Absorption Lines

Dark lines in a spectrum, produced when light or other electromagnetic radiation coming
from a distant source passes through a gas cloud or similar object closer to the observer.
Like emission lines, absorption lines betray the chemical composition and velocity of the
material that produces
Anti-Matter
(a) For every variety of particle there exists an antiparticle with opposite properties such
as sign of electrical charge. When a particle and its antiparticle meet they can mutually
annihilate and produce energy. Thus, antiquark, antiproton, etc. [D89]
(b) Atomic particles that have the same mass as, but opposite charge and orbital direction
to, an ordinary particle. Thus, instead of negatively charged electrons, atoms of antimatter
have positrons. A quantity of antimatter coming into contact with matter would "cancel
out" - annihilate, with total conversion of mass to energy - an exact proportion of matter
corresponding to the original quantity of antimatter, provided that the elements in the
matter also corresponded with the "elements" in the antimatter, i.e., that the atoms were
equivalent but opposite. [A84]
(c) Matter made of particles with identical mass and spin as those of ordinary matter, but
with opposite charge. Antimatter has been produced experimentally, but little of it is
found in nature. Why this should be so is one of the questions that must be answered by
any adequate theory of the early Universe.them.
Asteroid
(a) A small rocky body that orbits a star. In the Solar System, most asteroids lie between
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The largest asteroid is Ceres, about 900 kilometers in
diameter. [C95]
(b) A small planet-like body of the Solar System, <e> ~ 0.15, <i> ~ 9°.7. More than 1800
have been catalogued, and probably millions of smaller ones exist, but their total mass
would probably be less than 3 percent that of the Moon. Their densities are poorly known
(about 2.6 g cm-3), but they suggest a composition similar to carbonaceous chondrite.
The bright asteroids are presumably original condensations and those fainter than about
14-15 mag are collision fragments. Asteroids and short-period comets have some orbital
similarities. Also called minor planet [H76] (c) Also called planetoids or minor planets,
the asteroids are tiny planets most of which orbit the Sun between Mars and Jupiter. The
largest - and the first discovered - is Ceres, with a diameter of 1,003 km. It is estimated
that there may altogether be no fewer than 40,000. A few have very elliptical orbits and
cross the orbits of several other (major) planets. One or two even have their own satellites
(moons).
Baryogenesis
(a) The process by which the Universe's net baryon number was generated. This explains
why the Universe is made predominantly of baryons and not antibaryons. [CD99]
(b) The production of baryons, a type of subatomic particle. It is believed that baryons
were produced in the early universe. (See baryons.) [LB90]
(c) The creation of matter in excess of antimatter in the early universe. Only the relatively
few unmatched matter particles survived to make up all subsequent structures. [HH98]
(d) The hypothetical process by which the early universe acquired a large positive baryon
number.
Chaotic Inflation
(a) A model in which many distinct universes form from different regions of a "mother"
universe, with some inflating and others perhaps not. [HH98]
(b) A variation of the inflationary universe model in which random quantum fluctuations
are continually forming new universes. (see Inflationary Universe Model; New Inflation;
Old Inflation; Quantum Fluctuations; Quantum Mechanics.

COBE
COsmic Background Experiment: Satellite used to study the microwave background.

Comet
A diffuse body of gas and solid particles (such as CN, C2, NH3, and OH), which orbits
the Sun. The orbit is usually highly elliptical or even parabolic (average perihelion
distance less than 1 AU; average aphelion distance, roughly 104 AU). Comets are
unstable bodies with masses on the order of 1018 g whose average lifetime is about 100
perihelion passages. Periodic comets comprise only about 4% of all known comets.
Comets are obviously related in some manner to meteors, but no meteorites from a comet
have ever been recovered. Observations of comets Bennett and Kohoutek have
established that a comet is surrounded by a vast hydrogen halo

Copernican) Cosmological Principle

The hypothesis that the Universe is approximately homogeneous and isotropic on the
largest scales. It follows that all observers everywhere in space would, at a given cosmic
tie, view approximately the same large-scale distribution of matter in the Universe

Copernican Principle
The principle that Earth is not the center of the Universe

Critical Density
The cosmic density of matter required to "close" the universe and so, eventually to halt
cosmic expansion. Its value amounts to about ten hydrogen atoms per cubic meter of
space. The observed density is so close to the critical value that the question of whether
the universe is open or closed has not yet been resolved by observation. (see Open
Universe; Closed Universe) [F88]
Critical Density
The density that just stops the expansion of space, after infinite cosmic time has elapsed.
In the standard models, the critical density requires that the spatial geometry be flat.

Density
(a) The mean density of a celestial body is generally reckoned as its mass divided by its
volume, expressed either in comparison with the density of water, in kilograms per cubic
meter, or in relation to some other known density. The mean density of the Earth is thus
5.5 times that of water, i.e. 5.5 × 103 kg m-3 and is just less than four times that of the
Sun. Yet the mean density of rocks at the surface is about half the overall mean value,
and that of the Earth's central core is perhaps 2 1/2 times the overall value. [A84]
(b) An object's mass divided by its volume. Cotton has a low density; lead has a high
density. Red giants have a low density; white dwarfs have a high density. [C95]
Doppler Shift
(a) The blueshift or redshift produced by an object's motion toward or away from us. If a
star moves toward us, its light waves get compressed and its spectrum is blueshifted; if a
star moves away from us, its light waves get stretched and its spectrum is redshifted. The
Doppler shift allows astronomers to measure the radial velocities of stars. The Doppler
shift is not responsible for the redshifts that most galaxies exhibit; that is a cosmological
redshift. [C95]
(b) Change in the apparent wavelength of radiation (e.g., light or sound) emitted by a
moving body. A star moving away from the observer will appear to be radiating light at a
lower frequency than if at rest; consequently, lines in the star's spectrum will be shifted
toward the red (lower frequency) end of the spectrum. The existence of a direct
relationship between the redshift of light from galaxies and their distances is the
fundamental evidence for the expansion of the universe. [F88]
(c) Displacement of spectral lines in the radiation received from a source due to its
relative motion in the line of sight. Sources approaching (-) the observer are shifted
toward the blue; those receding (+), toward the red. The Doppler shift makes it possible
to determine the radial velocity and the rotation of stars. [
Dwarf Galaxy
A galaxy at the faint end of the general lumisosity function and generally exhibiting ing
low surface brightness.

Globular Cluster

(a) Spherical, densely populated cluster of older stars. There are a number of such
clusters round the edge of our Galaxy. [A84]
(b) A star cluster that packs hundreds of thousands of stars into a region only about a
hundred light-years across. Bright globular clusters include Omega Centauri, 47 Tucanae,
and M13. In the Milky Way, all globular clusters are old. Most are members of the
Galactic halo, and the rest are members of the thick disk. [C95]
(c) A gravitationally bound spheroidal system of old stars containing about 106 stars.
These are amongst the oldest stellar systems known within our own Galaxy and they have
very low abundances of the heavy elements relative to the average cosmic abundances.
The globular cluster population forms part of the halo population of our Galaxy and it is
presumed that these clusters formed early in the formation and evolution of our Galaxy.
[D89]
(d) A tightly packed, symmetrical group (mass range 104 - 106 M) of thousands of very
old (pure Population II) stars. The stellar density is so great in the center that the nucleus
is usually unresolved. Their spectra indicate low abundances of heavy elements. Globular
clusters are probably the oldest stellar formation in the Galaxy. They are generally found
in the halo and are "high-velocity" objects with very elongated orbits around the galactic
center. [H76]
(e) A spherical congregation of stars within a galaxy that orbit each other because of their
mutual gravity. A typical globular cluster has about a million stars; thus globular clusters
are much smaller than galaxies. There are about 100 globular clusters in the Milky Way

Galaxy Cluster
A conglomeration of hundreds or thousands of galaxies. The nearest large galaxy cluster
is the Virgo cluster.

Gravitational Force
(a) The weakest of the four fundamental forces of nature, the gravitational force between
any two masses is proportional to the product of the masses and varies inversely as the
square of the distance between them. The other three fundamental forces are the
electromagnetic force and two kinds of nuclear forces. (See electromagnetic force;
nuclear forces.) [LB90]
(b) The weakest of the four fundamental forces of nature. Described by Newton's
universal theory of gravity, and subsequently by Einstein's general relativity. [G99]
(c) As described first by Isaac Newton, gravity is a force that exists between bodies of
any mass whatever (from particles to stars) in proportion to the product of their masses,
and in inverse proportion to the square of the distance between them. The weakest of the
four natural forces (the other three being the electromagnetic and the two nuclear
interactive forces), its real nature is still not fully understood. Einstein's General Theory
of Relativity presented another viewpoint. [A84]
(d) Fundamental force of nature, generated by all particles that possess mass. Interpreted
by means of Newtonian mechanics or by the general theory of relativity. [F88]
Gravitational Sigularity
a region where the gravitational field has become so strong that the curvature of space-
time is infinite. The occurrence of such a situation signals the breakdown of the theory
and is a central feature of the classical theory of relativity

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

(a) States that the position and momentum of a particle can only be known to a certain
level of precision. The more precisely one quantity is known, the less certain the
precision of the other. A similarly linked pair of quantities is the time and energy content
in a volume of space. [C97]
(b) The uncertainty in the measurement of the position of an elementary particle varies
inversely as the uncertainty in measuring its momentum. Thus, it is impossible to make a
measurement of an atomic or nuclear process of arbitrary accuracy; the process will be
disturbed by the act of measurement. [Silk90]
(c) In quantum mechanics, the position, x, and the momentum, p, of a particle do not
have well-defined values simultaneously. The uncertainty, or statistical spread, in their
measured values satisfies the relation x p /2. Similar inequalities apply to other pairs of
dynamical variables
Isotropy
(a) Quality of being the same in all directions. Compare anisotropy. [F88]
(b) In cosmology, the property that the universe appears the same in all directions. The
uniformity of the cosmic background radiation, coming from all directions of space,
suggests that on the large scale the universe is isotropic about our position. If we then
assume that our position is not unique, we conclude that: the universe appears isotropic
about all points. This last result requires that the universe be homogeneous. (See cosmic
background radiation; homogeneity.) [LB90
Isotope
(a) An atomic nucleus having the same number of protons as a more commonly found
atomic nucleus but a different number of neutrons. For example, the hydrogen nucleus
has a single proton; deuterium has one proton and one neutron and would be called an
isotope of hydrogen. (see neutron; proton.) [LB90]
(b) Two nuclei with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are
said to represent the same element, but different isotopes. For example, helium-3, with
two protons and one neutron in each nucleus, and helium-4, with two protons and two
neutrons, are two different isotopes of helium. For another example, see deuterium. [G97]
(c) Two or more species of the same element differing in their mass numbers because of
differing numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. The nuclei must have the same number of
protons (an element is characterized by its proton number). Isotopes of the same element
have very similar chemical properties (the same electron configuration), but differ
slightly in their physical properties. An unstable isotope is termed a radioactive isotope or
radioisotope. For example, potassium has 3 naturally occurring isotopes of mass numbers
39, 40, and 41 respectively.
3919K has 19 protons and 20 neutrons
4019K has 19 protons and 21 neutrons
4119K has 19 protons and 22 neutrons
4019K is radioactive with a half-life of 1.3 × 109 years.
At least eight other isotopes of potassium can be produced by nuclear reactions but all are
highly unstable (radioactive).

K correction
In extragalactic studies, the observed luminosities and colors of objects participating in
the expansion of the Universe are known to require procedural corrections for two
physically distinct, but redshift-related, reasons: (1) the stretching of the restframe
spectral energy distribution across the observer's (fixed) bandpass, and (2) the
redshift/displacement of the restframe wavelength across and into the observer's filter.
The first effect is purely a function of the redshift, z, where the effective filter width
decreases in proportion to 1 / (1 + z). The second effect is primarily a function of the
spectral energy distribution of the source, rising and falling with the relative continuum
(or emission-line) strength being sampled for that filter and redshift combination. Failure
to appreciate these "technical effects" associated with the redshift led to a very early
claim of rapid evolution of nearby elliptical galaxies, the so-called Stebbins-Whitford
Effect. (also called K term)

Light-Year
(a) Distance traveled at the speed of light after one Earth-year: 9.46 million million km.
[A84]
(b) The distance light travels in one year: 5.88 trillion miles, or 9.46 trillion kilometers.
The nearest star system to the Sun is 4.3 light-years away. [C95]
(c) The distance light travels in a vacuum in 1 year. 1 lt-yr = 9.4605 × 1012 km = 0.307
pc (c = 299,792.46 km s-1 = 186,274 miles s-1). (1 lt-min 0.13 AU.) [H76]

Meteor
(a) Fragment or particle that enters the Earth's atmosphere and is then destroyed through
friction, becoming visible as this occurs as a momentary streak of light. At certain times
of the year, meteors apparently emanating from a single area of the sky (a radiant) form
meteor showers. They are thought to originate within the Solar System. see also
Meteorite [A84]
(b) A "shooting star" - the streak of light in the sky produced by the transit of a meteoroid
through the Earth's atmosphere; also the glowing meteoroid itself. The term "fireball" is
sometimes used for a meteor approaching the brightness of Venus; the term "bolide" for
one approaching the brightness of the full Moon

Nebula
(a) The term "nebula" was previously applied to all kinds of hazy patches in the sky,
many of which are now recognized to be clusters or galaxies. (The plural is nebulae)
[H76]
(b) Indistinct, nonterrestrial objects visible in the night sky. "Bright" nebulae glow with
light emitted by the gas of which they are composed ("emission" nebulae) or by reflected
starlight ("reflection" nebulae) or both. "Dark" nebulae consist of clouds of gas and dust
that are not so illuminated. "Planetary" nebulae are shells of gas ejected by stars. Spiral
nebulae are galaxies

Oscillating Universe
Cosmological model in which the Universe is "closed" and its expansion is destined to
stop, to be succeeded by collapse and "then" (if ordinary temporal terms may be said to
apply) by a rebound into a new expansion phase

Planck Epoch/Planck Time

The first instant following the beginning of the expansion of the Universe, when the
cosmic matter density was still so high that gravitational force acted as strongly as the
other fundamental forces on the sub-atomic scale.

Pressure
The force exerted over a surface divided by its area

Quasar
QSO
(a) The brightest objects in the Universe, quasars can generate over a trillion times as
much light as the Sun from a region little larger than the Solar System. Most are
extremely distant, which means that they existed long ago. [C95]
(b) An intensely bright extragalactic object which superficially resembles a star. Most
exist at very high redshifts and are therefore thought to be the nuclei of active galaxies.
[c97]
(c) Compact-looking objects, often radio sources, with emission lines in their spectrum
which are displaced by very large amounts towards the red. These redshifts correspond to
velocities which are a large fraction of the speed of light, and hence these objects are
believed to lie at great distances. [McL97]
(d) Extremely distant and luminous astronomical objects that are much smaller than a
galaxy and much more luminous. Quasars may be the central regions of certain very
energetic galaxies at an early stage of their evolution. It is believed that the power of a
quasar derives from a massive black hole at its center. [LB90]

Redshift
The shift of spectral lines toward longer wavelengths in the spectrum of a receding source
of radiation. [Silk90]
(b) If a star or galaxy is moving away from us, the radiation from the star or galaxy
appears shifted towards longer wavelengths, or towards the red end of the spectrum. See
Doppler shift. [G97]
(c) The shift to the red of a star's spectrum caused by the star's movement away from us.
This movement stretches the star's light waves and increases their wavelength. Since red
has a longer wavelength than blue, this shift is called a redshift. The larger a star's
redshift, the faster the star is moving away from us. Most galaxies also show redshifts,
not because of the galaxy's movement away from us (although the galaxy is moving away
from us) but because of the expansion of the universe. As a galaxy emits a light wave
toward us, the light wave travels through the fabric of space; en route to Earth, it is
stretched by the expansion of space and exhibits a redshift. The farther the galaxy, the
larger the redshift. To distinguish this type of redshift from one caused by movement,
astronomers call it the "cosmological redshift". [C95]
(d) The shift of spectral lines toward longer wavelengths, either because of a Doppler
effect or because of the Einstein effect (gravitational redshift). The redshift z = / where is
the laboratory wavelength of the spectral line and is the difference between the
laboratory and the observed wavelengths. The redshift of distant galaxies was first noted
by Slipher in 1926

Rest-Mass Energy
The energy which a particle has even when it is at rest. According to the famous relation
E = mc2 of special relativity, this rest energy is equal to the rest mass of the particle-the
mass it has when a rest-times the square of the speed of light. If the mass is in grams and
the speed of light in centimeters per second (c = 2.998 × 1010 centimeters per second),
then the energy is given in ergs

Stellar Wind
a steady or unsteady outflow of material from the surface of a star. In many classes of star
hot coronae are observed and these are believed to be due to heating by waves generated
in the upper layers of the star. This results in the outflow of mass in the form of a stellar
wind. For a star like the Sun, the mass outflow in the solar wind amounts to only about
10-13 M y-1 but in massive blue supergiant stars the mass loss in the form of stellar
winds can amount to as much as 10-4 to 10-5 M y-1.

Temperature
A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles of a system