

■
❅
❅
❅ fL n−α
❅ acoustic St = =
❅
❅ waves U∞ 1
U∞
✲ ❅ M+
✲
❅
❅
κ
❅
✲ shear layer f frequency
✻ L length
D ✛ pressure U∞ free stream velocity
❄ waves
n number of vortices
L α phase lag
✛ ✲
κ = Uc /U∞ , Uc convection velocity
M= U∞ /c
- No information regarding amplitude or mode selection (L/δθ )

- Acoustic resonance can superimpose (longitudinal or depth mode)

x Cavity noise q
Application of integral methods to cavity noise
Acoustic analogy
Ffowcs Williams & Hawkings
Wave Extrapolation Methods

Kirchhoff’s method
Ffowcs Williams & Hawkings
(based on / porous FW-H)
Gloerfelt, Bailly & Juvé, 2003, J. Sound Vib., 266(1)

x Cavity noise q
Application of integral methods to cavity noise
Direct noise computation of one configuration of Karamcheti’s experiments
full scale DNS, L/D = 2 (L = 5.18 mm and D = 2.54 mm)

laminar incoming boundary layer, δ ≃ 0.2D and L/δθ ≃ 50
free stream Mach number M = 0.7, Reynolds number ReD = 41000
DNS Karamcheti’s experiment

x Cavity noise q
Ffowcs Williams & Hawkings analogy
observer
❦
◗
❆❑ ◗
2-D formulation U∞ x
❆ ◗
❆ ◗
◗
✲ ❆ ◗ r = x−y
in the frequency-domain ❆
❆
◗
◗
◗
◗
Z +∞ ❆
❆
◗
◗
φ ( x, t) e−iωt dt ❆ ✸
✑ S0
φ̃ ( x, ω ) = ❆
✑
✑
✑
✻ n
−∞ ❆ ✑ y
❆✑
O L0
with a uniform mean flow
in observer region,
volume source + cavity rigid walls [un = 0]
Z ZZ
∂ G̃conv ∂2 G̃conv
p̃( x, ω ) = F̃i (y, ω ) dΣ(y) − T̃ij (y, ω ) dy
L0 ∂yi S0 ∂yi ∂y j

∞ ∞ 2

 T̃ij = ρ(ui − Ui )(u j − Uj ) + p − c∞ ρ δij − τij

 F̃ = − pδ − τ n

i ij ij j
with

 i i(Mk(x1 −y1 )/β2 ) (2) kr β


 G̃conv ( x, y, ω ) = e H0
4β β2

x Cavity noise q
Ffowcs Williams & Hawkings analogy
volume surface
integral integrals
FW-H DNS
analogy reference
solution
separation between direct and reflected sound fields

(Powell reflection theorem, 1960)
volume integral sensitive to truncature effects

x Cavity noise q
Wave extrapolation method
observer
❦
◗
❆❑ ◗
2-D formulation U∞ x
❆ ◗
❆ ◗
◗
✲ ❆ ◗ r = x−y
in the frequency-domain ❆
❆
◗
◗
◗ ✻ n
❆ ◗
Z +∞ ❆
◗
◗
✸
✑
φ ( x, t) e−iωt dt
❆ ✑
φ̃ ( x, ω ) = ❆
❆ ✑
✑
y
L
−∞ ✑
❆✑
O
with a uniform mean flow
in observer region,
porous surface [un 6= 0]
Ffowcs Williams & Hawkings WEM (porous FW-H)

Z Z
∂ G̃conv
p̃( x, ω ) = F̃i (y, ω ) dΣ(y) − iω Q̃(y, ω ) G̃conv dΣ(y)
L ∂yi L
∞

F̃i = − ρ(ui − 2Ui )u j + pδij − τij n j Q̃ = ρui ni

x Cavity noise q
Ffowcs Williams & Hawkings WEM
DNS
FW-H WEM
reference
from L1
solution
FW-H WEM FW-H WEM

from L2 from L3

x Noise of cylindrical cavities q
Cavity noise : a long-lasting problem in transport
TGV - high speed train (rear engine) - courtesy of SNCF
fuel pressure
relief vent
on a A319
Courtesy of Jan Delf (DLR), refer to AIAA Paper 2002-2470

Measured acoustic spectra at 1 m above the cavity
cavity diameter D = 10 cm, depth H = D, flow speed 50 ≤ U∞ ≤ 110 m/s
Marsden et al., J. Sound Vib., 2008
2500 90 90
80
2000
70
PSD (dB/Hz)
70
1500
f (Hz)
60
1000
50
50
U∞= 90 m/s
500 40 U∞= 70 m/s
30
0 30 2 3 4
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 10 10 10
U∞ (m/s) f (Hz)
G12 ( f )
ℑ ( G12 × G21 ) = 0
shear-layer acoustic =⇒ resonance frequencies +
dynamics depth mode
Elder, 1978, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 63(3)
G21 ( f )
Snapshot of streamwise velocity u x & spanwise vorticity ωy
U∞ = 70 m.s−1 U∞ = 90 m.s−1 U∞ = 110 m.s−1

0.05 80 0.05 100 0.05 120
80 100
60
80
0.00 0.00 60 0.00
40
60
z (m)
z (m)
z (m)
40
40
20
−0.05 −0.05 20 −0.05
20
0
0 0
−0.10 −20 −0.10 −20 −0.10 −20

−0.10 −0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 −0.10 −0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 −0.10 −0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10
x (m) x (m) x (m)
0.05 0.05 0.05
0.00 0.00 0.00

z (m)
z (m)
z (m)
−0.05 −0.05 −0.05
−0.10 −0.10 −0.10

−0.10 −0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 −0.10 −0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 −0.10 −0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10
x (m) x (m) x (m)
❀ mode II (Elder type) ❀ modes I & II ❀ mode I

Computed acoustic PSD at 1 m above the cavity
U∞ = 70 m.s−1 U∞ = 90 m.s−1 U∞ = 110 m.s−1

100 100 100
80 80 80
Spp (dB)
Spp (dB)
Spp (dB)
60 60 60
40 40 40
20 20 20
100 1000 10000 100 1000 10000 100 1000 10000
f (Hz) f (Hz) f (Hz)
—– experimental data —– computational data

x Concluding remarks q
Strategies in computational aeroacoustics
(The devil is in the details !)
Statistical modelling of the radiated sound field (based on RANS)
simple but limited description of physics & prediction capacities
Acoustic analogy based on a 3-D source volume

Lighthill or based on LEE, APE, LEE-SNGR, ...
not highly recommended, heavy computations (storage), acoustic modelling,
interpretation of source terms, ...
Direct computation of aerodynamic noise (LES, DES)

prohibitive cost in low Mach number approximation
Surface integral formulations

incompressible/compressible : imposed by the importance of mean flow ef-
fects (radiation) or by source compacity (diffraction)
WEM : Ffowcs Williams & Hawkings / linearized Euler equations (LEE)
LEE + mean flow effects, non-linear LEE

What could be a philosophy to use (often heavy) aeroacoustics simulations ?
real life
predict aerodynamic noise in pratical / realistic configurations

provide the bounds of achievable noise reduction
use CAA as diagnostic tool for studying specific (small) problems
known-how : industrial softwares, hpc, reduced-order models
understand physics of aerodynamic noise generation
concepts
theory

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Turbulence and Aeroacoustics

Research team of the Centre Acoustique

École doctorale MEGA - Février 2015

Christophe Bailly, Christophe Bogey & Olivier Marsden

Prasad & Sreenivasan (1989) Dimotakis et al. (1983)

3 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

Energy input to create turbulence (power per unit

Kolmogorov scales (smallest scales) lη , uη

4 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)

5 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

x2 Deardorff, J. Fluid Mech. (1970), ndof = 6720

Kim, Moin & Moser, J. Fluid Mech. (1987)

6 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

Laadhari, Phys. Fluids (2007)

Iso-surfaces of the streamwise fluctating velocity u1′

7 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

Dν (k) = 2νk2 E(k)

8 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

◦ 23 boundary layer (Tielman, 1967)

9 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

10 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

Pressure p satisfies Poisson’s equation

In free space, the solution can be written as, (if p → cst as r → ∞)

11 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

non-local aerodynamic pressure field,

12 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

flow separation behind a rounded Helmholtz equation

The term ω · ∇u is directly associa-

13 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

Ratio between the source size ls and the

As Ma → 0, λ a /ls → ∞ and sources are compact.

14 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

15 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

vorticity ωz , levels ±5 × 105 s−1

16 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

17 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

Time step ∆t ∼ ∆x/c∞

18 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

CFD – Computational Fluid Dynamics

20 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

×2 every 1.5 years

Moores, Electronics, 38(8), 1965

21 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

SX−6 Sony PS4

22 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

DNC = Direct Noise Computation

23 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

24 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

25 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

The simplest wave equation from the conser-

26 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

27 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

in the far-field approximation

28 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

Free space Green function G∞ , L( G∞ ) = δ

Solution of Lighthill’s equation

29 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

May we neglect the retarded time differences in the integral solutions ?

difference x·y ls r = x−y

30 Aéroacoustique avancée - cb1 - février 2015

source frequency ∼ u/ls source frequency ∼ u/ls