The Theories to Understand Human Behavior

1. Sigmund Frued (The Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality)

The id, ego, and superego are names for the three parts of the human personality which are part of Sigmund
Freud's psychoanalytic personality theory. According to Freud, these three parts combine to create the complex
behavior of human beings. Let's look at several examples of id, ego, and superego.

The Id
This consists of innate intellectual drives of sexual and aggressive in nature which seeks immediate gratification
of primitive, irrational pleasure seeking of drives such as se, hunger, thirst, etc. The id, the most primitive of the
three structures, is concerned with instant gratification of basic physical needs and urges. It operates entirely
unconsciously (outside of conscious thought). For example, if your id walked past a stranger eating ice cream, it
would most likely take the ice cream for itself. It doesn’t know, or care, that it is rude to take something
belonging to someone else; it would care only that you wanted the ice cream.

Meeting Basic Needs

The id is the most basic part of the personality. It also represents our most animalistic urges, like the desire for food
and sex. The id seeks instant gratification for our wants and needs. If these needs or wants are not met, a person can
become tense, anxious, or angry.
Sally was thirsty. Rather than waiting for the server to refill her glass of water, she reached across the table and
drank from Mr. Smith's water glass, much to his surprise.

The Ego
This is personality responsible for controlling behavior in socially approved ways: there is rational thinking. In
contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is the rational, pragmatic part of our personality. It
is less primitive than the id and is partly conscious and partly unconscious. It’s what Freud considered to be the
“self,” and its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the practical context of reality. So, if you
walked past the stranger with ice cream one more time, your ego would mediate the conflict between your id (“I
want that ice cream right now”) and superego (“It’s wrong to take someone else’s ice cream”) and decide to go
buy your own ice cream. While this may mean you have to wait 10 more minutes, which would frustrate your
id, your ego decides to make that sacrifice as part of the compromise– satisfying your desire for ice cream while
also avoiding an unpleasant social situation and potential feelings of shame.

Dealing with Reality

The ego deals with reality, trying to meet the desires of the id in a way that is socially acceptable in the world. This
may mean delaying gratification and helping to get rid of the tension the id feels if a desire is not met right away.
The ego recognizes that other people have needs and wants too, and being selfish isn't good in the long run.
Sally was thirsty. However, she knew that her server would be back soon to refill her water glass, so she waited until
then to get a drink, even though she really just wanted to drink from Mr. Smith's glass.

The Superego
This is conscience, the sense of right and wrong, that works according to the ideal. The superego is concerned
with social rules and morals—similar to what many people call their” conscience” or their “moral compass.” It
develops as a child learns what their culture considers right and wrong. If your superego walked past the same
stranger, it would not take their ice cream because it would know that that would be rude. However, if both your
id and your superego were involved, and your id was strong enough to override your superego’s concern,
you would still take the ice cream, but afterward you would most likely feel guilt and shame over your actions.
Conflict within the mind: According to Freud, the job of the ego is to balance the aggressive/pleasure-seeking
drives of the id with the moral control of the superego.

Adding Morals
The superego develops last, and is based on morals and judgments about right and wrong. Even though the superego
and the ego may reach the same decision about something, the superego's reason for that decision is based more on
moral values, while the ego's decision is based more on what others will think or what the consequences of an action
could be on the individual.
Sarah knew she could steal the supplies from work and no one would know about it. However, she knew that
stealing was wrong, so she decided not to take anything even though she would probably never get caught.
https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-id-ego-and-superego.html
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/psychodynamic-perspectives-on-personality/
2. B. F. Skinner (Operant Conditioning Theory)
Was one of the most influential of American psychologists. A behaviorist, he developed the theory of operant
conditioning -- the idea that behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or
punishments, which make it more or less likely that the behavior will occur again. Skinner believed that the
only scientific approach to psychology was one that studied behaviors, not internal (subjective) mental
processes.
B.F. Skinner's Theory of Operant Conditioning
Place a rat in a special cage (called a “Skinner box”) that has a bar or pedal on one wall that, when pressed,
causes a little mechanism to release a food pellet into the cage. The rat is moving around the cage when it
accidentally presses the bar and, as a result of pressing the bar, a food pellet falls into the cage.  The operant is
the behavior just prior to the reinforcer, which is the food pellet.  In a relatively short period of time the rat
"learns" to press the bar whenever it wants food. This leads to one of the principles of operant conditioning--A
behavior followed by a reinforcing stimulus results in an increased probability of that behavior occurring in the
future.
If the rat presses the bar and continually does not get food, the behavior becomes extinguished.  This leads to
another of the principles of operant conditioning--A behavior no longer followed by the reinforcing stimulus
results in a decreased probability of that behavior occurring in the future.
Now, if you were to turn the pellet machine back on, so that pressing the bar again provides the rat with pellets,
the behavior of bar-pushing will  come right back into existence, much more quickly than it took for the rat to
learn the behavior the first time. This is because the return of the reinforcer takes place in the context of a
reinforcement history that goes all the way back to the very first time the rat was reinforced for pushing on the
bar.  This leads to what are called the Schedules of Reinforcement.
3. Alfred Adler (Personality Theory)
 Adler's Personality Theory was created by Alfred Adler (1870 - 1937). Adler called his theory Individual
Psychology because he believed that people were unique and that no theory created before his applied to all
people. He originally followed Sigmund Freud's teachings but left after a disagreement of Freud's theory which
says that the drive of human behavior is sex. Adler's Personality Theory is similar to that of Freud's Personality
Theory except that Adler's drive for human behavior is the need to overcome the feelings of inferiority.

 Inferiority is a feeling that humans feel since they are born. They grow up being dependent on their parents and
feeling like they cannot do anything on their own. It is humans drive to overcome inferiority and become
superior which causes humans to act. Humans act to achieve perfection and superiority. Those that do feel like
they are being overwhelmed by feelings of inferiority will develop an inferiority complex. An inferiority
complex brings an exaggerated feeling of inferiority on the sufferer and they will feel less motivated to strive
for superiority.
            .His theory also contains the effects of the order of the family. Children who are the only child will get
pampered which will cause the child to feel inferior when left to do things on their own. Those who are
firstborn get all the attention at first but then all that attention goes towards the middle child. Now the firstborn
feels neglected and inferior and develops to reserved and conservative. The middle child will be competitive
and constantly try to beat the firstborn. The youngest child will be pampered and will feel inferior when left to
do things by themselves. The youngest child could also feel the need to constantly beat their older siblings like
the middle child
4. Carl Jung (Theory of Personality)
In his theory of personality, Carl Jung distinguishes different attitude types:
Introverts- prefer to be alone, shy, withdrawn but may be a leader in a discussion if his level of intelligence is
high.
Extroverts- tends or prefers to be mist people, very sociable , conventional, orthodox, well-dressed, outgoing,
chooses an occupation that deals with people like sales or promotional work.
Introverts are generally more withdrawn, while extroverts are generally more sociable.
Ambivert- the normal who is in-between the two extremes of introversion and extroversion.
For example, Donna is an extrovert. She loves to go out on adventures with lots of people and see exciting new
things. Her friend David, though, is the opposite. Given the choice, he'd rather read a book on his couch than go
skydiving with Donna. David is an introvert.
5. Howard Gardner (Theory of Multiple Intelligences)
The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at
Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is far too
limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner proposes eight different intelligences to account for a broader range of human
potential in children and adults.
These Intelligences are:
Linguistic intelligence (“word smart”)
Logical-mathematical intelligence (“number/reasoning smart”)
Spatial intelligence (“picture smart”)
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence (“body smart”)
Musical intelligence (“music smart”)
Interpersonal intelligence (“people smart”)
Intrapersonal intelligence (“self-smart”)
Naturalist intelligence (“nature smart”)
Dr. Gardner says that our schools and culture focus most of their attention on linguistic and logical-
mathematical intelligence. We esteem the highly articulate or logical people of our culture. However, Dr.
Gardner says that we should also place equal attention on individuals who show gifts in the other intelligences:
the artists, architects, musicians, naturalists, designers, dancers, therapists, entrepreneurs, and others who enrich
the world in which we live. Unfortunately, many children who have these gifts don’t receive much
reinforcement for them in school. Many of these kids, in fact, end up being labeled “learning disabled,” “ADD
(attention deficit disorder,” or simply underachievers, when their unique ways of thinking and learning aren’t
addressed by a heavily linguistic or logical-mathematical classroom.
The theory of multiple intelligences proposes a major transformation in the way our schools are run. It suggests
that teachers be trained to present their lessons in a wide variety of ways using music, cooperative learning, art
activities, role play, multimedia, field trips, inner reflection, and much more. The good news is that the theory
of multiple intelligences has grabbed the attention of many educators around the country, and hundreds of
schools are currently using its philosophy to redesign the way it educates children. The bad news is that there
are thousands of schools still out there that teach in the same old dull way, through dry lectures, and boring
worksheets and textbooks. The challenge is to get this information out to many more teachers, school
administrators, and others who work with children, so that each child has the opportunity to learn in ways
harmonious with their unique minds.
The theory of multiple intelligences also has strong implications for adult learning and development. Many
adults find themselves in jobs that do not make optimal use of their most highly developed intelligences (for
example, the highly bodily-kinesthetic individual who is stuck in a linguistic or logical desk-job when he or she
would be much happier in a job where they could move around, such as a recreational leader, a forest ranger, or
physical therapist). The theory of multiple intelligences gives adults a whole new way to look at their lives,
examining potentials that they left behind in their childhood (such as a love for art or drama) but now have the
opportunity to develop through courses, hobbies, or other programs of self-development.
How to Teach or Learn Anything 8 Different Ways
One of the most remarkable features of the theory of multiple intelligences is how it provides eight different
potential pathways to learning. If a teacher is having difficulty reaching a student in the more traditional
linguistic or logical ways of instruction, the theory of multiple intelligences suggests several other ways in
which the material might be presented to facilitate effective learning. Whether you are a kindergarten teacher, a
graduate school instructor, or an adult learner seeking better ways of pursuing self-study on any subject of
interest, the same basic guidelines apply. Whatever you are teaching or learning, see how you might connect it
with
words (linguistic intelligence)
numbers or logic (logical-mathematical intelligence)
pictures (spatial intelligence)
music (musical intelligence)
self-reflection (intrapersonal intelligence)
a physical experience (bodily-kinesthetic intelligence)
a social experience (interpersonal intelligence), and/or
an experience in the natural world. (naturalist intelligence)
For example, if you’re teaching or learning about the law of supply and demand in economics, you might read
about it (linguistic), study mathematical formulas that express it (logical-mathematical), examine a graphic
chart that illustrates the principle (spatial), observe the law in the natural world (naturalist) or in the human
world of commerce (interpersonal); examine the law in terms of your own body [e.g. when you supply your
body with lots of food, the hunger demand goes down; when there’s very little supply, your stomach’s demand
for food goes way up and you get hungry] (bodily-kinesthetic and intrapersonal); and/or write a song (or find an
existing song) that demonstrates the law (perhaps Dylan’s “Too Much of Nothing?”).
You don’t have to teach or learn something in all eight ways, just see what the possibilities are, and then decide
which particular pathways interest you the most, or seem to be the most effective teaching or learning tools. The
theory of multiple intelligences is so intriguing because it expands our horizon of available teaching/learning
tools beyond the conventional linguistic and logical methods used in most schools (e.g. lecture, textbooks,
writing assignments, formulas, etc.). To get started, put the topic of whatever you’re interested in teaching or
learning about in the center of a blank sheet of paper, and draw eight straight lines or “spokes” radiating out
from this topic. Label each line with a different intelligence. Then start brainstorming ideas for teaching or
learning that topic and write down ideas next to each intelligence (this is a spatial-linguistic approach of
brainstorming; you might want to do this in other ways as well, using a tape-recorder, having a group
brainstorming session, etc.).
6. Albert Bandura (Social Learning Theory)
Social Learning Theory, theorized by Albert Bandura, posits that people learn from one another, via
observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and
cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.
People learn through observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors. “Most human
behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new
behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.” (Bandura).
Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive,
behavioral, and environmental influences.
Necessary Conditions for Effective Modeling
Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness,
affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. One’s characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities,
arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect attention.
Retention — remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive
organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal
Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction.
Motivation — having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as past (i.e. traditional behaviorism),
promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model)

7. Abraham Maslow (Self – Actualization Theory)

Maslow’s Self –actualization Theory. According to this theory, man is innately good and self-actualization or
achievement is hid goal. Blocking this goals gives frustration and neurosis to man.
To Maslow, man’s needs are as follows: (The needs are arranged like a pyramid)
Biological needs- these needs give comfort to the body, such as food, clothing, and shelter and some other
material needs. Some people only strive for these needs.
Psychological needs- these are needs for love, affection, belongingness, safety, cooperation, companionship,
etc. These needs push people to associate with others.
Self-actualization needs- these are needs for exceptional and ideal achievement and creative. We hear of such
personalities as great scientist like Einstein, great explorers like Magellan and Columbus, great heroes like
Rizal, great inventors like Edison, etc.
8. Carl Rogers (Personality Development Theory)
Central to Rogers' personality theory is the notion of self or self-concept.  This is defined as "the organized,
consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself."
The self is the humanistic term for who we really are as a person.  The self is our inner personality, and can be
likened to the soul, or Freud's psyche.  The self is influenced by the experiences a person has in their life, and
out interpretations of those experiences.  Two primary sources that influence our self-concept are childhood
experiences and evaluation by others.
According to Rogers (1959), we want to feel, experience and behave in ways which are consistent with our self-
image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal-self.  The closer our self-image and ideal-self
are to each other, the more consistent or congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth. 
A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if some of the totality of their experience is unacceptable to
them and is denied or distorted in the self-image.
The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves. The self-concept
includes three components:
Self-worth
Self-worth (or self-esteem) comprises what we think about ourselves. Rogers believed feelings of self-worth
developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father.
Self-image
How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Self-image includes the influence of
our body image on inner personality.
At a simple level, we might perceive ourselves as a good or bad person, beautiful or ugly. Self-image affects
how a person thinks, feels and behaves in the world.
Ideal-self
This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic – i.e.,
forever changing.
The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc.
Positive Regard and Self Worth
Carl Rogers (1951) viewed the child as having two basic needs: positive regard from other people and self-
worth.
How we think about ourselves, our feelings of self-worth are of fundamental importance both to psychological
health and to the likelihood that we can achieve goals and ambitions in life and achieve self-actualization.
9. Jean Piaget (Theory of Cognitive Development)
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of
mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also
on understanding the nature of intelligence.
Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they
perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world around
them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to
accommodate new information.

Piaget's stages are:

The Sensorimotor Stage (Ages: Birth to 2 Years)
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: The infant knows the world through their movements and
sensations, Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening
Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence)
They are separate beings from the people and objects around them; They realize that their actions can cause
things to happen in the world around them
During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory
experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs
through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.
It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic growth and learning. As kids
interact with their environment, they are continually making new discoveries about how the world works.
The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short period of time and
involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling and
walking; they also learn a great deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke
this stage down into a number of different sub stages. It is during the final part of the sensorimotor stage that
early representational thought emerges.
The Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 to 7 Years)
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words
and pictures to represent objects. Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others. While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about
things in very concrete terms. The foundations of language development may have been laid during the
previous stage, but it is the emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage
of development.
Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet continue to think very
concretely about the world around them. At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with
logic and taking the point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of
constancy.
For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then give a child the
choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is
smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child 
The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 to 11 Years)
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about
concrete events. They begin to understand the concept of conservation that the amount of liquid in a short, wide
cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example: Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but
still very concrete; Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general
principle; While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they
become much more adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids
become better at thinking about how other people might view a situation. While thinking becomes much more
logical during the concrete operational state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to
struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts. During this stage, children also become less egocentric and
begin to think about how other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to
understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts,
feelings, and opinions.
The Formal Operational Stage (Ages: 12 and Up)
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think
abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems; Abstract thought emerges; Teens begin to think more about
moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning; Begin to
use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information; The final stage of Piaget's
theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract
ideas. At this point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more
scientifically about the world around them. The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key
hallmark of the formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the
future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage. It is
important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a quantitative process; that is,
kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older. Instead,
Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these
four stages. A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did at age 2; there is a
fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.
10. Lev Vygostky (Social Development Theory)
Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s
understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social
learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice:
first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then
inside the child (intrapsychological)”.
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer
collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning
occurred in this zone.
Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and
interact in shared experience. According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as
speech and writing, to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as
social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to
higher thinking skills.
Applications of the Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory
Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in which a teacher or lecturer
‘transmits’ information to students. In contrast, Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in which students
play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a teacher should
collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in students. Learning
therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher.
11. Erick Erikson (Psychosocial Development Theory)
Every person has his or her own unique identity. This identity is composed of the different personality traits that
can be considered positive or negative. These personality traits can also be innate or acquired, and they vary
from one person to another based on the degree of influence that the environment has on the individual. The
bottom line is that as human beings, we possess many characteristics that are honed in many different aspects
that eventually define who we are.
Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development emphasizes the sociocultural determinants of
development and presents them as eight stages of psychosocial conflicts (often known as Erikson’s stages of
psychosocial development) that all individuals must overcome or resolve successfully in order to adjust well to
the environment.
1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0 - 1½ year)
Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at
birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in
which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1½ - 3 years)
Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development.
This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at
this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of
independence.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3 - 5 years)
Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. During the
initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently. During this period the primary feature
involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides
children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (5 – 12 years)
Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. inferiority occurs during childhood
between the ages of five and twelve. Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to
do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the
child specific skills.

It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the
child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that
are valued by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 – 18 years)

The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs
during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and
personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.

During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more
independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The
individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18 – 40 years)
Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage
takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this period, the
major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.
During this period, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading
toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 – 65 years)
Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs). Generativity refers to
"making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual.
People experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating
positive changes that will benefit other people. We give back to society through raising our children, being
productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. Through generativity we
develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (60+ years)
Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial
development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this time that we
contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.

Erikson described ego integrity as “the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something that had to be”
(1950, p. 268) and later as “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (1982, p. 65). As we grow older (65+ yrs) and
become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person. Erik Erikson
believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life
goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.
12. Ivan Pavlov (Classical Conditioning Theory)
Classical conditioning theory (also known as Pavlovian conditioning) is learning through association and was
discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple terms two stimuli are linked together to produce a new
learned response in a person or animal.
This theory is exemplified by the experiment of Pavlov. When the food is presented to the dog, it was
accompanied by the ringing of a buzzer. Upon seeing it, the dog salivated. The presentation of food is called the
natural or unconditioned stimulus, and the repeated ringing of the buzzer, the conditioned stimulus done several
times, and the dog emitting saliva, the conditioned response. When the ringing of the buzzer was presented even
without the food, the dog also salivated. The dog was already conditioned to the sound of the buzzer.
There are some processes involved in the experiment. There is excitation or acquisition when the conditioned
response, the salivation of the dog, is elicited by the conditioned stimulus, the ringing of the buzzer. There is
extinction or unlearning if the conditioned stimulus is presented several times without the natural or
unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned response is no longer elicited. There is stimulus generalization
when a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response is elicited.

There are Three Stages of Classical Conditioning.

Stage 1: Before Conditioning

In basic terms, this means that a stimulus in the environment has produced a behavior / response which is
unlearned (unconditioned) and therefore is a natural response which has not been taught. In this respect, no new
behavior has been learned yet.
Example:
 You are presented with the smell of your favorite food. The smell will automatically trigger hunger. In
this case, the smell is the UCS and hunger is the UCR.
There is also a Neutral Stimulus (NS) present at this stage which could be anything and does not produce a
response until it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Stage 2: During Conditioning

During this stage a stimulus which produces no response (neutral) is associated with the unconditioned stimulus
at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS).
Example: An alarm is ranged at the exact time you are presented with your favorite food. Here, he alarm,
previously NS, is now CS.
Forward Conditioning: Neutral stimulus (NS) is presented before the unconditioned stimulus (UC) in order
for learning to take place.
We my use Forward Conditioning in one two forms:
Delay Conditioning – when the unconditioned stimulus is provided prior to and during the unconditioned
stimulus.
Trace Conditioning – when there is a delay after unconditioned stimulus has been provided before the
unconditioned stimulus is presented to the subject.
Backward Conditioning: Neutral stimulus (NS) is presented after the unconditioned stimulus (UC) has been
provided.
Acquisition – is the part when the UCS and CR are presented together.

Stage 3: After Conditioning:

The pairing of UCS and CS will now result in a creation of new response CR from the Organism. The UCR
becomes CR.
Classical Conditioning Example: Let’s suppose that every time you are made to smell your favorite food, an
alarm is also rung at the exact time. It’s evident that you will feel hungry having smelled your favorite food. In
this case, the alarm (CS) is the conditioned stimulus which triggers hunger (CR) when paired with the smell of
your favorite food UCS).
Classical conditioning finds many practical applications in the classroom especially in the lower grades where
audio-visual aids are used.
Example in teaching the alphabet:
Unconditioned or Natural Stimulus - Teacher writes on the board capital letter “A”.
Conditioned Stimulus - While writing, she makes the sound “Capital letter A”.
Response: The child associates capital letter “A” and the sound “capital letter A”
Presentation of both the letter and the sound maybe done several times.
Conditioned Response – Child writes “capital letter A”.
13. Gordon Allport (Trait Theory of Personality)
A trait theory describes a personality by its position on a number of scales, each of which represents a trait. A
person may be placed on a scale of intelligence and he may be called an intelligent personality. One may be
placed on a scale of ascendance-submissive and he may be called a submissive personality if he is found to be
submissive.
Some of the trait theories are as follows:
Secondary traits: When the traits are so many that hey merely express isolated interests or modes of
responding and are better characterized as attitudes that traits such as likes and dislikes, positive or negative
attitude toward something. These are traits that are only present under certain conditions and circumstances. An
example of a secondary trait would be getting nervous before delivering a speech to a large group of people.
Central traits: Common traits that make up our personalities. Traits such as kindness, honesty, and friendliness
are all examples of central traits.
Cardinal traits: When a person is dominated by a single outstanding trait that makes him stand out and he
becomes a reference personality whose characteristic we expect others to know. If we say that person is a Hitler,
we mean the person is a ruthless dictator like Hitler. If we say that a person is a Magsaysay in his concern for
people, we mean that the person is extremely concerned for the welfare of the people.
14. William Glasser (Choice Theory)
In Choice Theory, Glasser explains that we are motivated by the pleasure we experience when we satisfy our
basic needs for survival. His thesis is that the traditional psychology that we have been using for thousands for
years—external control psychology—is destructive to human relationships. All long-lasting human problems
are relationship problems. External control psychology pits individuals against each other in an attempt to make
others do what they don't want to do. Using many examples, Glasser argues that this psychology must be
replaced with a new psychology—choice theory—a psychology that brings people together. Glasser focuses on
4 major relationships: husband–wife, parent–child, teacher–student, and manager–worker.
The choice theory holds that people can control only their own behavior, and that all people need a sense of
belonging, freedom, power, and fun. This article argues that teachers must recognize that these needs motivate
student behavior, and describes how a middle school turned its discipline and achievement problems around by
using choice theory.
https://psycnet.apa.org
https://eric.ed.gov
Choice Theory Psychology
Dr. William Glasser’s 1998 book, Choice Theory: A New Psychology of Personal Freedom is the primary text
for all that is taught by William Glasser International. Choice theory psychology states that:
All we do is behave
Almost all behavior is chosen, and
We are driven by our genes to satisfy five basic needs: survival, love and belonging, power, freedom and fun.
We can only satisfy our needs by matching the pictures in our Quality World. These pictures motivate our
behavior.
In practice, the most important need is love and belonging, as closeness and connectedness with the people we
care about is a requisite for satisfying all of the needs.
Choice Theory psychology, with the Seven Caring Habits, replaces external control psychology and the Seven
Deadly Habits. External control, the present psychology of almost all people in the world, is destructive to
relationships and mental health. When used, it will destroy the ability of one or both to find satisfaction in that
relationship and will result in a disconnection from each other. Being disconnected is the source of almost all
human problems such as what is called mental illness, drug addiction, violence, crime, school failure, and
spousal abuse, to mention a few.
Relationships and our Habits
Seven Caring Habits Seven Deadly Habits
1. Supporting                                                        1. Criticizing
2. Encouraging                                                     2. Blaming
3. Listening                                                           3. Complaining
4. Accepting                                                          4. Nagging
5. Trusting                                                             5. Threatening
6. Respecting                                                        6. Punishing
7. Negotiating differences                                  7. Bribing, rewarding to control
 
The Ten Axioms of Choice Theory
The only person whose behavior we can control is our own.
All we can give another person is information.
All long-lasting psychological problems are relationship problems.
The problem relationship is always part of our present life.
What happened in the past has everything to do with what we are today, but we can only satisfy our basic needs
right now and plan to continue satisfying them in the future.
We can only satisfy our needs by satisfying the pictures in our Quality World.
All we do is behave.
All behavior is Total Behavior and is made up of four components: acting, thinking, feeling and physiology.
All Total Behavior is chosen, but we only have direct control over the acting and thinking components. We can
only control our feeling and physiology indirectly through how we choose to act and think.
All Total Behavior is designated by verbs and named by the part that is the most recognizable.
https://www.wglasserinternational.org/

The term choice theory is the work of William Glasser, MD, author of the book so named, and is the
culmination of some 50 years of theory and practice in psychology and counselling.
Choice theory posits behaviors we choose are central to our existence. Our behavior (choices) are driven by five
genetically driven needs: survival, love and belonging, freedom, fun, and power. Survival needs include:
food and four fundamental psychological needs:
clothing Belonging/connecting/love
shelter Power/significance/competence
breathing Freedom/autonomy
personal safety Fun/learning
security and sex, having children

Behavior ("Total Behavior" in Glasser's terms) is made up of these four components: acting, thinking, feeling,

and physiology. Glasser suggests we have considerable control or choice over the first two of these; yet, little
ability to directly choose the latter two as they are more deeply sub- and unconscious. These four components
remain closely intertwined, the choices we make in our thinking and acting greatly affect our feeling and
physiology.
A big conclusion for Glasser, one he repeats often, is the source of much personal unhappiness is failing or
failed relationships with people important to us: spouses, parents, children, friends and colleagues.
The symptoms of unhappiness are widely variable and are often seen as mental illness. Glasser believed that
"pleasure" and "happiness" are related but are far from synonymous. Sex, for example, is a "pleasure" but may
well be divorced from a "satisfactory relationship" which is a precondition for lasting "happiness" in life. Hence
the intense focus on the improvement of relationships in counseling with choice theory—the "new reality
therapy". Those familiar with both are likely to prefer choice theory, the more modern formulation.
Choice theory posits most mental illness is, in fact, an expression of unhappiness. Glasser champions how we
are able to learn and choose alternate behaviors resulting in greater personal satisfaction. Reality therapy is the
choice theory-based counseling process focused on helping clients to learn to make those self-optimizing
choices.
In Classroom Management
William Glasser's choice theory begins: behavior is not separate from choice; we all choose how to behave at
any time. Second, we cannot control anyone's behavior but our own. Glasser also believed in the vitality of
classroom meetings for the purpose of improving communication and solving real classroom problems. In the
classroom, it is important for teachers to "help students envision a quality existence in school and plan the
choices that lead to it".
For example, Johnny Waits is an 18-year-old high school senior and plans on attending college to become a
computer programmer. Glasser suggests Johnny could be learning as much as he can about computers instead of
reading Plato. This concept is called quality curriculum, which connects students with practical real world
topics, chosen by the student according to their leanings. Topics with actual career potential are most
encouraged. Under Glasser's strategy, teachers hold discussions with students when introducing new topics
asking them to identify what they would like to explore in depth. As part of the process, students need to
explain why the material is valuable in life.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasser%27s_choice_theory

15. Kurt Lewin (Field Theory)

According to this theory, the individual is embedded in a field called his life space, which is actually his
environment, in which conflicts arise and the alternatives open to the individual to resolve the conflicts. There
are tension systems in the individual which become unified when conflicts arise and the individual tries to
resolve the conflicts. The ways the individual reacts to and resolve the conflicts are what make him different
from other individuals. How to characterize the individual to make him different from others, however, has not
been given clarification by Lewin and his followers.

16. Karen Horney (Theory of Personality)

Karen Horney’s Theory of Personality. According to Horney, a child may resolve conflicts in a harsh
environment in one of three ways:

Moving toward People- this is satisfy the need for love, affection, and approval of other people so the child or
individual tries hard to please people to win their love, affection, and approval. This is especially true when one
needs a partner. He submerges his own interests and makes no demands.

Moving against People- this is to satisfy the need for power, dominance, prestige, admiration, financial, and
sexual success. The individual works hard to attain these ends to the point of becoming ruthless and
unscrupulous.

Moving away from People- this is to satisfy the need for independence and self-sufficiency. The individual
hates to be tied down and so he avoids being too close to others. He likes to be superior to others and strives for
perfection.
 17. Solomon Asch (Conformity Theory)
Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in belief or behavior in order to fit in with a group.
This change is in response to real (involving the physical presence of others) or imagined (involving the
pressure of social norms / expectations) group pressure. Conformity can also be simply defined as “yielding  to
group pressures” (Crutchfield, 1955).  Group pressure may take different forms, for example bullying,
persuasion, teasing, criticism, etc.  Conformity is also known as majority influence (or group pressure).
The term conformity is often used to indicate an agreement to the majority position, brought about either by a
desire to ‘fit in’ or be liked (normative) or because of a desire to be correct (informational), or simply to
conform to a social role (identification).
Jenness (1932) was the first psychologist to study conformity.  His experiment was an ambiguous situation
involving a glass bottle filled with beans.  He asked participants individually to estimate how many beans the
bottle contained.  Jenness then put the group in a room with the bottle, and asked them to provide a group
estimate through discussion.
Participants were then asked to estimate the number on their own again to find whether their initial estimates
had altered based on the influence of the majority.  Jenness then interviewed the participants individually again,
and asked if they would like to change their original estimates, or stay with the group's estimate.  Almost all
changed their individual guesses to be closer to the group estimate.
However, perhaps the most famous conformity experiment was by Solomon Asch (1951) and his line judgment
experiment.

Types of Conformity
Kelman (1958) distinguished between three different types of conformity:
Compliance (or group acceptance)
This occurs 'when an individual accepts influence because he hopes to achieve a favourable reaction from
another person or group. He adopts the induced behavior because....he expects to gain specific rewards or
approval and avoid specific punishment or disapproval by conformity'.
In other words, conforming to the majority (publicly), in spite of not really agreeing with them (privately). This
is seen in Asch’s line experiment.
Compliance stops when there are no group pressures to conform, and is therefore a temporary behavior change.
Internalisation (genuine acceptance of group norms)
This occurs 'when an individual accepts influence because the content of the induced behavior - the ideas and
actions of which it is composed - is intrinsically rewarding. He adopts the induced behavior because it is
congruent [consistent] with his value system. Internalisation always involves public and private conformity. A
person publicly changes their behavior to fit in with the group, while also agreeing with them privately.
This is the deepest level of conformity were the beliefs of the group become part of the individual’s own belief
system. This means the change in behavior is permanent. This is seen in Sherif’s autokinetic experiment.
This is most likely to occur when the majority have greater knowledge, and members of the minority have little
knowledge to challenge the majority position.
Identification (or group membership)
This occurs 'when an individual accepts influence because he wants to establish or maintain a satisfying self-
defining relationship to another person or group' (Kelman, 1958, p. 53).
Individuals conform to the expectations of a social role, e.g. nurses, police officers. It is similar to compliance
as there does not have to be a change in private opinion. A good example is Zimbardo's Prison Study.
Man (1969) identified an additional type of conformity:
Ingratiational
This is when a person conforms to impress or gain favor/acceptance from other people.
It is similar to normative influence, but is motivated by the need for social rewards rather than the threat of
rejection, i.e., group pressure does not enter the decision to conform.
Explanations of Conformity
Deutsch and Gerrard (1955) identified two reasons why people conform:
Normative Conformity
Yielding to group pressure because a person wants to fit in with the group. E.g. Asch Line Study.
Conforming because the person is scared of being rejected by the group.
This type of conformity usually involves compliance – where a person publicly accepts the views of a group but
privately rejects them.
Informational Conformity
This usually occurs when a person lacks knowledge and looks to the group for guidance.
Or when a person is in an ambiguous (i.e. unclear) situation and socially compares their behavior with the
group. E.g. Sherif's Study.
This type of conformity usually involves internalization – where a person accepts the views of the groups and
adopts them as an individual.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/conformity.html
 18. Lawrence Kohlberg ( Moral Development Theory)

Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) theory of moral development in principle but wanted to
develop his ideas further. He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral
dilemmas.  In each case, he presented a choice to be considered, for example, between the rights of some
authority and the needs of some deserving individual who is being unfairly treated.

One of the best known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in
Europe.

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality
At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some over nine), we don’t have a personal
code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of
following or breaking their rules.
Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences of actions.
 Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished.
If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.
Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right view that
is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.
Level 2 - Conventional morality
At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued
adult role models.
Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the
person belongs.
Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good
person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.
Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so
judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.
Level 3 - Post-conventional morality
Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and
justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get.
Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional
morality). That is to say, most people take their moral views from those around them and only a minority think
through ethical principles for themselves.
Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might
exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular
individuals. 
The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the protection of life is more important
than breaking the law against stealing.
• Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which
may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone.
E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it
means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or
imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html

19. John Watson

20. Wilhelm Wundt ( Theory of Structuralism)

Explanation it is difficult to discuss Wertheimer's research and theories without explaining what he and other
psychologists of his time were trying to disprove. Wilhelm Wundt was the first person that history records as having been
called a psychologist. Born in 1832, psychology prior to his time was considered one small division of the larger and more
illustrious field of philosophy. Wundt, a trained medical doctor, was well aware that he was creating a new field—the
science of psychology—when he wrote the first edition of his Principles of

Physiological Psychology in 1874. In its preface he notes that the book was written to "mark out a new domain
of science." It was his strong belief that since psychology was science, there was no room within it for
metaphysical hypothesis. Though he believed that there were indeed psychic processes that went on within the
mind, he was equally convinced that the physiologic (brain) processes were separate, parallel activities. At the
University of Leipzig where he taught, Wundt established the first psychological laboratory in 1875. (It is worth
noting that 1879 is usually cited as the year that Wundt began his laboratory. However, that is actually the year
the University of Leipzig formally acknowledged his psychological lab. It had then been in operation for four
years. It is also worth noting that American psychologist William James had also equipped a small laboratory in
that same year, 1875.)

Wundt perceived philosophy as being part of psychology, a view that was the total reverse of what most
academics of his time believed. In 1881, a year after Wertheimer was born, Wundt began publishing
Philosophische Studien (Philosophical Studies), a journal devoted to the reporting of the psychological research
being conducted at his new laboratory. This new lab and Wundt's approach brought students to Leipzig from all
over Europe and even North America and extended his ideas all the way to the same locations. He adamantly
denied that psychology should be involved in anything other than physiological and psychological research.
Students who deviated from that belief, according to R. I. Watson in The Great Psychologists, were viewed by
Wundt as if "this were desertion in the face of the enemy." Wundt's "school" of psychology was profoundly
physical (often called "structural" or "elemental"). Painstaking research was carried on, examining feeling
through measuring pulse, breathing, and muscular strength. But if Wundt studied the minutest details of
sensation, perception, reaction, attention, and feeling; he equally ignored learning, motivation, emotion,
intelligence, thought, and personality.

Though his writings were described by American psychologist G. Stanley Hall as "lusterless as lead, but just as
solid," Wundt became widely read and acknowledged as the premier psychologist of his time. The work of
Wundt and his students quickly became the most popularly accepted set of working premises employed by
European university psychology departments, the only place psychology was an accepted part of the curriculum
in the late nineteenth century. Wilhelm Wundt was a man of very strong opinions. He was eminently capable of
expressing scorn for theories with which he disagreed. Child and educational psychology were particular targets
for Wundt's derision, as were Oswald Kulpe and the other educators at the Würzburg University, where
Wertheimer had studied.

Wundt's school of structuralism or elementalism held that each individual stimulus is experienced by the human
mind separately from all other stimuli. It then produces within the brain a sensation that is remembered. When a
stimulus is experienced again, the mind's perception of the event is based on that previous experience. Such
perceptions are integrated within the brain following the experience of the stimulus. This would mean that the
person's mind literally experiences what it sees, hears, smells, or touches, and nothing more. Wundt identified
three facets of consciousness—sensations, images, and feelings. Even in those early days of Wundt's studies,
there were many researchers and thinkers who saw flaws in this simplistic view of things. Wertheimer was one
of them.

Example Wundt was already aware of the apparent movement that Wertheimer studied in 1910 and 1911, as
were many other psychologists. Because Wundt believed that each stimulus created its own separate sensation,
he postulated that apparent movement occurred when the movement of the eyes created a floating sensation
illusion. Wertheimer invalidated this belief by having his research subjects look at lines set up so that two
simultaneous motions occurred in opposite directions at the same time. Apparent movement, or "the phi
phenomenon," was still observed. Since it was impossible for the eyes to move in two different directions at the
same time, Wertheimer's experiment disproved Wundt's explanation.
Eliminating Stress and Anxiety From Your Life

It seems like you hear it all the time from nearly every one you know I'm SO stressed out!? Pressures abound in
this world today. Those pressures cause stress and anxiety, and often we are ill-equipped to deal with those
stressors that trigger anxiety and other feelings that can make us sick. Literally, sick.

https://www.europeanmedical.info/cognitive-therapy/wilhelm-wundts-theory-of-structuralism.html

21. Edward Thorndike (Connectionism Theory)

The connectionism or stimulus-response theory is based on the association between stimuli and response. For
every stimulus there is corresponding response and the connection between the stimulus and the response is
called the S-R Bond. Thorndike’s laws of learning. To make his connectionism theory more effective,
Thorndike conceived his three principal laws of learning, namely law of readiness, law of exercise, and law of
effect.

Three Principal Laws of Learning:

The Law of Readiness- states that when an organism is ready to act, action is satisfying, inaction is annoying.
The reverse is true. When the organism is not ready to act, action is annoying and inaction is satisfying. A pupil
who knows the answer feels satisfied if he is called. Failure to recite makes him feel disappointed. On the other
hand, he feels annoyed if he asked to recite when he doesn’t know the answer.

Generally when the child is not ready to learn, he cannot be force to learn. Likewise, the teacher should adopt
the principles of individual differences. The easier learning task should be assigned to pupils of less mental
ability and the more difficult tasks should be assigned to pupils of superior mental ability.

The Law of Exercise- means that exercise or practice reinforce learning. This puts importance on drill,
repetition, and review. Retention invariably results. Frequent recitation of a poem if fully comprehended results
to mastery.

The Law of Effect- states that learning is strengthened if it gives satisfaction to the learner. It is weakened if it
gives annoyance to the learner. The implication is that the teacher should make learning sessions as enjoyable as
possible. One way of doing this is praising appropriately those who are performing well.

22. George Herbert Mead (Theory of Social Behaviorism)

Mead's Theory of Social Behaviorism. Sociologist George Herbert Mead believed that people develop self-
images through interactions with other people. He argued that the self, which is the part of a person's personality
consisting of self-awareness and self-image, is a product of social experience. When a baby is first born, he
doesn't seem to have a sense of who he is, but that changes as he grows. In this lesson, we'll look at George
Herbert Mead's research on how people develop a sense of self in the first few years of life.

George Herbert Mead

What makes you who you are? How are you different from other people? How are you the same? Do you like to
sing? Play sports? Do math? Are you good at relationships or better at being on your own? And how do you
interact with the world around you?
Psychologist George Herbert Mead was interested in these questions. He studied self development, or the way
that people's perceptions of themselves change. Specifically, Mead wanted to know how children and infants
interacted with the world around them and what stages they went through to develop a unique, autonomous self.
Let's look closer at two elements of Mead's theory of the development of the self: the 'I' and the 'Me,' and the
stages of self.
The 'I' and the 'Me'
You've heard of the expression 'Me, Myself, and I,' right? Well, Mead had a similar concept. He believed that
there were two versions of the self, the 'I' and the 'Me.' Think about it like this. You're out shopping and you see
a new home theatre system that you really, really want. The problem is, it's about $100 more than you can
afford to pay. You slink off, upset and wishing you had an extra $100. Right then, just outside of the store, you
see an old man who drops a $100 bill. He doesn't notice that he's dropped it, and it's just lying there on the
ground. You pick it up. What do you do?
Your 'I' will take the money into the store and buy that home theatre system. The 'I' is spontaneous and
unpredictable. It's the part of you that has nothing to do with society, and it acts that way. According to your 'I,'
no one and nothing is as important as you! But your 'Me' is the part of you that's been socialized to think beyond
yourself. That part of you will catch up with the old man, tap him on the shoulder, and return the money. After
all, he might need that money for something important.
From our example, you might be thinking that the 'I' is bad and the 'Me' is good. And sometimes, that's the case.
But the 'I' is more than just selfish; it's also authentic and creative. There's no B.S. and no masks with the 'I.'
What you see is what you get. The problem is when the 'I' is the only one with a voice. You need the 'Me' to
help regulate the 'I,' but you don't want it to suffocate the 'I' completely. Ideally, you can find a balance between
the 'I' and the 'Me,' between authenticity and sociability.

Stages of Self
So how do you find that balance? Partly, that involves developing a cohesive self that represents who you are
and what your values are. Mead pointed out that this occurs in four stages, and it occurs during infancy. The
stages occur at different times during infancy and childhood for different people, but they always proceed in the
same order.
1. Imitation: Have you ever seen a baby playing with his mom? He will mirror, or imitate, her actions and facial
expressions. He's learning about himself and others and how to act based on what other people are doing,
especially his parents.
2. Play: After a while, the baby begins to understand that symbols can represent something. For example, a toy
car represents a real car. Once a child reaches this stage, he will begin to use his imagination. Suddenly, he's not
just going through the motions; through play, he can become anything he wants: a firefighter, ballet dancer,
world-class athlete, chef, or anything else he can think of. This stage involves him learning to think about others
and how they are alike or different from him.

Psychological Perspectives on Self-Development

Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was one of the most influential modern scientists to put forth a
theory about how people develop a sense of self. He believed that personality and sexual development were
closely linked, and he divided the maturation process into psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and
genital. He posited that people’s self-development is closely linked to early stages of development, like
breastfeeding, toilet training, and sexual awareness (Freud 1905).

According to Freud, failure to properly engage in or disengage from a specific stage results in emotional and
psychological consequences throughout adulthood. An adult with an oral fixation may indulge in overeating or
binge drinking. An anal fixation may produce a neat freak (hence the term “anal retentive”), while a person
stuck in the phallic stage may be promiscuous or emotionally immature. Although no solid empirical evidence
supports Freud’s theory, his ideas continue to contribute to the work of scholars in a variety of disciplines.

SOCIOLOGY OR PSYCHOLOGY: WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE?

You might be wondering: if sociologists and psychologists are both interested in people and their behavior, how
are these two disciplines different? What do they agree on, and where do their ideas diverge? The answers are
complicated, but the distinction is important to scholars in both fields.
As a general difference, we might say that while both disciplines are interested in human behavior,
psychologists are focused on how the mind influences that behavior, while sociologists study the role of society
in shaping behavior. Psychologists are interested in people’s mental development and how their minds process
their world. Sociologists are more likely to focus on how different aspects of society contribute to an
individual’s relationship with his world. Another way to think of the difference is that psychologists tend to
look inward (mental health, emotional processes), while sociologists tend to look outward (social institutions,
cultural norms, interactions with others) to understand human behavior.
Émile Durkheim (1958–1917) was the first to make this distinction in research, when he attributed differences
in suicide rates among people to social causes (religious differences) rather than to psychological causes (like
their mental wellbeing) (Durkheim 1897). Today, we see this same distinction. For example, a sociologist
studying how a couple gets to the point of their first kiss on a date might focus her research on cultural norms
for dating, social patterns of sexual activity over time, or how this process is different for seniors than for teens.
A psychologist would more likely be interested in the person’s earliest sexual awareness or the mental
processing of sexual desire.
Sometimes sociologists and psychologists have collaborated to increase knowledge. In recent decades, however,
their fields have become more clearly separated as sociologists increasingly focus on large societal issues and
patterns, while psychologists remain honed in on the human mind. Both disciplines make valuable contributions
through different approaches that provide us with different types of useful insights.
Psychologist Erik Erikson (1902–1994) created a theory of personality development based, in part, on the work
of Freud. However, Erikson believed the personality continued to change over time and was never truly
finished. His theory includes eight stages of development, beginning with birth and ending with death.
According to Erikson, people move through these stages throughout their lives. In contrast to Freud’s focus on
psychosexual stages and basic human urges, Erikson’s view of self-development gave credit to more social
aspects, like the way we negotiate between our own base desires and what is socially accepted (Erikson 1982).

Jean Piaget (1896–1980) was a psychologist who specialized in child development who focused specifically on
the role of social interactions in their development. He recognized that the development of self evolved through
a negotiation between the world as it exists in one’s mind and the world that exists as it is experienced socially
(Piaget 1954). All three of these thinkers have contributed to our modern understanding of self-development.

Sociological Theories of Self-Development

One of the pioneering contributors to sociological perspectives was Charles Cooley (1864–1929). He asserted
that people’s self understanding is constructed, in part, by their perception of how others view them—a process
termed “the looking glass self” (Cooley 1902).

Later, George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) studied the self, a person’s distinct identity that is developed through
social interaction. In order to engage in this process of “self,” an individual has to be able to view him or herself
through the eyes of others. That’s not an ability that we are born with (Mead 1934). Through socialization we
learn to put ourselves in someone else’s shoes and look at the world through their perspective. This assists us in
becoming self-aware, as we look at ourselves from the perspective of the “other.” The case of Danielle, for
example, illustrates what happens when social interaction is absent from early experience: Danielle had no
ability to see herself as others would see her. From Mead’s point of view, she had no “self.”

How do we go from being newborns to being humans with “selves?” Mead believed that there is a specific path
of development that all people go through. During the preparatory stage, children are only capable of imitation:
they have no ability to imagine how others see things. They copy the actions of people with whom they
regularly interact, such as their mothers and fathers. This is followed by the play stage, during which children
begin to take on the role that one other person might have. Thus, children might try on a parent’s point of view
by acting out “grownup” behavior, like playing “dress up” and acting out the “mom” role, or talking on a toy
telephone the way they see their father do.

During the game stage, children learn to consider several roles at the same time and how those roles interact
with each other. They learn to understand interactions involving different people with a variety of purposes. For
example, a child at this stage is likely to be aware of the different responsibilities of people in a restaurant who
together make for a smooth dining experience (someone seats you, another takes your order, someone else
cooks the food, while yet another clears away dirty dishes).

Finally, children develop, understand, and learn the idea of the generalized other, the common behavioral
expectations of general society. By this stage of development, an individual is able to imagine how he or she is
viewed by one or many others—and thus, from a sociological perspective, to have a “self” (Mead 1934; Mead
1964).

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Moral development is an important part of the socialization process. The term refers to the way people learn
what society considered to be “good” and “bad,” which is important for a smoothly functioning society. Moral
development prevents people from acting on unchecked urges, instead considering what is right for society and
good for others. Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) was interested in how people learn to decide what is right and
what is wrong. To understand this topic, he developed a theory of moral development that includes three levels:
preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.

In the preconventional stage, young children, who lack a higher level of cognitive ability, experience the world
around them only through their senses. It isn’t until the teen years that the conventional theory develops, when
youngsters become increasingly aware of others’ feelings and take those into consideration when determining
what’s “good” and “bad.” The final stage, called postconventional, is when people begin to think of morality in
abstract terms, such as Americans believing that everyone has the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness. At this stage, people also recognize that legality and morality do not always match up evenly
(Kohlberg 1981). When hundreds of thousands of Egyptians turned out in 2011 to protest government
corruption, they were using postconventional morality. They understood that although their government was
legal, it was not morally correct.

Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development and Gender

Another sociologist, Carol Gilligan (1936–), recognized that Kohlberg’s theory might show gender bias since
his research was only conducted on male subjects. Would females study subjects have responded differently?
Would a female social scientist notice different patterns when analyzing the research? To answer the first
question, she set out to study differences between how boys and girls developed morality. Gilligan’s research
demonstrated that boys and girls do, in fact, have different understandings of morality. Boys tend to have a
justice perspective, by placing emphasis on rules and laws. Girls, on the other hand, have a care and
responsibility perspective; they consider people’s reasons behind behavior that seems morally wrong.

Gilligan also recognized that Kohlberg’s theory rested on the assumption that the justice perspective was the
right, or better, perspective. Gilligan, in contrast, theorized that neither perspective was “better”: the two norms
of justice served different purposes. Ultimately, she explained that boys are socialized for a work environment
where rules make operations run smoothly, while girls are socialized for a home environment where flexibility
allows for harmony in caretaking and nurturing (Gilligan 1982; Gilligan 1990).

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/theories-of-self-development/

23. Talcott Parsons (Action Theory)

In sociology, action theory is the theory of social action presented by the American theorist Talcott

Parsons.Parsons established action theory to integrate the study of social order with the structural and
voluntaristic aspects of macro and micro factors. In other words, he was trying to maintain the scientific rigour
of positivism, while acknowledging the necessity of the "subjective dimension" of human action incorporated in
hermeneutic types of sociological theorizing. Parsons sees motives as part of our actions. Therefore, he thought
that social science must consider ends, purposes and ideals when looking at actions. Parsons placed his
discussion within a higher epistemological and explanatory context of systems theory andcybernetics.
Parsons' action theory is characterized by a system-theoretical approach, which integrated a meta-structural
analysis with a voluntary theory. Parsons' first major work, The Structure of Social Action (1937)[1] discussed
the methodological and meta-theoretical premises for the foundation of a theory of social action. It argued that
an action theory must be based on a voluntaristic foundation—claiming neither a sheer positivistic-utilitarian
approach nor a sheer "idealistic" approach would satisfy the necessary prerequisites, and proposing an
alternative, systemic general theory.
Parsons shared positivism's desire for a general unified theory, not only for the social science but for the whole
realm of action systems (in which Parsons included the concept of "living systems"). On the other hand, he
departed from them on the criteria for science, particularly on Auguste Comte's proposition that scientists must
not look for the "ultimate ends" so as to avoid unanswerable metaphysical questions. Parsons maintained that, at
least for the social sciences, a meaningful theory had to include the question of ultimate values,[2] which by their
very nature and definition, included questions of metaphysics. As such, Parsons' theory stands at least with one
foot in the sphere of hermeneutics and similar interpretive paradigms, which become particularly relevant when
the question of "ends" must be considered within systems of action-orientation. As such, system theorists such
as Parsons can be viewed as at least partially antipositivist.[3] Parsons was not a functionalist per se, but an
action theorist. In fact, he never used the term functionalism to refer to his own theory. Also, his use of the term
"structural functionalism", generally understood as a characterization of his theory, was used by Parsons in a
special context to describe a particular stage in the methodological development of the social sciences.[4]
One of the main features of Parsons' approach to sociology was the way in which he stated that cultural objects
form an autonomous type. This is one of the reasons why Parsons established a careful division between
cultural and social system, a point he highlighted in a short statement that he wrote with Alfred Kroeber,[5] and
is expressed on his AGIL paradigm. For Parsons, adaptation, goal attainment, integration and latency form the
basic characteristics of social action, and could be understood as a fourfold function of a cybernetic system
where the hierarchical order is L-I-G-A. The most metaphysical questions in his theory laid embedded in the
concept of constitutive symbolization, which represented the pattern maintenance of the cultural system and was
the cultural systemic equivalent of latent pattern maintenance through institutions like school and family (or,
simply put, "L"). Later the metaphysical questions became more specified in the Paradigm of the Human
Condition, which Parsons developed in the years before his death as an extension of the original AGIL theory.
The separation of the cultural and social system had various implications for the nature of the basic categories
of the cultural system; especially it had implications for the way cognitive capital is perceived as a factor in
history. In contrast topragmatism, materialism, behaviorism and other anti-Kantian types of epistemological
paradigms, which tended to regard the role of cognitive capital as identical with the basic rationalization
processes in history, Parsons regarded this question as fundamentally different. Cognitive capital, Parsons
maintained, is bound to passion and faith and is entangled as promotional factors in rationalization processes
but is neither absorbed or identical with these processes per se.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_theory_(sociology)

Application of Social Action Theory

If you've watched the TV sitcom Friends you might remember this scene: Rachel tells her friends that she is
pregnant but refuses to identify the father. While she's taking a nap, her roommate Joey and her friends Monica
and Phoebe are talking inside Monica's apartment across the hall. During their conversation about who the
baby's father is, Joey runs home and returns with a red sweater. He says that someone recently spent the night
with Rachel and left this it at their apartment. At this point Ross walks in and sees the sweater. He grabs it and
remarks, 'My sweater! I've been looking for this for like, a month!'
Gasp! We now know who the father of Rachel's baby is.
There was a meaning attached to the sweater that was set in motion by Joey, and the motion continued with the
actions of Ross. It also related to past actions by Ross and Rachel, which answered a current question.
Understanding the past, present, and future implications of the actions in this scene ties into social action theory.

https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-social-action-theory.html

24. Henri Tajfel (Social Identity Theory)

Henri Tajfel's greatest contribution to psychology was social identity theory. Social identity is a person’s sense
of who they are based on their group membership(s).

Tajfel (1979) proposed that the groups (e.g. social class, family, football team etc.) which people belonged to
were an important source of pride and self-esteem. Groups give us a sense of social identity: a sense of
belonging to the social world.

In order to increase our self-image we enhance the status of the group to which we belong. For example,
England is the best country in the world!  We can also increase our self-image by discriminating and holding
prejudice views against the out group (the group we don’t belong to). For example, the Americans, French etc.
are a bunch of losers!

Therefore, we divided the world into “them” and “us” based through a process of social categorization (i.e. we
put people into social groups).

This is known as in-group (us) and out-group (them).  Social identity theory states that the in-group will
discriminate against the out-group to enhance their self-image.

The central hypothesis of social identity theory is that group members of an in-group will seek to find negative
aspects of an out-group, thus enhancing their self-image.
Prejudiced views between cultures may result in racism; in its extreme forms, racism may result in genocide,
such as occurred in Germany with the Jews, in Rwanda between the Hutus and Tutsis and, more recently, in the
former Yugoslavia between the Bosnians and Serbs.

Henri Tajfel proposed that stereotyping (i.e. putting people into groups and categories) is based on a normal
cognitive process: the tendency to group things together. In doing so we tend to exaggerate:

1. the differences between groups

2. the similarities of things in the same group.

We categorize people in the same way. We see the group to which we belong (the in-group) as being different
from the others (the out-group), and members of the same group as being more similar than they are. Social
categorization is one explanation for prejudice attitudes (i.e. “them” and “us” mentality) which leads to in-
groups and out-groups.

Social Identity Theory Outline

Tajfel and Turner (1979) proposed that there are three mental processes involved in evaluating others as “us” or
“them” (i.e. “in-group” and “out-group”. These take place in a particular order.

The first is categorization. We categorize objects in order to understand them and identify them. In a very
similar way we categorize people (including ourselves) in order to understand the social environment.  We use
social categories like black, white, Australian, Christian, Muslim, student, and bus driver because they are
useful.

If we can assign people to a category then that tells us things about those people, and as we saw with the bus
driver example, we couldn't function in a normal manner without using these categories; i.e. in the context of
the bus. 

Similarly, we find out things about ourselves by knowing what categories we belong to.  We define appropriate
behavior by reference to the norms of groups we belong to, but you can only do this if you can tell who belongs
to your group. An individual can belong to many different groups.

In the second stage, social identification, we adopt the identity of the group we have categorized ourselves as
belonging to.  If for example you have categorized yourself as a student, the chances are you will adopt the
identity of a student and begin to act in the ways you believe students act (and conform to the norms of the
group).  There will be an emotional significance to your identification with a group, and your self-esteem will
become bound up with group membership.

The final stage is social comparison.  Once we have categorized ourselves as part of a group and have
identified with that group we then tend to compare that group with other groups. If our self-esteem is to be
maintained our group needs to compare favorably with other groups.

This is critical to understanding prejudice, because once two groups identify themselves as rivals, they are
forced to compete in order for the members to maintain their self-esteem. Competition and hostility between
groups is thus not only a matter of competing for resources (like in Sherif’s Robbers Cave) like jobs but also the
result of competing identities.

Conclusion
Just to reiterate, in social identity theory the group membership is not something foreign or artificial which is
attached onto the person, it is a real, true and vital part of the person. 

Again, it is crucial to remember in-groups are groups you identify with, and out-groups are ones that we don't
identify with, and may discriminate against.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/social-identity-theory.html

25. Wolfgang Kohler (Theory of Insight Learning)

The theory of Insight Learning was first proposed by German-American psychologist, one of the founders of
Gestalt psychology, Wolfgang Köhler. Insight learning is among various methods of Behavioral learning
process, which is a fundamental aspect of Behavioral Psychology
The psychologist gained fame with his studies on cognitive processing involved in problem-solving by animals.
His tests in Tenerife in the 1910s with chimpanzees suggested that these animals solved problems by
understanding – like human beings, instead of going through

 trial and error process

 stimulus response association

Insight learning refers to the sudden realization of the solution of any problem without repeated trials or
continuous practices. To further elaborate on its definition, insight learning is the type of learning, in which one
draws on previous experience and also seems to involve a new way of perceiving logical and cause-and-effect
relationship.

Insight is an awareness of key relationships between cause and effect, which comes after assembling the
relevant information and either overt or covert testing of possibilities. Learning through such insight is called
insight learning.
Characteristics of Insight Learning

There are two major determining characteristics of insight learning.

The first is that insight represents seeing clearly into the heart or essence of a situation, and the other is that we
do not do this by a step-by-step process, but partially by unconscious processes. Although insight learning
suggests sudden realization of a solution, insight is not a process that occurs out of the blue.
First part of the path comes from intense research or work pertaining to some domain, which is termed as the
pre-solution period.
The time of idleness in which the idea or concept seems to spontaneously pop up is the next step.
Having the idea or concept is not enough; it needs to be taken back to the thinking and working stage so that it
can be materialized. There needs to be a certain basis for insight to appear, as insight depends upon the time and
events that take place in order for the material to be transformed from initial stimuli into insightful thought.
Some other characteristics of Insight Learning are as follows:
Insight leads to change in perception.
Insight is sudden.
With insight, the organism tends to perceive a pattern or organization (that helps in learning).
Understanding plays important role n insight learning.
Insight is related with higher order animals and not with inferior animals.
Age influences insight learning. Adults are better learner than children.
Past experience and perceptual organization is important in perception.
Some psychologists also relate insight learning with associative learning.
https://www.psychestudy.com/behavioral/learning-memory/insight-learning

26. Serge Moscovici (Social Representation Theory )

A social representation is a stock of values, ideas, metaphors, beliefs, and practices that are shared among the
members of groups and communities. Social representation theory is a body of theory within social
psychology and sociological social psychology. It has parallels in sociological theorizing such as social
constructionism and symbolic interactionism, and is similar in some ways to mass consensus and discursive
psychology.
Origin and Definition
The term social representation was originally coined by Serge Moscovici in 1961, in his study on the reception
and circulation of psychoanalysis in France. It is understood as the collective elaboration "of a social object by
the community for the purpose of behaving and communicating". They are further referred to as "system of
values, ideas and practices with a twofold function; first, to establish an order which will enable individuals to
orient themselves in their material and social world and to master it; and secondly to enable communication to
take place among the members of a community by providing them with a code for social exchange and a code
for naming and classifying unambiguously the various aspects of their world and their individual and group
history". In his study, Moscovici sought to investigate how scientific theories circulate within common sense,
and what happens to these theories when they are elaborated upon by a lay public. For such analysis, Moscovici
postulated two universes: the reified universe of science, which operates according to scientific rules and
procedures and gives rise to scientific knowledge, and the consensual universe of social representation, in
which the lay public elaborates and circulates forms of knowledge which come to constitute the content of
common sense.
Moscovici's pioneering study described how three segments of French society in the 1950s, i.e. the urban-
liberal, the Catholic, and the communist milieus, responded to the challenge of psychoanalytic ideas. Moscovici
found that communication processes, the contents, and their consequences differed across the three social
segments. Moscovici identified propaganda as the typical communication of the communist milieu, whereby
communication is ordered systematically emphasising incompatibility and conflict. The intention is to generate
negative stereotypes. Propagation was the typical form of the Catholic segment, identified as didactic and well-
ordered but with the intention to make limited concessions to a subgroup of Catholics with affinities to
psychoanalysis, and simultaneously, to set limits to the acceptance within the established orthodoxy of the
Church. Diffusion was typical of urban-liberal milieus, whereby communication was merely intended to inform
people about new opportunities, with little resistance to psychoanalysis.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_representation

27. Herbert Kelman (Social Influence Theory)

The central theme of social influence theory, as proposed by Kelman (1958), is that an individual’s attitudes, beliefs, and
subsequent actions or behaviors are influenced by referent others through three processes: compliance, identification, and
internalization. Kelman (1958) posited that social influence brings about changes in attitude and actions, and that changes
may occur at different “levels.” This difference in the level of changes can be attributed by the differences in the processes
through which individuals accept influence. Kelman (1958) delineated three primary processes of influence as described
below:

Compliance is assumed to occur when individuals accept influence and adopt the induced behavior to gain
rewards (or, approval) and avoid punishments (or, disapproval). Hence, “the satisfaction derived from
compliance is due to the social effect of accepting influence.” (p. 53)

Identification is said to happen when individuals adopt the induced behavior in order to create or maintain a
desired and beneficial relationship to another person or a group. Hence, the satisfaction occurs due to “the act of
conforming.” (p. 53)

Internalization is assumed to occur when individuals accept influence after perceiving the content of the
induced behavior is rewarding in which the content indicates the opinions and actions of others. It is also stated
that individuals adopt the induced behavior realizing that it is congruent with their value system. In this case,
therefore, the satisfaction occurs due to “the content of the new behavior.” (p. 53)
Each of the three processes can be represented by a function of the following three determinants of influence:
(a) the relative importance of the anticipated effect, (b) the relative power of the influencing agent, and (c) the
prepotency of the induced response (Kelman 1958). However, for each process, these determinants are
qualitatively different. So each process has a distinctive set of antecedent conditions; similarly each process
leads to a distinctive set of consequent conditions.
Since social influence can shape an individual’s attitudes, beliefs and actions, the impact of social influence on
information systems (IS) acceptance and usage has been studied extensively. However, the initial theorizing on
IS adoption and use (Lewis et al. 2003; Venkatesh and Davis 2000; Venkatesh et al. 2003) is contended to
consider the perspective of social normative compliance, thereby overlooking
the identification and internalization processes of social influence (Malhotra and Galletta 2005). It is argued
that the subjective norm is the dominant conceptualization of social influence and the way it is operationalized
that typically emphasizes compliance (Wang et al. 2013). Subjective norm is theorized in several behavioral
models such as the theory of planned behavior (TPB) and the theory of reasoned action (TRA) (Ajzen 1991;
Fishbein and Ajzen 1975). Technology-related subjective norm appears in different IS-specific models,
including TAM2 and UTAUT (Venkatesh and Davis 2000; Venkatesh et al. 2003).
Realizing that only one aspect of social influence i.e., compliance may not predict the true relationship between
the system users’ belief and behavior, and IS use, other researchers attempt to bring the perspectives of all three
processes of social influence to provide the integrated impact of them (Malhotra and Galletta 2005; Wang et al.
2013). They believe that the effect of compliance-based social influence may reduce over time, whereas the
effects of identification and internalization would persist over longer periods. Therefore, studies that theorize all
three processes of social influence indicate that social influence may differ significantly across groups in
organizations (Wang et al. 2013). Such conceptualization helps us to understand how the system
users’ own beliefs and judgments also influence their commitment to adopt and use technology, complementing
the understanding of previous studies that focus on how the system users comply and conform to the beliefs of
salient others.

https://is.theorizeit.org/wiki/Social_Influence_Theory
Social influence takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer
pressure, obedience, leadership,persuasion, sales, and marketing. In 1958, Harvard psychologist Herbert
Kelman identified three broad varieties of social influence.

1. Compliance is when people appear to agree with others but actually keep their dissenting opinions
private.
2. Identification is when people are influenced by someone who is liked and respected, such as a famous
celebrity.
3. Internalization is when people accept a belief or behavior and agree both publicly and privately.
Morton Deutsch and Harold Gerard described two psychological needs that lead humans to conform to the
expectations of others. These include our need to be right (informational social influence) and our need to be
liked (normative social influence).[2] Informational influence (or social proof) is an influence to accept
information from another as evidence about reality. Informational influence comes into play when people are
uncertain, either because stimuli are intrinsically ambiguous or because there is social disagreement. Normative
influence is an influence to conform to the positive expectations of others. In terms of Kelman's typology,
normative influence leads to public compliance, whereas informational influence leads to private acceptance.
Kelman's varieties
There are three processes of attitude change as defined by Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman in a 1958
paper published in the Journal of Conflict Resolution. The purpose of defining these processes was to help
determine the effects of social influence: for example, to separate public conformity (behavior) from private
acceptance (personal belief).
Compliance
Compliance is the act of responding favorably to an explicit or implicit request offered by others. Technically,
compliance is a change in behavior but not necessarily in attitude; one can comply due to mere obedience or by
otherwise opting to withhold private thoughts due to social pressures. According to Kelman's 1958 paper, the
satisfaction derived from compliance is due to the social effect of the accepting influence (i.e., people comply
for an expected reward or punishment-aversion).
Identification
Identification is the changing of attitudes or behaviors due to the influence of someone who is
admired. Advertisements that rely upon celebrity endorsements to market their products are taking advantage of
this phenomenon. According to Kelman, the desired relationship that the identifier relates to the behavior or
attitude change.
Internalization
Internalization is the process of acceptance of a set of norms established by people or groups that are influential
to the individual. The individual accepts the influence because the content of the influence accepted is
intrinsically rewarding. It is congruent with the individual's value system, and according to Kelman the
"reward" of internalization is "the content of the new behavior".
Conformity
Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in behavior, belief, or thinking to align with those of
others or with normative standards. It is the most common and pervasive form of social influence. Social
psychology research in conformity tends to distinguish between two varieties: informational conformity (also
called social proof, or "internalization" in Kelman's terms ) and normative conformity ("compliance" in
Kelman's terms).
In the case of peer pressure, a person is convinced to do something that they might not want to do (such as
taking illegal drugs) but which they perceive as "necessary" to keep a positive relationship with other people
(such as their friends). Conformity from peer pressure generally results from identification with the group
members or from compliance of some members to appease others.
Minority influence
Minority influence takes place when a majority is influenced to accept the beliefs or behaviors of a minority.
Minority influence can be affected by the sizes of majority and minority groups, the level of consistency of the
minority group, and situational factors (such as the affluence or social importance of the minority). Minority
influence most often operates through informational social influence (as opposed to normative social influence)
because the majority may be indifferent to the liking of the minority.
Self-fulfilling prophecy
A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true due to positive
feedback between belief and behavior. A prophecy declared as truth (when it is actually false) may sufficiently
influence people, either through fear or logical confusion, so that their reactions ultimately fulfill the once-false
prophecy. This term is credited tosociologist Robert K. Merton from an article he published in 1948.
Reactance
Reactance is the adoption of a view contrary to the view that a person is being pressured to accept, perhaps due
to a perceived threat to behavioral freedoms. This phenomenon has also been called anticonformity. While the
results are the opposite of what the influencer intended, the reactive behavior is a result of social pressure. It is
notable that anticonformity does not necessarily mean independence. In many studies, reactance manifests itself
in a deliberate rejection of an influence, even if the influence is clearly correct.
Obedience
Obedience is a form of social influence that derives from an authority figure. The Milgram experiment,
Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment, and the Hofling hospital experiment are three particularly well-known
experiments on obedience, and they all conclude that humans are surprisingly obedient in the presence of
perceived legitimate authority figures.
Persuasion
Persuasion is the process of guiding oneself or another toward the adoption of an attitude by rational or
symbolic means.Robert Cialdini defined six "weapons of influence": reciprocity, commitment, social
proof, authority, liking, and scarcity. These "weapons of influence" attempt to bring about conformity by
directed means. Persuasion can occur through appeals to reason or appeals to emotion.
Psychological manipulation
Psychological manipulation is a type of social influence that aims to change the behavior or perception of others
throughabusive, deceptive, or underhanded tactics. By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at
another's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative, abusive, devious, and deceptive.
Social influence is not necessarily negative. For example, doctors can try to persuade patients to change
unhealthy habits. Social influence is generally perceived to be harmless when it respects the right of the
influenced to accept or reject it, and is not unduly coercive. Depending on the context and motivations, social
influence may constitute underhanded manipulation.
Abusive power and control
Controlling abusers use various tactics to exert power and control over their victims. The goal of the abuser is to
control andintimidate the victim or to influence them to feel that they do not have an equal voice in the
relationship.
Propaganda
Propaganda is information that is not objective and is used primarily to influence an audience and further an
agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded
language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is presented.
Hard power
Hard power is the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political
bodies. This form of political power is often aggressive (coercion), and is most effective when imposed by one
political body upon another of lesser military and/or economic power. Hard power contrasts with soft power,
which comes from diplomacy, culture andhistory.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_influence

28. Hildegard E. Peplau

Theoretical Framework
In her interpersonal relationship theory, Dr. Peplau emphasized the nurse-client relationship, holding that this
relationship was the foundation of nursing practice. Her book, Interpersonal Relations in Nursing, was
completed in 1948. Publication took four additional years, mainly because Peplau had authored a scholarly
work without a coauthoring physician, which was unheard of for a nurse in the 1950's. At the time, her research
and emphasis on the give-and-take of nurse-client relationships was seen by many as revolutionary. The essence
of Peplau's theory was creation of a shared experiencebetween nurse and client, as opposed to the client
passively receiving treatment (and the nurse passively acting out doctor's orders). Nurses, she thought, could
facilitate this through observation, description, formulation, interpretation, validation, and intervention. For
example, as the nurse listens to her client she develops a general impression of the client's situation. The nurse
then validates her inferences by checking with the client for accuracy. The result may be experiential learning,
improved coping strategies and personal growth for both parties.

Peplau's Model
Peplau's Six Nursing Roles
Peplau describes the six nursing roles that lead into the different phases:

1. Stranger role: Peplau states that when the nurse and patient first meet, they are strangers to one another.
Therefore, the patient should be treated with respect and courtesy, as anybody would expect to be
treated. The nurse should not prejudge the patient or make assumptions about the patient, but take the
patient as he or she is. The nurse should treat the patient as emotionally stable unless evidence states
otherwise.
2. Resource role: The nurse provides answers to questions primarily on health information. The resource
person is also in charge of relaying information to the patient about the treatment plan. Usually the
questions arise from larger problems, therefore the nurse would determine what type of response is
appropriate for constructive learning. The nurse should provide straightforward answers when providing
information on counseling.
3. Teaching role: The teaching role is a role that is a combination of all roles. Peplau determined that there
are two categories that the teaching role consists of: Instructional and experimental. The instructional
consists of giving a wide variety of information that is given to the patients and experimental is using
the experience of the learner as a starting point to later form products of learning which the patient
 makes about their experiences.
4. Counseling role: Peplau believes that counselling has the biggest emphasis in psychiatric nursing. The
counselor role helps the patient understand and remember what is going on and what is happening to
them in current life situations. Also, to provide guidance and encouragement to make changes.
5. Surrogate role: The patient is responsible for putting the nurse in the surrogate role. The nurse’s
behaviors and attitudes create a feeling tone for the patient that trigger feelings that were generated in a
previous relationship. The nurse helps the patient recognize the similarities and differences between the
nurse and the past relationship.
6. Leadership role: Helps the patient assume maximum responsibility for meeting treatment goals in a
mutually satisfying way. The nurse helps the patient meet these goals through cooperation and active
participation with the nurse.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hildegard_Peplau

29. Carol Dwek (Mindset Theory – Fixed vs. Growth Mindset)

Dweck proposed that the implicit theories that people hold for the nature and causes of intelligence have a
number of implications, particularly for motivation to practice and learn [1]. In her earlier research, Dweck
identified “entity" and “incremental" theorists, based on whether individuals attributed success in tasks that
required intelligent behavior to having sufficient native aptitude (entity) versus having practiced a skill and
improving performance over time (incremental). Eventually, she proposed a theory of “mindset" to integrate a
number of related ideas that she had developed over the years].

“Mindset" refers to implicit theories that individuals hold regarding the nature of intelligent behavior; to the
degree that individuals attribute intelligence to fixed traits, they hold a “fixed" theory of intelligence (that is, a
fixed mindset), and to the degree that they attribute intelligence to learning, effort, training, and practice, they
hold a “growth" theory of intelligence (that is, a growth mindset). The terms fixed and growth mindset replaced
the earlier terms for entity and incremental theories of intelligence.

Individuals with a fixed mindsetbelieve that their qualities (such as intelligence and other personality
traits) are “set in stone”– how God made you is basically who you are. One’s traits are fixed — not something
that can be practiced or developed.

 Individuals with a growth mindset,on the other hand, believe that effort or training can change
one’s qualities and traits.

Individuals with a fixed mindset tend to be interested only in feedback on their success in activities to the
degree that it serves to evaluate their underlying ability. They are not using the feedback to learn, since they do
not believe that their success depends on their effort to learn. Rather, they believe that success depends on the
level of innate ability that they have. Therefore, they dread failure, because it suggests constraints or limits that
they will not be able to overcome.

A growth mindset, on the other hand, attributes success to learning. Therefore, the individual is not terrified of
failure, because it only signals the need to pay attention, invest effort, apply time to practice, and master the
new learning opportunity. They are confident that after such effort they will be able to learn the skill or
knowledge, and then to improve their performance.
Messages to children can influence the development of mindset. If parents or teachers constantly seem to
attribute success to inborn or innate abilities, children will come to develop a fixed mindset (“Johnny failed the
math test because he is low on math ability"). Praise of a child’s performance can be particularly likely to
produce a fixed mindset when it attributes the success to the child’s intelligence (implying aptitude or fixed
traits). However, if parents or teachers attribute success to effort and practice, children will be more likely to
developed a growth mindset (“Johnny failed the math test because he did not do his homework, but he will pass
the next one because I will make sure he puts in the time and practices"). Praise of a child’s efforts to practice,
or attributions of success that reference the prior practice in which the child engaged, can spur the child to
develop a growth mindset.

Differences in mindset may affect broader issues as well, including how employers focus on hiring staff and in
how politicians fund public education. Employers that hold a fixed mindset may focus more on investment in
high ability employees and correspondingly invest less in professional development and ongoing training.
Politicians who believe that the learning of which children are capable is limited by fixed traits may resist calls
to improve funding for public education, perhaps considering such additional funding an unnecessary
investment to try to improve fixed abilities. However, those same politicians might be willing to support
spending on programs for the gifted when entrance to such programs is filtered by intelligence tests. It is also
possible that there may exist international differences in mindset; for example, Americans and Western
Europeans, given the history of the prevalence of the use of intelligence tests for the past century, may be more
likely to attribute success to innate ability (fixed mindset) than to effort and practice; the reverse may be the
case in many Asian nations, and particularly China, where the culture of education emphasizes learning and
rigorous practic.

https://www.learning-theories.com/mindset-theory-fixed-vs-growth-mindset-dweck.html