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LAP 11: Digestive, Excretion, Circulatory, Lymphatic, and Respiratory Systems

Ch 27.1 Organization of the Human Body

a. Organization of the Body All cells in the body are both an independent unit and a part of a larger community, the
entire organism. Many individual cells and parts work together efficiently to complete everyday tasks. At each level of
organization, these parts of the body work together to carry out major body functions:
o Cells – the basic unit of structure and function in living things. Specialized cells, such as bone, blood, and
muscle cells are uniquely suited to perform a particular function
o Tissues – A group of cells that preform a single function. There are 4 types of tissues in the body:
 Epithelial Tissue – Lines the exterior and interior body surfaces. Ex: Your skin and the lining of your
stomach
 Connective Tissue – Provide support for the body and connects its parts. Many of these cells produce
collagen, a long tough protein that gives tissues strength and resiliency. Ex. Fat, bone, and blood cells
 Nervous Tissue – Nerve impulses are transmitted throughout the body by nervous tissue. Ex.
Neurons, carry these impulses
 Muscle Tissue – Makes it possible for the body to move. Ex. Leg muscle and the tiny muscle that
controls the size of the pupil in your eye
o Organs – A group of different types if tissues that work together to preform a single function or several related
functions. Ex. The eye is made up of epithelial, nervous, muscle, and connective tissue work together for a
single function, sight
o Organ Systems – A group of organs that preform closely related functions. Ex. The brain and spinal cord are
organs of the nervous system
b. Homeostasis  Describes the relatively constant internal conditions that organisms maintain despite changes in
internal and external environments, maintaining a controlled, stable internal environment, “keeping things the same”
o Feedback Inhibition (Negative Feedback) – The process in which a stimulus produces a response that opposes
the original stimulus
 Non-living – A home heating system uses feedback loop (thermostat) to maintain a stable,
comfortable environment within a house. The thermostat senses temperature change and turns heating
system on or off. When the furnace is switched on, it produces a product (heat) that changes the
environment of the house by raising the air temperature.
 Living – In the human body, temperature is controlled through various feedback inhibition
mechanisms. A part of the brain called the hypothalamus contains nerve cells that monitor body
temperature. If the nerve cells since a drop in temperature, it signals a chemical reaction that to
increase heat, especially cellular respiration.
o The Liver and Homeostasis – The livers role in converting dangerous substances and balancing glucose levels
is necessary to homeostasis and the function of the human body
 Glucose Levels – One of the most important roles of the liver is regulating sugar glucose levels. We
absorb glucose through the foods we eat, so after a meal, the levels of glucose in the body rise. The
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liver controls the amount of glucose in the blood by storing it until it is needed. When the body uses
glucose for energy, the liver releases stored glucose to prevent glucose levels from dropping too much.
 Importance of Glucose in the Body – Too little glucose can cause the cells in your nervous system to
slow down to the point where you may lose consciousness pass out. Too much glucose can gradually
cause damage to the cells in your eyes, kidneys, heart, immune system, and can even cause diabetes
 Diabetes – In diabetes, changes occur in either the pancreas or body cells that effect the cells’
ability to absorb glucose. It is the result of the failure of homeostasis with respect to blood
glucose levels.

Ch 27.2 Human Systems I

a. The Digestive System  Converts food into small molecules that can be used by the cells of the body. There are many
steps that have to happen in order for the food to be converted into energy:
o Digestion – The first step is the process of ingestion, putting food into your body so that it can be used for
energy. Food in the digestive system is broken down in two ways:
 Mechanical Digestion – The physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces as your
teeth tear and grind up food.
 Chemical Digestion – Enzymes in your saliva start to break down food molecules, like carbohydrates.
Once you swallow, that food travels down your esophagus and into your stomach where more
chemical and mechanical digestion occur. Chemical digestion is completed in the small intestine,
when the food is reduced to molecules that can be absorbed
o Absorption from the Small Intestine – The main job of the small intestine is absorption of nutrients and minerals
from food. The structure and the way the small intestine preform are crucial to the absorption of nutrients:
 Structure of the Intestine – The lining of the small intestine consists of folds that are covered with tiny
projections called villi. Within each villus there is a network of blood capillaries and lymph vessels that
absorb and carry away nutrients.
 Movement of the Intestine – The chyme is the mixture of small nutrient molecules. The folded surfaces of
the small intestine provide a great surface area for absorption. Its finger like projections, called villi, are
covered with tiny projections called microvilli, which absorb the nutrients. The nutrients then pass into the
circulatory system, sugars and amino acids go into the capillaries, while fats and fatty acids are absorbed by
lymph vessels. After the chyme leaves the small intestine, most nutrients were absorbed and all that is left
is water, cellulose, and other indigestible substances.
o Large Intestine and Elimination – The chyme then enters the large intestine; whose main function is to remove
water from the material that is left over. Bacteria in the large intestine break down some of the indigestible
substances in the chyme and then turn them into compounds that the body is able to absorb and use.
 After Water – Feces forms after most of the water has been removed. Feces passes into the rectum and
is eliminated through the anus. If your large intestine isn’t functioning correctly, it may not absorb the
correct amount of water. If it absorbs too little, you may have diarrhea; If it absorbs too much, you
may experience constipation.
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b. The Excretory System  This system eliminates metabolic wastes from the body; It includes the skin, lungs, liver, and
kidneys. The ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra are also involved.
o Skin – removes excess water, salts, and a small amount of urea in sweat. This process eliminates waste even
when you think you’re not sweating by releasing it in very small amounts.
o Lungs – the blood transports carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular respiration, from the body to the
lungs. When you exhale, your lungs excrete carbon dioxide along with small amounts of water vapor.
o Liver – One of the principle activities is to convert dangerous nitrogen-based wastes into urea, which is a less
toxic compound. Urea is then transported through the blood to the kidneys for elimination from the body.
o Kidneys – The kidneys remove excess water, urea, and metabolic wastes from the blood. The kidneys produce
and excrete urine, ureters transport urine to the urinary bladder, where it is stored until it is released through
the urethra. The kidneys function and respond directly to the composition of the blood:
 Filtration – Blood enters a nephron through a capillary. The glomerulus in the nephron filtrate flows
into a tubule. Blood cells and large substances remain in the capillary.
 Reabsorption – As the filtrate moves through the tubule, water and many other substances that are
important to the body are reabsorbed through capillary walls into the blood
 Urine Excretion – Once water and other important substances are reclaimed by the blood; the filtrate
is called urine. Collecting ducts gather urine and transport it to a ureter.
c. The Circulatory System  Transports oxygen, nutrients, and other substances throughout the body, and it removes
wastes from tissues.
o The Septum – The heart is divided into 4 chambers by a wall called the septum. It prevents oxygen-poor and
oxygen-rich blood from mixing. It separates the right side of the heart from the left side, and on each side of
the septum is an upper and lower chamber. Each upper chamber (atrium), receives blood from the body. Each
lower chamber (ventricle) pumps blood out of the heart.
 Right Atrium – Accepts oxygen-poor blood from the body
 Right Ventricle – Pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs
 Left Atrium – Accepts oxygen-rich blood from the lungs
 Left Ventricle – Pumps oxygen-rich blood to the body
o Circulation – The heart functions as two pumps. One pump pushes blood to the lungs, while the other pushes
blood to the rest of the body.
 Pulmonary Circulation – The right side of the heart pumps oxygen-poor blood from the heart to the
lungs through the pulmonary circulation. In the lungs, carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood, and
oxygen is absorbed into the blood. Oxygen-rich blood then flows to the left side of the heart.
 Systematic Circulation – The left side of the heart pumps oxygen rich blood to the rest of the body
through the systematic circulation. Cells absorb the oxygen that they need and loaf the blood with
carbon dioxide by the time it returns to the heart.
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o Blood Vessels – Composed of endothelium, smooth muscle, and connective tissue. Transport blood cells,
nutrients, and oxygen to the tissues of the body, as blood flows through the circulatory system, it moves
through 3 types of blood vessels:
 Arteries – Large vessels that carry blood from the heart to tissues in the body. They have thiccc elastic
walls that help them withstand the pressure produced when the heart contracts and pumps blood.
 Capillaries – The smallest blood vessels, their thin walls allow oxygen and nutrients to diffuse from
blood into tissues and allow carbon dioxide and other waste products to move from tissues into blood.
 Veins – After blood passes through the capillaries, it returns to the heart through veins, many veins are
located near and between skeletal muscles. Many veins contain valves, which ensure blood flows in
one direction through these vessels toward the heart.
o Blood – It serves as the bodies transportation system, regulate body temperature, fight infections, and produce
clots to minimize the loss of body fluids from wounds.
 Plasma – Plasma proteins consist of 3 types – albumin, globulin and fibrinogen
 Albumin and globulin – transport substances such as fatty acids, hormones, and vitamins.
They also help balance osmotic pressure between blood plasma and surrounding tissue and
fight viral and bacterial infections.
 Fibrinogen – necessary for blood to clot
 Red Blood Cells – The main function is too transport oxygen. They are produced by cells in the bone
marrow and outnumber white blood cells 1000 to 1
 White Blood Cells – These cells guard against infection, fight parasites, and attack bacteria. They are
the “army” of the circulatory system.
 Blood Clotting – Platelets and plasma proteins cause blood to clot. Platelets are formed when the
cytoplasm of particular bone marrow cells break apart into tiny membrane-enclosed fragments that
then enter the blood
d. The Lymphatic System  A network of vessels, nodes, and organs that recycle fluids from tissues and plays a role in
nutrient absorption and immunity. If the lymphatic system isn’t working well, fluid can build up in tissues, causing
swelling. Most of the fluid, called lymph, is reabsorbed into capillaries, the rest goes into the lymphatic system.
o Role in Circulation – Lymph collects in a system of capillaries that slowly conduct it into larger lymph vessels.
Like veins, lymph vessels have valves that prevent lymph from flowing backward. These ducts return lymph to
the blood through openings in veins just below the shoulders. When injury or disease blocks lymphatic vessels,
lymph can accumulate in tissues, causing swelling called edema.
o Role in Immunity – Lymph nodes act as filters, trapping microorganisms, cancer cells, and debris. White blood
cells inside lymph nodes destroy these cells. The thymus and spleen play important roles in the immune
functions of the lymphatic system. Blood flows through the spleen where it is cleansed microorganisms,
damaged cells, and other debris.
o Role in Nutrient Absorption – A system of lymph vessels run alongside the intestines, they pick up fats and
fat-soluble vitamins from the digestive tract and transport these nutrients into the bloodstream.
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e. The Respiratory System  Picks up oxygen from the air as we inhale and release carbon dioxide as we exhale. In the
lungs, gas exchange takes place and oxygen enters the circulatory system. The respiratory system consists of the nose,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
o Air Flow – Air moves through the nose, pharynx, larynx, and bronchi into the lungs. The respiratory system
brings oxygen into our bodies, which we need for our cells to live and function properly; and it helps us get rid
of carbon dioxide, which is a waste product of cellular respiration.
 Nose – Air enters the body through the nose, where it is filtered, moistened, and warmed
 Pharynx, Larynx, and Trachea – From the nose, air moves into the pharynx. Then, it passes through
the larynx, which contains the vocal cords, and through the trachea.
 Lungs – From the trachea, air moves into the bronchi. Each bronchus leads to one lung. The bronchi
divide into the bronchioles, which eventually end at alveoli.
o Gas Exchange and Transport – The diaphragm contracts and flattens as you inhale. As air enters the alveoli,
oxygen diffuses across capillary walls into the blood, while carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction.
 Diffusion of Oxygen – From the alveoli into the capillaries, oxygen dissolves into the bloodstream,
and then becomes bound to the hemoglobin in red blood cells.
 Diffusion of Carbon Dioxide – From body tissues to capillaries, most carbon dioxide enters red blood
cells and combines with water, forming carbonic acid and then bicarbonate. The rest of it dissolves in
plasma or binds to hemoglobin and proteins in plasma. These processes are reversed in the lungs
before the carbon dioxide is exhaled.
o Breathing – Air is driven into the lungs by ordinary air pressure, the diaphragm, and muscles associated with
the ribs. Movement in the diaphragm change air pressure in the chest cavity during inhalation and exhalation.
 Inhalation – The rib cage rises and the diaphragm contracts, increasing the size of the chest cavity.
 Exhalation – The rib cage lowers, and the diaphragm relaxes, decreasing the size of the chest cavity.
o Breathing and Homeostasis – Your nervous system has final control of your breathing muscles even when you
are self-conscious. The medulla oblongata is a part of the brain stem that is in charge of breathing.
 Medulla Oblongata – Sensory neurons in or near the medulla and in some large blood vessels gather
information about carbon dioxide levels in the body and send the information to the breathing center.
When stimulated, the breathing center sends nerve impulses that cause the diaphragm and chest
muscles to contract, bringing air into the lungs. The higher the blood carbon dioxide level, the stronger
the impulse, the impulse can even become so powerful that you cannot keep from breathing.
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OBJECTIVES:

1. Explain how the human body is organized.

a. Many individual cells and parts work together to carry out major body functions. The body consist of systems of organs that work
together to complete tasks (digestive system, excretory system, circulatory system).

2. Define homeostasis, providing examples.

a. Homeostasis is the act of keeping everything in balance with each other.
i. Ex. When the temperature of a room drops below a certain point, the thermostat kicks in to make the room colder in
order to maintain a controlled, stable environment.

3. Differentiate between positive and negative feedback, providing examples of both

a. Positive Feedback – When a product of a reaction leads to an increase in that reaction.
i. Ex. Fruit(apple) Ripening  Once an apple becomes ripe, it gives off a gas called ethylene. When exposed to this gas,
the apples near to it also ripen. Once ripe, they too produce ethylene, which continues to ripen the rest of the tree in an
effect much like a wave.
b. Negative Feedback – When a product of a reaction leads to a decrease in that reaction.
i. Ex. Temperature Regulation  If the body detects a rise in temperature, it signals a chemical reaction that decreases
heat by making the body start to sweat. As the sweat cools, it causes evaporative cooling.

4. List the functions of the human digestive system

a. Digestion and absorption – digestion is the breakdown of food into small molecules, which are then absorbed into the body.
i. Ingestion Movement along the digestive tract Mechanical digestion Chemical digestion Absorption
Elimination

5. Differentiate between mechanical and chemical processes of digestion, and know where each occurs
a. Mechanical Digestion – The physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces as your teeth tear and grind up food.
b. Chemical Digestion – Enzymes in your saliva start to break down food molecules, like carbohydrates. Once you swallow, that
food travels down your esophagus and into your stomach where more chemical and mechanical digestion occur. Chemical
digestion is completed in the small intestine, when the food is reduced to molecules that can be absorbed.

6. Label and describe the functions of the structures of the digestive system
a. Esophagus – The “highway” for food and liquids to the stomach
b. Stomach – The stomach muscles contract periodically, churning food to enhance digestion
c. Small Intestine – The absorption of nutrients and minerals from food
d. Large Intestine (colon) – Remove water from the excess material that is left over from the small intestine
e. Rectum/Anus – Feces (material from the colon) passes into the rectum and is eliminated through the anus

7. Define excretion and explain why organisms must get rid of wastes
a. The process of eliminating or expelling poopoo and peepee.
i. Removes waste and helps maintain the saltwater balance in an organism, contributing to homeostasis

8. Label and describe the functions of the structures of the excretory system
a. Responsible for the elimination of wastes produced by homeostasis and excretion, discharging wastes
i. Skin – Removes excess water, salts, and a small amount of urea in sweat.
ii. Lungs – When you exhale, your lungs excrete carbon dioxide along with small amounts of water vapor.
iii. Liver – Convert dangerous nitrogen-based wastes into urea, which is then transported to the kidneys
iv. Kidneys – Remove excess water, urea, and metabolic wastes from the blood.

9. List the functions of the human circulatory system

a. Transports blood and oxygen from the lungs to the various tissues of the body, provide cells with nutrients, removes carbon
dioxide, protects the body against disease and infection, and clots blood to stop bleeding after injury.
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10. Identify the structures of the heart (chambers, valves, septum, chordae tendineae) including associated major veins and
arteries
a. Septum – A wall dividing the heart in 4 chambers, preventing oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood from mixing
b. 4 Chambers – On each side of the septum is an upper and lower chamber. Each upper chamber (atrium), receives blood from the
body. Each lower chamber (ventricle) pumps blood out of the heart.
c. Arteries – Large thiccc vessels that carry blood from the heart to tissues in the body
d. Capillaries – Thin walls allow oxygen and nutrients to diffuse from blood into tissues and allow carbon dioxide and other waste
products to move from tissues into blood.
e. Veins – Blood returns to the heart through veins, which contain valves that ensure blood flows in one direction through these
vessels toward the heart

11. Trace the path of blood through the circulatory system, indicating where oxygenated and deoxygenated blood would be found,
distinguish between the pulmonary and systemic circulatory systems
a. Systemic circulation – On the left side of the heart, blood enters the left atrium from the lungs, enters the left ventricle, then out
the aorta to the rest of the body
b. Pulmonary circulation – On the right side of the heart, vena cavas carry blood from the rest of the body to the right atrium, to the
right ventricle, then out the pulmonary arteries

12. Explain the functions of the SA node, and the AV node

a. SA Node – Sends out regular electrical impulses from the atrium causing it to contract and pump blood into the ventricle
b. AV Node – Controls the heart rate and receives electrical impulses from the SA Node and causes the ventricle to contract

13. Differentiate between arteries, veins, and capillaries

a. Arteries – Carry blood away from the heart and to the rest of the body
b. Veins – Are blood vessels that bring blood back to the heart and drain blood from organs and limbs
c. Capillaries – Carry blood away from the body and exchange nutrients, waste, and oxygen tissues at the cellular level

14. Distinguish between systolic and diastolic pressure: Blood Pressure

a. Systolic Pressure – The top number refers to the amount of pressure in your arteries during the contraction of your heart 120
b. Diastolic Pressure – The bottom dumber refers to your blood pressure when your heart is between beats
80
15. Explain the role of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets, list the 4 blood types, explain the Rh factor, and explain why
blood may agglutinate
a. Red Blood Cells – Carry oxygen from the lungs to the body tissues and carbon dioxide away from the tissues and back to lungs
b. White Blood Cells – They help fight infections by attacking bacteria, viruses, and germs that invade the body
c. Platelets – Tiny blood cells that help your body form clots to stop bleeding if you get injured
d. 4 Blood Types – A, B, AB, and O. Each letter refers to a kind of antigen, or protein on the surface of red blood cells
e. Rh Factor – A type of protein found on the outside of red blood cells. If you have the protein you are Rh-positive, vice versa
f. Blood Agglutination – When an antigen is mixed with its corresponding antibody causing clumping (typical in blood transfusion)

16. Describe the lymphatic system, the origin of the lymph, and lymph disorders
a. To transport lymph, a fluid containing infection-fighting white blood cells, throughout the body
i. Lymph originates as plasma, which flows out of the heart and slows as it moves through the capillary bed. This allows
some plasma to leave the arterioles (small arteries) and flow into the tissues where it becomes tissue fluid

17. Differentiate between cellular and whole-body respiration

a. Cellular respiration – Involves breakdown of glucose into carbon dioxide and water in living cells, releasing energy
b. Whole Body Respiration – Breathing involves inhale of oxygen from the atmosphere into the lungs, and exhale of carbon dioxide

18. Label and describe the functions of the structures of the respiratory system
a. Pharynx – To allow inhaled air entering the nasal cavity to make its way to the respiratory tract
b. Larynx – It allows air to pass through to the trachea while keeping food and drink from blocking the airway
c. Trachea – The main passageway though which air passes from the upper respiratory tract to the lungs
d. Bronchi – Extensions of the windpipe with oxygen going to the lungs and carbon dioxide leaving the lung through them
e. Lungs – Helps oxygen enter the red blood cells in the blood and the body get ride of carbon dioxide when we breathe out
f. Diaphragm – Contracts and flattens as you inhale, which creates a vacuum effect that pulls air into the lungs