Kinetic Energy vs Potential Energy

Hide
All
Kinetic Energy Potential Energy Show
All
Potential
Energy is the
stored energy
Kinetic Energy is energy
in an object or
Definition: possessed by an object due hide
system
to its motion or movement.
because of its
position or
configuration.
SI Unit: Joule (J) Joule (J) hide

Determining factor: Speed/velocity Height hide

Potential
Kinetic energy of an object
energy is not
is relative to other moving
Relation to environment: relative to the hide
and stationary objects in its
environment
immediate environment.
of an object.
Kinetic energy can be
Potential
transferred from one
Transferability: energy cannot hide
moving object to another,
be transferred.
say, in collisions.
Gravitational
potential
energy Elastic
potential
energy
Chemical
Translational kinetic energy potential
Classification: hide
Rotational kinetic energy energy
Electrical
potential
energy
Nuclear
potential
energy

Contents
 Hide
All
Kinetic Energy Potential Energy Show
All
• 1 About
• 2 Interconversion of Kinetic and Potential Energies
• 3 Etymology
• 4 Types of Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy
• 5 Applications
• 6 Video comparing Kinetic Energy and Potential
Energy
• 7 Related Articles
• 8 References

[edit] About
Kinetic energy is energy possessed by a body by virtue of its movement. Potential energy is the
energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position or state. While kinetic energy of an object is
relative to the state of other objects in its environment, potential energy is completely
independent of its environment. Hence the acceleration of an object is not evident in the
movement of one object, where other objects in the same environment are also in motion. For
example, a bullet whizzing past a person who is standing possesses kinetic energy, but the bullet
has no kinetic energy with respect to a train moving alongside.
[edit] Interconversion of Kinetic and Potential Energies
Law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be destroyed but can only be
transformed form one form into another. Take a classic example of a simple pendulum. As the
pendulum swings the suspended body moves higher anddue to its position potential energy
increases and reaches a maximum at the top. As the pendulum begins its downward swing, the
stored potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.
When a spring is stretched to one side, it exerts a force to the other side so it can come back to its
original state. This force is called restoring force and acts to bring objects and systems to their
low energy level position. The force required to stretch the spring is stored in the metal
aspotential energy. When the spring is released, the stored potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy by the restoring force.
When any mass is lifted, the gravitational force of the earth (and the restoring force in this case)
acts to bring it back down. The energy needed to lift up the mass is stored aspotential energy due
to its position. As the mass is dropped, stored potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.
[edit] Etymology
The word 'kinetic' is derived from the Greek word κίνηση or 'kinesis' which means 'motion'. The
terms 'kinetic energy' and 'work' as understood and used today have their origin in the 19th
century. The word kinetic energy is believed to have been coined by William Thomson alias
Lord Kelvin.
The term "potential energy" was coined by William Rankine who was a Scottish physicist and
engineer in the 19th century.
[edit] Types of Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy
Kinetic energy can be classified into two types, depending on the type of objects:
• Translational kinetic energy
• Rotational kinetic energy
Rigid non rotating bodies have rectilinear motion. Thus translational kinetic energy is kinetic
energy possessed by an object moving in a straight line. Kinetic energy of an object is related to
its momentum (product of mass and velocity, p= mv where m is mass and v is velocity). Kinetic
energy is related to momentum through the relation E = p^2 / 2m and hence translational kinetic
energy is calculated as E = ½ mv^2. Rigid bodies which rotate along their center of mass possess
rotational kinetic energy. Rotational kinetic energy of a rotating body is calculated as the total
kinetic energy of its different moving parts. Bodies at rest also have kinetic energy. The atoms
and molecules in it are in constant motion. The kinetic energy of such a body is the measure of
its temperature.

Potential energy is classified depending on the restoring force applicable.

• Gravitational potential energy – potential energy of an object which is associated with
gravitational force.
Example, when a book is placed on top of a table, energy required to raise the book from the
floor and energy possessed by the bookdue to its elevated position on the table is gravitational
potential energy. Here gravity is the restoring force.
• Elastic potential energy – energy possessed by an elastic body like the bow and catapult
when it is stretched and deformed in one direction is elastic potential energy. The
restoring force is elasticity which acts in the opposite direction.
• Chemical potential energy – energy related to arrangement of atoms and molecules in a
structure is chemical potential energy. Chemical energy possessed by a substance due to
the potential it has to undergo a chemical change by taking part in a chemical reaction is
chemical potential energy of the substance. Example, when fuel is used, chemical energy
stored in fuel is converted to produce heat.
• Electrical potential energy – energy possessed by an object by virtue of its electric charge
is electrical potential energy. There are two types – electrostatic potential energy and
electrodynamic potential energy or magnetic potential energy.
• Nuclear potential energy – potential energy possessed by particles (neutrons, protons)
inside an atomic nucleus is nuclear potential energy. Example – hydrogen fusion in the
Sun converts potential energy stored in solar matter into light energy.
[edit] Applications
• The roller coaster in an amusement park begins with the conversion of kinetic energy into
gravitational potential energy.
• The gravitational potential energy keeps planets in orbit around the sun.
• Projectiles are thrown by a trebuchet making use of gravitational potential energy.
 • In spacecrafts, chemical energy is used for take off after which the kinetic energy is
increased to reach orbital velocity. Kinetic energy gained remains constant while in orbit.
• Kinetic energy given to cue a ball in a game of billiards is transferred to other balls
through collisions.
[edit] Video comparing Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy
[edit] Related Articles
• Energy vs Power
• Electric Field vs Magnetic Field
• Mass vs Weight
• Power vs Torque
[edit] References
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_energy
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_energy
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In physics, potential energy is the energy stored in a body or in a system due to its position in a
force field or due to its configuration.[1]. The SI unit of measure for energy and work is the Joule
(symbol J). The term "potential energy" was coined by the 19th century Scottish engineer and
physicist William Rankine.[2][3]

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Overview
• 2 Reference level
• 3 Gravitational potential energy
○ 3.1 Local approximation
○ 3.2 General formula
○ 3.3 Why choose a convention where gravitational energy is negative?
○ 3.4 Uses
• 4 Elastic potential energy
○ 4.1 Calculation of elastic potential energy
• 5 Chemical potential energy
• 6 Electrical potential energy
○ 6.1 Electrostatic potential energy
○ 6.2 Electrodynamic potential energy
• 7 Nuclear potential energy
• 8 Relation between potential energy, potential and force
• 9 Notes
• 10 References

[edit] Overview
Potential energy exists when a force acts upon an object that tends to restore it to a lower energy
configuration. This force is often called a restoring force. For example, when a spring is
stretched to the left, it exerts a force to the right so as to return to its original, unstretched
position. Similarly, when a mass is lifted up, the force of gravity will act so as to bring it back
down. The action of stretching the spring or lifting the mass requires energy to perform. The
energy that went into lifting up the mass is stored in its position in the gravitational field, while
similarly, the energy it took to stretch the spring is stored in the metal. According to the law of
conservation of energy, energy cannot be created or destroyed; hence this energy cannot
disappear. Instead, it is stored as potential energy. If the spring is released or the mass is
dropped, this stored energy will be converted into kinetic energy by the restoring force, which is
elasticity in the case of the spring, and gravity in the case of the mass. Think of a roller coaster.
When the coaster climbs a hill it has potential energy. At the very top of the hill is its maximum
potential energy. When the car speeds down the hill potential energy turns into kinetic. Kinetic
energy is greatest at the bottom.
The more formal definition is that potential energy is the energy difference between the energy
of an object in a given position and its energy at a reference position.
There are various types of potential energy, each associated with a particular type of force. More
specifically, every conservative force gives rise to potential energy. For example, the work of an
elastic force is called elastic potential energy; work of the gravitational force is called
gravitational potential energy; work of the Coulomb force is called electric potential energy;
work of the strong nuclear force or weak nuclear force acting on the baryon charge is called
nuclear potential energy; work of intermolecular forces is called intermolecular potential energy.
Chemical potential energy, such as the energy stored in fossil fuels, is the work of the Coulomb
force during rearrangement of mutual positions of electrons and nuclei in atoms and molecules.
Thermal energy usually has two components: the kinetic energy of random motions of particles
and the potential energy of their mutual positions.
As a general rule, the work done by a conservative force F will be

where ΔU is the change in the potential energy associated with that particular force. Common
notations for potential energy are U, V, Ep, and PE.
[edit] Reference level
The potential energy is a function of the state a system is in, and is defined relative to that for a
particular state. This reference state is not always a real state, it may also be a limit, such as with
the distances between all bodies tending to infinity, provided that the energy involved in tending
to that limit is finite, such as in the case of inverse-square law forces. Any arbitrary reference
state could be used, therefore it can be chosen based on convenience.
Typically the potential energy of a system depends on the relative positions of its components
only, so the reference state can also be expressed in terms of relative positions.
[edit] Gravitational potential energy
Main articles: Gravitational potential and Gravitational energy
Gravitational energy is the potential energy associated with gravitational force. If an object falls
from one point to another point inside a gravitational field, the force of gravity will do positive
work on the object, and the gravitational potential energy will decrease by the same amount.
The gravitational force keeps the planets in orbit around the Sun

A trebuchet uses the gravitational potential energy of the counterweight to throw projectiles over
long distances
For example, consider a book, placed on top of a table. When the book is raised from the floor to
the table, some external force works against the gravitational force. If the book falls back to the
floor, the same work will be done by the gravitational force. Thus, if the book falls off the table,
this potential energy goes to accelerate the mass of the book (and is converted into kinetic
energy). When the book hits the floor this kinetic energy is converted into heat and sound by the
impact.
The factors that affect an object's gravitational potential energy are its height relative to some
reference point, its mass, and the strength of the gravitational field it is in. Thus, a book lying on
a table has less gravitational potential energy than the same book on top of a taller cupboard, and
less gravitational potential energy than a heavier book lying on the same table. An object at a
certain height above the Moon's surface has less gravitational potential energy than at the same
height above the Earth's surface because the Moon's gravity is weaker. (This follows from
Newton's law of gravitation because the mass of the moon is much smaller than that of the
Earth.) It is important to note that "height" in the common sense of the term cannot be used for
gravitational potential energy calculations when gravity is not assumed to be a constant. The
following sections provide more detail.
[edit] Local approximation
The strength of a gravitational field varies with location. However, when the change of distance
is small in relation to the distances from the center of the source of the gravitational field, this
variation in field strength is negligible and we can assume that the force of gravity on a particular
object is constant. Near the surface of the Earth, for example, we assume that the acceleration
due to gravity is a constant g = 9.81 m/s2 ("standard gravity"). In this case, a simple expression
for gravitational potential energy can be derived using the W = Fd equation for work, and the
equation

When accounting only for mass, gravity, and altitude, the equation is:

where U is the potential energy of the object relative to its being on the Earth's surface, m is the
mass of the object, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the altitude of the object.[4] If m is
expressed in kilograms, g in meters per second squared and h in meters then U will be calculated
in joules.
Hence, the potential difference is

[edit] General formula

However, over large variations in distance, the approximation that g is constant is no longer
valid, and we have to use calculus and the general mathematical definition of work to determine
gravitational potential energy. For the computation of the potential energy we can integrate the
gravitational force (whose magnitude is given by Newton's law of gravitation) with respect to the
distance r between the two bodies. Using that definition, the gravitational potential energy of a
system of masses m1 and m2 at a distance R using gravitational constant G is

,
where K is the constant of integration. Choosing the convention that K=0 makes calculations
simpler, albeit at the cost of making U negative: for why this is physically reasonable, see below.
Given this formula for U, the total potential energy of a system of n bodies is found by summing,

for all pairs of two bodies, the potential energy of the system of those two bodies.
Considering the system of bodies as the combined set of small particles the bodies consist of, and
applying the previous on the particle level we get the negative gravitational binding energy. This
potential energy is more strongly negative than the total potential energy of the system of bodies
as such since it also includes the negative gravitational binding energy of each body. The
potential energy of the system of bodies as such is the negative of the energy needed to separate
the bodies from each other to infinity, while the gravitational binding energy is the energy
needed to separate all particles from each other to infinity.
[edit] Why choose a convention where gravitational energy is negative?
As with all potential energies, only differences in gravitational potential energy matter for most
physical purposes, and the choice of zero point is arbitrary. Given that there is no reasonable
criterion for preferring one particular finite r over another, there seem to be only two reasonable
choices for the distance at which U becomes zero: r = 0 and . The choice of U = 0 at
infinity may seem peculiar, and the consequence that gravitational energy is always negative
may seem counterintuitive, but this choice allows gravitational potential energy values to be
finite, albeit negative.
The singularity at r = 0 in the formula for gravitational potential energy means that the only other
apparently reasonable alternative choice of convention, with U = 0 for r = 0, would result in
potential energy being positive, but infinitely large for all nonzero values of r, and would make
calculations involving sums or differences of potential energies beyond what is possible with the
real number system. Since physicists abhor infinities in their calculations, and r is always non-
zero in practice, the choice of U = 0 at infinity is by far the more preferable choice, even if the
idea of negative energy appears to be peculiar at first.
The negative value for gravitational energy also has deeper implications that make it seem more
reasonable in cosmological calculations where the total energy of the universe can meaningfully
be considered; see inflation theory for more on this.
[edit] Uses
Gravitational potential energy has a number of practical uses, notably the generation of
hydroelectricity. For example in Dinorwig, Wales, there are two lakes, one at a higher elevation
than the other. At times when surplus electricity is not required (and so is comparatively cheap),
water is pumped up to the higher lake, thus converting the electrical energy (running the pump)
to gravitational potential energy. At times of peak demand for electricity, the water flows back
down through electrical generator turbines, converting the potential energy into kinetic energy
and then back into electricity. (The process is not completely efficient and much of the original
energy from the surplus electricity is in fact lost to friction.) See also pumped storage.
Gravitational potential energy is also used to power clocks in which falling weights operate the
mechanism.

[edit] Elastic potential energy

Springs are used for storing elastic potential energy

Main article: Elastic potential energy
Elastic potential energy is the potential energy of an elastic object (for example a bow or a
catapult) that is deformed under tension or compression (or stressed in formal terminology). It
arises as a consequence of a force that tries to restore the object to its original shape, which is
most often the electromagnetic force between the atoms and molecules that constitute the object.
If the stretch is released, the energy is transformed into kinetic energy.
[edit] Calculation of elastic potential energy
The elastic potential energy stored in a stretched spring can be calculated by finding the work
necessary to stretch the spring a distance x from its un-stretched length:

an ideal spring will follow Hooke's Law:

The work done (and therefore the stored potential energy) will then be:

The equation is often used in calculations of positions of mechanical equilibrium. More involved
calculations can be found at elastic potential energy.
[edit] Chemical potential energy
Chemical potential energy is a form of potential energy related to the structural arrangement of
atoms or molecules. This arrangement may be the result of chemical bonds within a molecule or
otherwise. Chemical energy of a chemical substance can be transformed to other forms of energy
by a chemical reaction. As an example, when a fuel is burned the chemical energy is converted
to heat, same is the case with digestion of food metabolized in a biological organism. Green
plants transform solar energy to chemical energy through the process known as photosynthesis,
and electrical energy can be converted to chemical energy through electrochemical reactions.
The similar term chemical potential is used to indicate the potential of a substance to undergo a
change of configuration, be it in the form of a chemical reaction, spatial transport, particle
exchange with a reservoir, etc.
[edit] Electrical potential energy
Main article: Electric potential energy
An object can have potential energy by virtue of its electric charge and several forces related to
their presence. There are two main types of this kind of potential energy: electrostatic potential
energy, electrodynamic potential energy (also sometimes called magnetic potential energy).
Plasma formed inside a gas filled sphere.
[edit] Electrostatic potential energy
In case the electric charge of an object can be assumed to be at rest, it has potential energy due to
its position relative to other charged objects.
The electrostatic potential energy is the energy of an electrically charged particle (at rest) in an
electric field. It is defined as the work that must be done to move it from an infinite distance
away to its present location, in the absence of any non-electrical forces on the object. This energy
is non-zero if there is another electrically charged object nearby.
The simplest example is the case of two point-like objects A1 and A2 with electrical charges q1
and q2. The work W required to move A1 from an infinite distance to a distance r away from A2 is
given by:

where ε0 is the electric constant.

This equation is obtained by integrating the Coulomb force between the limits of infinity and r.
A related quantity called electric potential (commonly denoted with a V for voltage) is equal to
the electric potential energy per unit charge.
[edit] Electrodynamic potential energy
In case a charged object or its constituent charged particles are not at rest, it generates a magnetic
field giving rise to yet another form of potential energy, often termed as magnetic potential
energy. This kind of potential energy is a result of the phenomenon magnetism, whereby an
object that is magnetic has the potential to move other similar objects. Magnetic objects are said
to have some magnetic moment. Magnetic fields and their effects are best studied under
electrodynamics.
[edit] Nuclear potential energy
Main article: Nuclear energy
Nuclear potential energy is the potential energy of the particles inside an atomic nucleus. The
nuclear particles are bound together by the strong nuclear force. Weak nuclear forces provide the
potential energy for certain kinds of radioactive decay, such as beta decay.
Nuclear particles like protons and neutrons are not destroyed in fission and fusion processes, but
collections of them have less mass than if they were individually free, and this mass difference is
liberated as heat and radiation in nuclear reactions (the heat and radiation have the missing mass,
but it often escapes from the system, where it is not measured). The energy from the Sun is an
example of this form of energy conversion. In the Sun, the process of hydrogen fusion converts
about 4 million tonnes of solar matter per second into electromagnetic energy, which is radiated
into space.
[edit] Relation between potential energy, potential and force
Potential energy is closely linked with forces. If the work done moving along a path which starts
and ends in the same location is zero, then the force is said to be conservative and it is possible to
define a numerical value of potential associated with every point in space. A force field can be
re-obtained by taking the negative of the vector gradient of the potential field.
For example, gravity is a conservative force. The associated potential is the gravitational
potential, often denoted by φ or V, corresponding to the energy per unit mass as a function of
position. The gravitational potential energy of two particles of mass M and m separated by a
distance r is

The gravitational potential (specific energy) of the two bodies is

where μ is the reduced mass.

The work done against gravity by moving a infinitesimal mass from point A with U = a to point
B with U = b is (b − a) and the work done going back the other way is (a − b) so that the total
work done in moving from A to B and returning to A is

If the potential is redefined at A to be a + c and the potential at B to be b + c, where c is a

constant (i.e. c can be any number, positive or negative, but it must be the same at A as it is at B)
then the work done going from A to B is

as before.
In practical terms, this means that one can set the zero of U and φ anywhere one likes. One may
set it to be zero at the surface of the Earth, or may find it more convenient to set zero at infinity
(as in the expressions given earlier in this section).
A thing to note about conservative forces is that the work done going from A to B does not
depend on the route taken. If it did then it would be pointless to define a potential at each point in
space. An example of a non-conservative force is friction. With friction, the route taken does
affect the amount of work done, and it makes little sense to define a potential associated with
friction.
All the examples above are actually force field stored energy (sometimes in disguise). For
example in elastic potential energy, stretching an elastic material forces the atoms very slightly
further apart. The equilibrium between electromagnetic forces and Pauli repulsion of electrons
(they are fermions obeying Fermi statistics) is slightly violated resulting in a small returning
force. Scientists rarely discuss forces on an atomic scale. Often interactions are described in
terms of energy rather than force. One may think of potential energy as being derived from force
or think of force as being derived from potential energy (though the latter approach requires a
definition of energy that is independent from force which does not currently exist).
A conservative force can be expressed in the language of differential geometry as a closed form.
As Euclidean space is contractible, its de Rham cohomology vanishes, so every closed form is
also an exact form, and can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar field. This gives a
mathematical justification of the fact that all conservative forces are gradients of a potential field.
[edit] Notes
1. ^ Jain, Mahesh C. (2009). Textbook of Engineering Physics (Part I). PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd.. p. 10. ISBN 8-120-33862-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=DqZlU3RJTywC. ,
Chapter 1, p. 10
2. ^ William John Macquorn Rankine (1853) "On the general law of the transformation of
energy," Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, vol. 3, no. 5, pages 276-
280; reprinted in: (1) Philosophical Magazine, series 4, vol. 5, no. 30, pages 106-117
(February 1853); and (2) W. J. Millar, ed., Miscellaneous Scientific Papers: by W. J.
Macquorn Rankine, ... (London, England: Charles Griffin and Co., 1881), part II, pages
203-208.
3. ^ Smith, Crosbie (1998). The Science of Energy - a Cultural History of Energy Physics
in Victorian Britain. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-76420-6.
4. ^ Hyperphysics - Gravitational Potential Energy

[edit] References
• Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th
ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7.
• Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and
Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_energy"
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Potential energy
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In physics, potential energy is the energy stored in a body or in a system due to its position in a
force field or due to its configuration.[1]. The SI unit of measure for energy and work is the Joule
(symbol J). The term "potential energy" was coined by the 19th century Scottish engineer and
physicist William Rankine.[2][3]

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Overview
• 2 Reference level
• 3 Gravitational potential energy
○ 3.1 Local approximation
○ 3.2 General formula
○ 3.3 Why choose a convention where gravitational energy is negative?
○ 3.4 Uses
• 4 Elastic potential energy
○ 4.1 Calculation of elastic potential energy
• 5 Chemical potential energy
• 6 Electrical potential energy
○ 6.1 Electrostatic potential energy
○ 6.2 Electrodynamic potential energy
• 7 Nuclear potential energy
• 8 Relation between potential energy, potential and force
 • 9 Notes
• 10 References

[edit] Overview
Potential energy exists when a force acts upon an object that tends to restore it to a lower energy
configuration. This force is often called a restoring force. For example, when a spring is
stretched to the left, it exerts a force to the right so as to return to its original, unstretched
position. Similarly, when a mass is lifted up, the force of gravity will act so as to bring it back
down. The action of stretching the spring or lifting the mass requires energy to perform. The
energy that went into lifting up the mass is stored in its position in the gravitational field, while
similarly, the energy it took to stretch the spring is stored in the metal. According to the law of
conservation of energy, energy cannot be created or destroyed; hence this energy cannot
disappear. Instead, it is stored as potential energy. If the spring is released or the mass is
dropped, this stored energy will be converted into kinetic energy by the restoring force, which is
elasticity in the case of the spring, and gravity in the case of the mass. Think of a roller coaster.
When the coaster climbs a hill it has potential energy. At the very top of the hill is its maximum
potential energy. When the car speeds down the hill potential energy turns into kinetic. Kinetic
energy is greatest at the bottom.
The more formal definition is that potential energy is the energy difference between the energy
of an object in a given position and its energy at a reference position.
There are various types of potential energy, each associated with a particular type of force. More
specifically, every conservative force gives rise to potential energy. For example, the work of an
elastic force is called elastic potential energy; work of the gravitational force is called
gravitational potential energy; work of the Coulomb force is called electric potential energy;
work of the strong nuclear force or weak nuclear force acting on the baryon charge is called
nuclear potential energy; work of intermolecular forces is called intermolecular potential energy.
Chemical potential energy, such as the energy stored in fossil fuels, is the work of the Coulomb
force during rearrangement of mutual positions of electrons and nuclei in atoms and molecules.
Thermal energy usually has two components: the kinetic energy of random motions of particles
and the potential energy of their mutual positions.
As a general rule, the work done by a conservative force F will be

where ΔU is the change in the potential energy associated with that particular force. Common
notations for potential energy are U, V, Ep, and PE.
[edit] Reference level
The potential energy is a function of the state a system is in, and is defined relative to that for a
particular state. This reference state is not always a real state, it may also be a limit, such as with
the distances between all bodies tending to infinity, provided that the energy involved in tending
to that limit is finite, such as in the case of inverse-square law forces. Any arbitrary reference
state could be used, therefore it can be chosen based on convenience.
Typically the potential energy of a system depends on the relative positions of its components
only, so the reference state can also be expressed in terms of relative positions.
[edit] Gravitational potential energy
Main articles: Gravitational potential and Gravitational energy
Gravitational energy is the potential energy associated with gravitational force. If an object falls
from one point to another point inside a gravitational field, the force of gravity will do positive
work on the object, and the gravitational potential energy will decrease by the same amount.

The gravitational force keeps the planets in orbit around the Sun

A trebuchet uses the gravitational potential energy of the counterweight to throw projectiles over
long distances
For example, consider a book, placed on top of a table. When the book is raised from the floor to
the table, some external force works against the gravitational force. If the book falls back to the
floor, the same work will be done by the gravitational force. Thus, if the book falls off the table,
this potential energy goes to accelerate the mass of the book (and is converted into kinetic
energy). When the book hits the floor this kinetic energy is converted into heat and sound by the
impact.
The factors that affect an object's gravitational potential energy are its height relative to some
reference point, its mass, and the strength of the gravitational field it is in. Thus, a book lying on
a table has less gravitational potential energy than the same book on top of a taller cupboard, and
less gravitational potential energy than a heavier book lying on the same table. An object at a
certain height above the Moon's surface has less gravitational potential energy than at the same
height above the Earth's surface because the Moon's gravity is weaker. (This follows from
Newton's law of gravitation because the mass of the moon is much smaller than that of the
Earth.) It is important to note that "height" in the common sense of the term cannot be used for
gravitational potential energy calculations when gravity is not assumed to be a constant. The
following sections provide more detail.
[edit] Local approximation
The strength of a gravitational field varies with location. However, when the change of distance
is small in relation to the distances from the center of the source of the gravitational field, this
variation in field strength is negligible and we can assume that the force of gravity on a particular
object is constant. Near the surface of the Earth, for example, we assume that the acceleration
due to gravity is a constant g = 9.81 m/s2 ("standard gravity"). In this case, a simple expression
for gravitational potential energy can be derived using the W = Fd equation for work, and the
equation

When accounting only for mass, gravity, and altitude, the equation is:

where U is the potential energy of the object relative to its being on the Earth's surface, m is the
mass of the object, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the altitude of the object.[4] If m is
expressed in kilograms, g in meters per second squared and h in meters then U will be calculated
in joules.
Hence, the potential difference is

[edit] General formula

However, over large variations in distance, the approximation that g is constant is no longer
valid, and we have to use calculus and the general mathematical definition of work to determine
gravitational potential energy. For the computation of the potential energy we can integrate the
gravitational force (whose magnitude is given by Newton's law of gravitation) with respect to the
distance r between the two bodies. Using that definition, the gravitational potential energy of a
system of masses m1 and m2 at a distance R using gravitational constant G is

,
where K is the constant of integration. Choosing the convention that K=0 makes calculations
simpler, albeit at the cost of making U negative: for why this is physically reasonable, see below.
Given this formula for U, the total potential energy of a system of n bodies is found by summing,

for all pairs of two bodies, the potential energy of the system of those two bodies.
Considering the system of bodies as the combined set of small particles the bodies consist of, and
applying the previous on the particle level we get the negative gravitational binding energy. This
potential energy is more strongly negative than the total potential energy of the system of bodies
as such since it also includes the negative gravitational binding energy of each body. The
potential energy of the system of bodies as such is the negative of the energy needed to separate
the bodies from each other to infinity, while the gravitational binding energy is the energy
needed to separate all particles from each other to infinity.
[edit] Why choose a convention where gravitational energy is negative?
As with all potential energies, only differences in gravitational potential energy matter for most
physical purposes, and the choice of zero point is arbitrary. Given that there is no reasonable
criterion for preferring one particular finite r over another, there seem to be only two reasonable
choices for the distance at which U becomes zero: r = 0 and . The choice of U = 0 at
infinity may seem peculiar, and the consequence that gravitational energy is always negative
may seem counterintuitive, but this choice allows gravitational potential energy values to be
finite, albeit negative.
The singularity at r = 0 in the formula for gravitational potential energy means that the only other
apparently reasonable alternative choice of convention, with U = 0 for r = 0, would result in
potential energy being positive, but infinitely large for all nonzero values of r, and would make
calculations involving sums or differences of potential energies beyond what is possible with the
real number system. Since physicists abhor infinities in their calculations, and r is always non-
zero in practice, the choice of U = 0 at infinity is by far the more preferable choice, even if the
idea of negative energy appears to be peculiar at first.
The negative value for gravitational energy also has deeper implications that make it seem more
reasonable in cosmological calculations where the total energy of the universe can meaningfully
be considered; see inflation theory for more on this.
[edit] Uses
Gravitational potential energy has a number of practical uses, notably the generation of
hydroelectricity. For example in Dinorwig, Wales, there are two lakes, one at a higher elevation
than the other. At times when surplus electricity is not required (and so is comparatively cheap),
water is pumped up to the higher lake, thus converting the electrical energy (running the pump)
to gravitational potential energy. At times of peak demand for electricity, the water flows back
down through electrical generator turbines, converting the potential energy into kinetic energy
and then back into electricity. (The process is not completely efficient and much of the original
energy from the surplus electricity is in fact lost to friction.) See also pumped storage.
Gravitational potential energy is also used to power clocks in which falling weights operate the
mechanism.

[edit] Elastic potential energy

Springs are used for storing elastic potential energy

Main article: Elastic potential energy
Elastic potential energy is the potential energy of an elastic object (for example a bow or a
catapult) that is deformed under tension or compression (or stressed in formal terminology). It
arises as a consequence of a force that tries to restore the object to its original shape, which is
most often the electromagnetic force between the atoms and molecules that constitute the object.
If the stretch is released, the energy is transformed into kinetic energy.
[edit] Calculation of elastic potential energy
The elastic potential energy stored in a stretched spring can be calculated by finding the work
necessary to stretch the spring a distance x from its un-stretched length:

an ideal spring will follow Hooke's Law:

The work done (and therefore the stored potential energy) will then be:

The equation is often used in calculations of positions of mechanical equilibrium. More involved
calculations can be found at elastic potential energy.
[edit] Chemical potential energy
Chemical potential energy is a form of potential energy related to the structural arrangement of
atoms or molecules. This arrangement may be the result of chemical bonds within a molecule or
otherwise. Chemical energy of a chemical substance can be transformed to other forms of energy
by a chemical reaction. As an example, when a fuel is burned the chemical energy is converted
to heat, same is the case with digestion of food metabolized in a biological organism. Green
plants transform solar energy to chemical energy through the process known as photosynthesis,
and electrical energy can be converted to chemical energy through electrochemical reactions.
The similar term chemical potential is used to indicate the potential of a substance to undergo a
change of configuration, be it in the form of a chemical reaction, spatial transport, particle
exchange with a reservoir, etc.
[edit] Electrical potential energy
Main article: Electric potential energy
An object can have potential energy by virtue of its electric charge and several forces related to
their presence. There are two main types of this kind of potential energy: electrostatic potential
energy, electrodynamic potential energy (also sometimes called magnetic potential energy).
Plasma formed inside a gas filled sphere.
[edit] Electrostatic potential energy
In case the electric charge of an object can be assumed to be at rest, it has potential energy due to
its position relative to other charged objects.
The electrostatic potential energy is the energy of an electrically charged particle (at rest) in an
electric field. It is defined as the work that must be done to move it from an infinite distance
away to its present location, in the absence of any non-electrical forces on the object. This energy
is non-zero if there is another electrically charged object nearby.
The simplest example is the case of two point-like objects A1 and A2 with electrical charges q1
and q2. The work W required to move A1 from an infinite distance to a distance r away from A2 is
given by:

where ε0 is the electric constant.

This equation is obtained by integrating the Coulomb force between the limits of infinity and r.
A related quantity called electric potential (commonly denoted with a V for voltage) is equal to
the electric potential energy per unit charge.
[edit] Electrodynamic potential energy
In case a charged object or its constituent charged particles are not at rest, it generates a magnetic
field giving rise to yet another form of potential energy, often termed as magnetic potential
energy. This kind of potential energy is a result of the phenomenon magnetism, whereby an
object that is magnetic has the potential to move other similar objects. Magnetic objects are said
to have some magnetic moment. Magnetic fields and their effects are best studied under
electrodynamics.
[edit] Nuclear potential energy
Main article: Nuclear energy
Nuclear potential energy is the potential energy of the particles inside an atomic nucleus. The
nuclear particles are bound together by the strong nuclear force. Weak nuclear forces provide the
potential energy for certain kinds of radioactive decay, such as beta decay.
Nuclear particles like protons and neutrons are not destroyed in fission and fusion processes, but
collections of them have less mass than if they were individually free, and this mass difference is
liberated as heat and radiation in nuclear reactions (the heat and radiation have the missing mass,
but it often escapes from the system, where it is not measured). The energy from the Sun is an
example of this form of energy conversion. In the Sun, the process of hydrogen fusion converts
about 4 million tonnes of solar matter per second into electromagnetic energy, which is radiated
into space.
[edit] Relation between potential energy, potential and force
Potential energy is closely linked with forces. If the work done moving along a path which starts
and ends in the same location is zero, then the force is said to be conservative and it is possible to
define a numerical value of potential associated with every point in space. A force field can be
re-obtained by taking the negative of the vector gradient of the potential field.
For example, gravity is a conservative force. The associated potential is the gravitational
potential, often denoted by φ or V, corresponding to the energy per unit mass as a function of
position. The gravitational potential energy of two particles of mass M and m separated by a
distance r is

The gravitational potential (specific energy) of the two bodies is

where μ is the reduced mass.

The work done against gravity by moving a infinitesimal mass from point A with U = a to point
B with U = b is (b − a) and the work done going back the other way is (a − b) so that the total
work done in moving from A to B and returning to A is

If the potential is redefined at A to be a + c and the potential at B to be b + c, where c is a

constant (i.e. c can be any number, positive or negative, but it must be the same at A as it is at B)
then the work done going from A to B is

as before.
In practical terms, this means that one can set the zero of U and φ anywhere one likes. One may
set it to be zero at the surface of the Earth, or may find it more convenient to set zero at infinity
(as in the expressions given earlier in this section).
A thing to note about conservative forces is that the work done going from A to B does not
depend on the route taken. If it did then it would be pointless to define a potential at each point in
space. An example of a non-conservative force is friction. With friction, the route taken does
affect the amount of work done, and it makes little sense to define a potential associated with
friction.
All the examples above are actually force field stored energy (sometimes in disguise). For
example in elastic potential energy, stretching an elastic material forces the atoms very slightly
further apart. The equilibrium between electromagnetic forces and Pauli repulsion of electrons
(they are fermions obeying Fermi statistics) is slightly violated resulting in a small returning
force. Scientists rarely discuss forces on an atomic scale. Often interactions are described in
terms of energy rather than force. One may think of potential energy as being derived from force
or think of force as being derived from potential energy (though the latter approach requires a
definition of energy that is independent from force which does not currently exist).
A conservative force can be expressed in the language of differential geometry as a closed form.
As Euclidean space is contractible, its de Rham cohomology vanishes, so every closed form is
also an exact form, and can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar field. This gives a
mathematical justification of the fact that all conservative forces are gradients of a potential field.
[edit] Notes
1. ^ Jain, Mahesh C. (2009). Textbook of Engineering Physics (Part I). PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd.. p. 10. ISBN 8-120-33862-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=DqZlU3RJTywC. ,
Chapter 1, p. 10
2. ^ William John Macquorn Rankine (1853) "On the general law of the transformation of
energy," Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, vol. 3, no. 5, pages 276-
280; reprinted in: (1) Philosophical Magazine, series 4, vol. 5, no. 30, pages 106-117
(February 1853); and (2) W. J. Millar, ed., Miscellaneous Scientific Papers: by W. J.
Macquorn Rankine, ... (London, England: Charles Griffin and Co., 1881), part II, pages
203-208.
3. ^ Smith, Crosbie (1998). The Science of Energy - a Cultural History of Energy Physics
in Victorian Britain. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-76420-6.
4. ^ Hyperphysics - Gravitational Potential Energy

[edit] References
• Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th
ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-40842-7.
• Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and
Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_energy"
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Next: Ohm's law Up: Electrostatics Previous: Introduction

Electrostatic energy
Consider a collection of static point charges located at position vectors (where
runs from 1 to ). What is the electrostatic energy stored in such a collection?
Another way of asking this is, how much work would we have to do in order to
assemble the charges, starting from an initial state in which they are all at rest and
very widely separated?
We know that a static electric field is conservative, and can consequently be written in
terms of a scalar potential:

(576)

We also know that the electric force on a charge is written

(577)

The work we would have to do against electrical forces in order to move the charge

from point to point is simply

(578)

The negative sign in the above expression comes about because we would have to

exert a force on the charge, in order to counteract the force exerted by the electric

field. Recall that the scalar potential generated by a point charge at position is

(579)

Let us build up our collection of charges one by one. It takes no work to bring the first
charge from infinity, since there is no electric field to fight against. Let us clamp this
charge in position at . In order to bring the second charge into position at , we
have to do work against the electric field generated by the first charge. According to
Eqs. (578) and Eqs. (579), this work is given by

(580)

Let us now bring the third charge into position. Since electric fields and scalar
potentials are superposable, the work done whilst moving the third charge from

infinity to is simply the sum of the works done against the electric fields generated
by charges 1 and 2 taken in isolation:

(581)

Thus, the total work done in assembling the three charges is given by

(582)

This result can easily be generalized to charges:

(583)

The restriction that must be less than makes the above summation rather messy. If

we were to sum without restriction (other than ) then each pair of charges would
be counted twice. It is convenient to do just this, and then to divide the result by two.
Thus,
 (584)

This is the potential energy (i.e., the difference between the total energy and the
kinetic energy) of a collection of charges. We can think of this as the work needed to
bring static charges from infinity and assemble them in the required formation.
Alternatively, this is the kinetic energy which would be released if the collection were
dissolved, and the charges returned to infinity. But where is this potential energy
stored? Let us investigate further.
Equation (584) can be written

(585)

where

(586)

is the scalar potential experienced by the th charge due to the other charges in the
distribution.
Let us now consider the potential energy of a continuous charge distribution. It is
tempting to write

(587)

by analogy with Eqs. (585) and (586), where

(588)
is the familiar scalar potential generated by a continuous charge distribution. Let us
try this out. We know from Maxwell's equations that
(589)

so Eq. (587) can be written

(590)

Vector field theory yields the standard result

(591)

However, , so we obtain

(592)

Application of Gauss' theorem gives

(593)

where is some volume which encloses all of the charges, and is its bounding
surface. Let us assume that is a sphere, centred on the origin, and let us take the
limit in which the radius of this sphere goes to infinity. We know that, in general,
the electric field at large distances from a bounded charge distribution looks like the

field of a point charge, and, therefore, falls off like . Likewise, the potential falls

off like . However, the surface area of the sphere increases like . Hence, it is
clear that, in the limit as , the surface integral in Eq. (593) falls off like ,
and is consequently zero. Thus, Eq. (593) reduces to

(594)

where the integral is over all space. This is a very nice result. It tells us that the
potential energy of a continuous charge distribution is stored in the electric field. Of
course, we now have to assume that an electric field possesses an energy density

(595)

We can easily check that Eq. (594) is correct. Suppose that we have a charge which
is uniformly distributed within a sphere of radius . Let us imagine building up this
charge distribution from a succession of thin spherical layers of infinitesimal
thickness. At each stage, we gather a small amount of charge from infinity, and spread

it over the surface of the sphere in a thin layer from to . We continue this

process until the final radius of the sphere is . If is the charge in the sphere

when it has attained radius , then the work done in bringing a charge to it is

(596)

This follows from Eq. (580), since the electric field generated by a spherical charge

distribution (outside itself) is the same as that of a point charge located at the

origin ( ) (see later). If the constant charge density in the sphere is then
 (597)

and
(598)

Thus, Eq. (596) becomes

(599)

The total work needed to build up the sphere from nothing to radius is plainly

(600)

This can also be written in terms of the total charge as

(601)

Now that we have evaluated the potential energy of a spherical charge distribution by
the direct method, let us work it out using Eq. (594). We assume that the electric field

is radial and spherically symmetric, so . Application of Gauss' law,

(602)

where is a sphere of radius , yields

 (603)

for , and

(604)

for . Note that the electric field generated outside the charge distribution is the

same as that of a point charge located at the origin, . Equations (594), (603),
and (604) yield

(605)

which reduces to

(606)

Thus, Eq. (594) gives the correct answer.

The reason we have checked Eq. (594) so carefully is that on close inspection it is
found to be inconsistent with Eq. (585), from which it was supposedly derived! For
instance, the energy given by Eq. (594) is manifestly positive definite, whereas the
energy given by Eq. (585) can be negative (it is certainly negative for a collection of
two point charges of opposite sign). The inconsistency was introduced into our
analysis when we replaced Eq. (586) by Eq. (588). In Eq. (586), the self-interaction of
the th charge with its own electric field is specifically excluded, whereas it is
included in Eq. (588). Thus, the potential energies (585) and (594) are different,
because in the former we start from ready-made point charges, whereas in the latter
we build up the whole charge distribution from scratch. Thus, if we were to work out
the potential energy of a point charge distribution using Eq. (594) we would obtain the
energy (585) plus the energy required to assemble the point charges. What is the
energy required to assemble a point charge? In fact, it is infinite. To see this, let us
suppose, for the sake of argument, that our point charges are actually made of charge
uniformly distributed over a small sphere of radius . According to Eq. (601), the
energy required to assemble the th point charge is

(607)

We can think of this as the self-energy of the th charge. Thus, we can write

(608)

which enables us to reconcile Eqs. (585) and (594). Unfortunately, if our point
charges really are point charges then , and the self-energy of each charge
becomes infinite. Thus, the potential energies predicted by Eqs. (585) and (594) differ
by an infinite amount. What does this all mean? We have to conclude that the idea of
locating electrostatic potential energy in the electric field is inconsistent with the
existence of point charges. One way out of this difficulty would be to say that all
elementary charges, such as electrons, are not points, but instead small distributions of
charge. Alternatively, we could say that our classical theory of electromagnetism
breaks down on very small length-scales due to quantum effects. Unfortunately, the
quantum mechanical version of electromagnetism (quantum electrodynamics, or
QED, for short) suffers from the same infinities in the self-energies of particles as the
classical version. There is a prescription, called renormalization, for steering round
these infinities, and getting finite answers which agree with experiments to
extraordinary accuracy. However, nobody really understands why this prescription
works. The problem of the infinite self-energies of elementary charged particles is still
unresolved.

Next: Ohm's law Up: Electrostatics Previous: Introduction

Richard Fitzpatrick 2006-02-02