ETM 308: Applied Heat transfer

Lecture 2: Radiation

Dr. Hamarz Aryafar, Ph.D.

 General Considerations
• Thermal radiation is associated with emission from matter at an
absolute temperature T >0

• Emission is due to oscillations and transitions of the many electrons that

comprise matter, which are, in turn, sustained by the thermal energy of the
matter.
• Emission corresponds to heat transfer from the matter and hence to a
reduction in thermal energy stored by the matter.
• Radiation may also be intercepted and absorbed by matter.

• Absorption results in heat transfer to the matter and hence an increase in

thermal energy stored by the matter.

• Consider a solid of temperature Ts

in an evacuated enclosure whose walls
are at a fixed temperature Tsur :
 What changes occur if Ts > Tsur ? Why ?

 What changes occur if Ts < Tsur ? Why ?

• Emission from a gas or a semitransparent solid or liquid is a volumetric
phenomenon. Emission from an opaque solid or liquid is a surface
phenomenon.

For an opaque solid or liquid, emission originates from atoms and molecules
within 1µ m of the surface.
• The dual nature of radiation:
– In some cases, the physical manifestations of radiation may be explained
by viewing it as particles (aka photons or quanta).
– In other cases, radiation behaves as an electromagnetic wave.
– In all cases, radiation is characterized by a wavelength and frequency
which are related through the speed at which radiation propagates in the
medium of interest:
c
λ=
f
For propagation in a vacuum,
c = co = 2.998 ×108 m/s
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Thermal radiation is generally confined to the infrared, visible, and

ultraviolet regions (0.1 < λ < 100 µm)
of the spectrum .
• The amount of radiation emitted by an opaque
surface varies with wavelength, and we may
speak of the spectral distribution over all
wavelengths or of monochromatic/spectral
components associated with particular wavelengths.
 Directional Considerations and the
Concept of Radiation Intensity
• Radiation emitted by a surface will be in all
directions associated with a hypothetical
hemisphere about the surface and is
characterized by a directional distribution.

• Direction may be represented in a spherical

coordinate system characterized by the zenith
or polar angle and the azimuthal angle .

• The amount of radiation emitted from a surface, dA1 and

propagating in a particular direction is quantified in
terms of a differential solid angle associated with the direction.
dAn
dω ≡
r2
dAn → unit element of surface on a hypothetical sphere and
normal to the direction.
 Blackbody Radiation
• The Blackbody
 An idealization providing limits on radiation emission and absorption
by matter.
– For a prescribed temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit
more radiation than a blackbody: the ideal emitter.
– A blackbody is a diffuse emitter.
– A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation: the ideal absorber.
• The Isothermal Cavity

(a) After multiple reflections, virtually all radiation entering the cavity is absorbed.
(b) Emission from the aperture is the maximum possible emission achievable for
the temperature associated with the cavity and is diffuse.
(c) The cumulative effect of radiation emission from and reflection off
the cavity wall is to provide diffuse irradiation corresponding to
emission from a blackbody for any small surface in the cavity.

– Does this condition depend on whether the cavity surface is highly

reflecting or absorbing?

8
The Spectral (Planck) Distribution of Blackbody Radiation
• The spectral distribution of the blackbody emissive power (determined
theoretically and confirmed experimentally) is
C1
Eλ , b ( λ , T ) = π I λ , b ( λ , T ) =
λ5 exp C2 λT  − 1
   

C1 = 3.742 ×108 W ⋅ µm 4 / m 2 , C2 = 1.439 × 10 4 µm ⋅ K

 E λ,b varies continuously with λ and increases

with T.
 The distribution is characterized by a
maximum for which λ max is given by Wien’s
displacement law:
λmaxT = C3 = 2898 µm ⋅ K
 The fractional amount of total blackbody
emission appearing at lower wavelengths
increases with increasing T.
 Surface Emissivity
• Radiation emitted by a surface may be determined by introducing a property
(the emissivity) that contrasts its emission with the ideal behavior of a blackbody
at the same temperature.

• The definition of the emissivity depends upon one’s interest in resolving

directional and/or spectral features of the emitted radiation, in contrast
to averages over all directions (hemispherical and/or wavelengths (total).

• The spectral, directional emissivity:

I λ , e (λ , θ , φ , T )
ε λ ,θ (λ ,θ , φ , T ) ≡
I λ ,b ( λ , T )

• The spectral, hemispherical emissivity (a directional average):

2π π

∫ ∫ I λ (λ ,θ , φ , T ) cosθ sin θ dθ dφ
2

E (λ , T ) ,e
ε λ (λ , T ) ≡ λ = 0 0
Eλ , b ( λ , T ) π 2 π

∫ ∫ I λ (λ , T ) cosθ sin θ dθ dφ
2

,b
0 0
• The total, hemispherical emissivity (a directional and spectral average):
∞

ε (T ) ≡
E (T )
=
∫
0
ε λ ( λ , T ) E λ , b ( λ , T ) dλ
Eb (T ) Eb (T )
• To a reasonable approximation, the hemispherical emissivity is equal to
the normal emissivity.
ε = εn

• Representative values of the total, normal emissivity:

Note:
 Low emissivity of polished metals and increasing emissivity for unpolished
and oxidized surfaces.
 Comparatively large emissivities of nonconductors.
Response to Surface Irradiation: Absorption, Reflection
and Transmission
• There may be three responses of a semitransparent medium to irradiation:

 Reflection from the medium ( Gλ ,ref ) .

 Absorption within the medium ( Gλ ,abs ) .

 Transmission through the medium ( Gλ ,tr ) .

Radiation balance
Gλ = Gλ ,ref + Gλ ,abs + Gλ ,tr

• In contrast to the foregoing volumetric effects, the response of an opaque material

to irradiation is governed by surface phenomena and Gλ ,tr = 0.
=
Gλ Gλ ,ref + Gλ ,tr
• The wavelength of the incident radiation, as well as the nature of the material,
determine whether the material is semitransparent or opaque.
 Are glass and water transparent or opaque?
• Unless an opaque material is at a sufficiently high temperature to emit visible
radiation, its color is determined by the spectral dependence of reflection in
response to visible irradiation.

 What may be said about reflection for a white surface? A black surface?

 Why are leaves green?

 Absorptivity of an Opaque Material
• The spectral, directional absorptivity: Assuming negligible temperature dependence,
I (λ , θ , φ )
α λ ,θ (λ ,θ , φ ) ≡ λ ,i ,abs
I λ ,i (λ , θ , φ )
• The spectral, hemispherical absorptivity:
2π π

∫ ∫ α λ ,θ (λ ,θ , φ ) I λ ,i (λ ,θ , φ ) cos θ sin θ dθ dφ
2
Eλ ,abs (λ )
α λ (λ ) ≡ = 0 0
Eλ ( λ ) 2π π

∫ ∫ I λ ,i (λ , θ , φ ) cos θ sin θ dθ dφ
2

0 0

• The total, hemispherical absorptivity:

∞
G
α ≡ abs =
∫0
α λ (λ )Gλ (λ )dλ
∞
G
∫
0
Gλ (λ )dλ
 Reflectivity of an Opaque Material
• The spectral, directional reflectivity: Assuming negligible temperature
dependence:
I (λ , θ , φ )
ρ λ ,θ (λ ,θ , φ ) ≡ λ ,i ,ref
I λ ,i (λ , θ , φ )

• The spectral, hemispherical reflectivity:

2π π

Gλ ,ref (λ ) ∫ ∫ ρ λ ,θ (λ ,θ , φ ) I λ ,i (λ ,θ , φ ) cos θ sin θ dθ dφ

2

ρ λ (λ ) ≡ = 0 0
Eλ ( λ ) 2π π

∫ ∫ I λ ,i (λ , θ , φ ) cos θ sin θ dθ dφ
2

0 0

• The total, hemispherical reflectivity:

∞

ρ≡
Gref
=
∫ 0
ρ λ (λ )Gλ (λ )dλ
∞
G
∫0
Gλ (λ )dλ
 Note strong dependence of ρ λ ( and α λ = 1 − ρ λ ) on λ .
 Is snow a highly reflective substance? White paint?
 Transmissivity
The spectral, hemispherical transmissivity: Assuming negligible temperature
dependence,

Gλ ,tr λ
τλ ≡
Gλ ( λ )

Note shift from semitransparent to opaque conditions at large and small

wavelengths.

• The total, hemispherical transmissivity:

∞
G ∫ 0 Gλ ,tr ( λ ) d λ
τ ≡ tr = ∞
G ∫ 0 Gλ ( λ ) d λ
• For a semitransparent medium,

α λ + ρλ + τ λ = 1
α + ρ +τ = 1

• For a gray medium,

α λ + ρλ = 1
α + ρ =1
 Kirchhoff’s Law
• Kirchhoff’s law equates the total, hemispherical emissivity of a surface to
its total, hemispherical absorptivity:
ε =α
However, conditions associated with its derivation are highly restrictive:
Irradiation of the surface corresponds to emission from a blackbody at the
same temperature as the surface.

• However, Kirchhoff’s law may be applied to the spectral, directional properties

without restriction:

ε λ ,θ = α λ ,θ
True Black
 Stefan-Boltsmann Law
Q emit = εσ AsTs4

σ = 5.670 × 10−8 W/m2 · K4 Stefan–Boltzmann constant

Ts1 Ts 2

Q1 εσ As (Ts42 − Ts41 ) =Q 2 εσ As (Ts41 − Ts42 )

 Example 1
A 2 cm spherical meteor skips along the earth’s
atmosphere until it is bright red but manages to escape
back out into space. If the meteor has a mean temperature
of 1000oC, how much heat is it irritating? Assume an
emissivity of 1.
 Example 2
A 2 cm spherical meteor skips along the earth’s
atmosphere until it is bright red but manages to escape
back out into space. If the meteor has a mean temperature
of 1000oC, how much heat is it irritating? Assume an
emissivity of 1. If meteor is made of solid iron, estimate
how long it will take before the meteor reaches a mean
temperature of 500oC.
Meteor Temp vs Time
1000
950
900
850
Temp (oC)

800
750
700
650
600
550
500
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Time (s)
 Example 3
A 10 cm diameter 35 cm long wooden log burns inside an
iron stove. The log has a surface temperature of 600oC. If
the stove has internal dimensions of 50 cm x 50 cm x 50
cm and has a surface temperature of 150oC, what is the
rate of radiative heat transfer between the log and the
stove? Assume an emissivity of 1 for the log and stove.
 Example 4
A 10cm diameter 35cm long wooden log burns inside an
iron stove. The log has a surface temperature of 600oC. If
the stove has internal dimensions of 100 cm x 100 cm x
100 cm and has a surface temperature of 150oC, what is
the rate of radiative heat transfer between the log and the
stove? Assume an emissivity of 1 for the log and stove.
 Example 5
A 10cm diameter 35cm long wooden log burns inside an
iron stove. The log has a surface temperature of 600oC. If
the stove has external dimensions of 50 cm x 50 cm x 50
cm and has a surface temperature of 150oC, what is the
rate of radiative heat transfer between the stove and the
room? Assume an emissivity of 1 and a room
temperature of 27oC.
 Example 6
A 10cm diameter 35cm long wooden log burns inside an
iron stove. The log has a surface temperature of 600oC. If
the stove has external dimensions of 100 cm x 100 cm x
100 cm and has a surface temperature of 150oC, what is
the rate of radiative heat transfer between the stove and
the room? Assume an emissivity of 1 and a room
temperature of 27oC.