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Painting
Painting
Painting
History of art
Prehistoric
Ancient
European
Asian
o Indian
Islamic
Painting (Western)
Art history
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t
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Contents
1Pre-history
2Eastern
o 2.1East Asian
2.1.1Chinese
2.1.1.1Chinese oil paintings
2.1.2Japanese
2.1.3Korean
o 2.2South Asian
o 2.3Indian
2.3.1History
2.3.1.1Mughal
2.3.1.2Rajput
2.3.1.3Tanjore
2.3.1.4Madras School
2.3.1.5Bengal School
2.3.1.6Modern Indian
o 2.4Filipino
o 2.5South-East Asia
3Western
o 3.1Egypt, Greece and Rome
o 3.2Middle Ages
o 3.3Renaissance and Mannerism
o 3.4Baroque and Rococo
o 3.519th century: Neo-classicism, History painting, Romanticism,
Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Symbolism
o 3.620th-century modern and contemporary
3.6.1Pioneers of the 20th century
3.6.2Pioneers of Modern art
3.6.3Pioneers of abstraction
3.6.4Dada and Surrealism
3.6.5Before and after the war
3.6.6Social consciousness
3.6.7World conflict
3.6.8Towards mid-century
3.6.9Abstract expressionism
3.6.10Pop art
3.6.11Figurative, landscape, still-Life, seascape, and Realism
3.6.12Art brut, New Realism, Bay Area Figurative Movement, neo-
Dada, photorealism
3.6.13New abstraction from the 1950s through the 1980s
3.6.14Washington Color School, Shaped Canvas, Abstract
Illusionism, Lyrical Abstraction
3.6.15Hard-edge painting, minimalism, postminimalism,
monochrome painting
3.6.16Neo Expressionism
3.6.17Contemporary painting into the 21st century
4Americas
o 4.1Mexico and Central America
o 4.2South America
o 4.3North America
4.3.1United States
4.3.2Canada
o 4.4Caribbean
5Islamic
o 5.1Iran
o 5.2Pakistan
6Oceania
o 6.1Australia
o 6.2New Zealand
7Africa
o 7.1Sudanese
o 7.2Ethiopian
o 7.3Influence on Western art
8See also
9References
10Further reading
11External links
Pre-history[edit]
Main articles: Prehistoric art, Art of the Upper Paleolithic, Art of the Middle Paleolithic,
and List of Stone Age art
The oldest known paintings are approximately 40,000 years old. José Luis Sanchidrián
at the University of Cordoba, Spain, believes the paintings are more likely to have been
painted by Neanderthals than early modern humans.[11][12][13] Images at the Chauvet
cave in France are thought to be about 32,000 years old. They are engraved and
painted using red ochre and black pigment and show horses, rhinoceros, lions, buffalo,
mammoth or humans often hunting. There are examples of cave paintings all over the
world—in France, India, Spain, Southern Africa, China, Australia etc.
Various conjectures have been made as to the meaning these paintings had to the
people that made them. Prehistoric artists may have painted animals to "catch"
their soul or spirit in order to hunt them more easily or the paintings may represent
an animistic vision and homage to surrounding nature. They may be the result of a
basic need of expression that is innate to human beings, or they could have been for
the transmission of practical information.
Lascaux, Horse
Cueva de las Manos (Spanish for Cave of the Hands) in the Santa Cruz
province in Argentina, c. 7300 BC
Eastern[edit]
Mural paintings of court life in Xu Xianxiu's Tomb, Northern Qi Dynasty, 571 AD, located
in Taiyuan, Shanxi province, China
Silk painting depicting a man riding a dragon, painting on silk, dated to 5th–3rd century BC, Warring
States period, from Zidanku Tomb no. 1 in Changsha, Hunan Province
The history of Eastern painting includes a vast range of influences from various cultures
and religions. Developments in Eastern painting historically parallel those in Western
painting, in general a few centuries earlier.[2] African art, Jewish art, Islamic art, Indian
art,[16] Chinese art, Korean Art, and Japanese art[4] each had significant influence on
Western art, and, vice versa.[5]
Chinese painting is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world. The
earliest paintings were not representational but ornamental; they consisted of patterns
or designs rather than pictures. Early pottery was painted with spirals, zigzags, dots, or
animals. It was only during the Warring States period (403–221 B.C.) that artists began
to represent the world around them. Japanese painting is one of the oldest and most
highly refined of the Japanese arts, encompassing a wide variety of genre and styles.
The history of Japanese painting is a long history of synthesis and competition between
native Japanese aesthetics and adaptation of imported ideas. Korean painting, as an
independent form, began around 108 B.C., around the fall of Gojoseon, making it one of
the oldest in the world. The artwork of that time period evolved into the various styles
that characterized the Three Kingdoms of Korea period, most notably the paintings and
frescoes that adorn the tombs of Goguryeo's royalty. During the Three Kingdoms period
and through the Goryeo dynasty, Korean painting was characterized primarily by a
combination of Korean-style landscapes, facial features, Buddhist-centered themes, and
an emphasis on celestial observation that was facilitated by the rapid development of
Korean astronomy.
East Asian[edit]
See also Chinese painting, Japanese painting, Korean painting.
Eighty-Seven Celestials, by Wu Daozi (685–758), Tang dynasty, Chinese
The Xiao and Xiang Rivers, by Dong Yuan (c. 934–962 AD), Chinese
Golden Pheasant and Cotton Rose, by Emperor Huizong of
Song (r.1100–1126 AD), Chinese
Portrait of the Zen Buddhist Wuzhun Shifan, 1238 AD, Chinese
China, Japan and Korea have a strong tradition in painting which is also highly attached
to the art of calligraphy and printmaking (so much that it is commonly seen as painting).
Far east traditional painting is characterized by water based techniques, less realism,
"elegant" and stylized subjects, graphical approach to depiction, the importance of white
space (or negative space) and a preference for landscape (instead of the human figure)
as a subject. Beyond ink and color on silk or paper scrolls, gold on lacquer was also a
common medium in painted East Asian artwork. Although silk was a somewhat
expensive medium to paint upon in the past, the invention of paper during the 1st
century AD by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun provided not only a cheap and widespread
medium for writing, but also a cheap and widespread medium for painting (making it
more accessible to the public).
The ideologies of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism played important roles in East
Asian art. Medieval Song dynasty painters such as Lin Tinggui and his Luohan
Laundering[17] (housed in the Smithsonian Freer Gallery of Art) of the 12th century are
excellent examples of Buddhist ideas fused into classical Chinese artwork. In the latter
painting on silk (image and description provided in the link), bald-headed
Buddhist Luohan are depicted in a practical setting of washing clothes by a river.
However, the painting itself is visually stunning, with the Luohan portrayed in rich detail
and bright, opaque colors in contrast to a hazy, brown, and bland wooded environment.
Also, the tree tops are shrouded in swirling fog, providing the common "negative space"
mentioned above in East Asian Art.
In Japonisme, late 19th-century Post-Impressionists like Van Gogh and Henri de
Toulouse-Lautrec, and tonalists such as James McNeill Whistler, admired early 19th-
century Japanese Ukiyo-e artists like Hokusai (1760–1849) and Hiroshige (1797–1858)
and were influenced by them.
Panorama of Along the River During Qing Ming Festival, 18th-century remake of 12th-century Song dynasty
original by Chinese artist Zhang Zeduan. The original painting by Zhang is revered by scholars as "one of
Chinese civilization's greatest masterpieces."[18] Note: scroll starts from the right.
Chinese[edit]
Main article: Chinese painting
Further information: History of Chinese art, Tang dynasty art, and Ming Dynasty
painting
During the Chinese Song dynasty (960 – 1279 AD), not only landscape art was
improved upon, but portrait painting became more standardized and sophisticated than
before (for example, refer to Emperor Huizong of Song), and reached its classical age
maturity during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 AD). During the late 13th century and first
half of the 14th century, Chinese under the Mongol-controlled Yuan Dynasty were not
allowed to enter higher posts of government (reserved for Mongols or other ethnic
groups from Central Asia), and the Imperial examination was ceased for the time being.
Many Confucian-educated Chinese who now lacked profession turned to the arts of
painting and theatre instead, as the Yuan period became one of the most vibrant and
abundant eras for Chinese artwork. An example of such would be Qian Xuan (1235–
1305 AD), who was an official of the Song dynasty, but out of patriotism, refused to
serve the Yuan court and dedicated himself to painting. Examples of superb art from
this period include the rich and detailed painted murals of the Yongle Palace, [19][20] or
"Dachunyang Longevity Palace", of 1262 AD, a UNESCO World Heritage site. Within
the palace, paintings cover an area of more than 1000 square meters, and hold mostly
Daoist themes. It was during the Song dynasty that painters would also gather in social
clubs or meetings to discuss their art or others' artwork, the praising of which often led
to persuasions to trade and sell precious works of art. However, there were also many
harsh critics of others art as well, showing the difference in style and taste amongst
different painters. In 1088 AD, the polymath scientist and statesman Shen Kuo once
wrote of the artwork of one Li Cheng, who he criticized as follows:
...Then there was Li Cheng, who when he depicted pavilions and lodges amidst
mountains, storeyed buildings, pagodas and the like, always used to paint the eaves as
seen from below. His idea was that 'one should look upwards from underneath, just as a
man standing on level ground and looking up at the eaves of a pagoda can see its
rafters and its cantilever eave rafters'. This is all wrong. In general the proper way of
painting a landscape is to see the small from the viewpoint of the large...just as one
looks at artificial mountains in gardens (as one walks about). If one applies (Li's method)
to the painting of real mountains, looking up at them from below, one can only see one
profile at a time, and not the wealth of their multitudinous slopes and profiles, to say
nothing of all that is going on in the valleys and canyons, and in the lanes
and courtyards with their dwellings and houses. If we stand to the east of a mountain its
western parts would be on the vanishing boundary of far-off distance, and vice versa.
Surely this could not be called a successful painting? Mr. Li did not understand the
principle of 'seeing the small from the viewpoint of the large'. He was certainly
marvelous at diminishing accurately heights and distances, but should one attach such
importance to the angles and corners of buildings? [21]
Although high level of stylization, mystical appeal, and surreal elegance were often
preferred over realism (such as in shan shui style), beginning with the medieval Song
dynasty there were many Chinese painters then and afterwards who depicted scenes of
nature that were vividly real. Later Ming Dynasty artists would take after this Song
dynasty emphasis for intricate detail and realism on objects in nature, especially in
depictions of animals (such as ducks, swans, sparrows, tigers, etc.) amongst patches of
brightly colored flowers and thickets of brush and wood (a good example would be the
anonymous Ming Dynasty painting Birds and Plum Blossoms,[22] housed in the Freer
Gallery of the Smithsonian Museum in Washington, D.C.). There were many renowned
Ming Dynasty artists; Qiu Ying is an excellent example of a paramount Ming era painter
(famous even in his own day), utilizing in his artwork domestic scenes, bustling palatial
scenes, and nature scenes of river valleys and steeped mountains shrouded in mist and
swirling clouds. During the Ming Dynasty there were also different and rivaling schools
of art associated with painting, such as the Wu School and the Zhe School.
Classical Chinese painting continued on into the early modern Qing Dynasty, with highly
realistic portrait paintings like seen in the late Ming Dynasty of the early 17th century.
The portraits of Kangxi Emperor, Yongzheng Emperor, and Qianlong Emperor are
excellent examples of realistic Chinese portrait painting. During the Qianlong reign
period and the continuing 19th century, European Baroque styles of painting had
noticeable influence on Chinese portrait paintings, especially with painted visual effects
of lighting and shading. Likewise, East Asian paintings and other works of art (such
as porcelain and lacquerware) were highly prized in Europe since initial contact in the
16th century.
Chinese oil paintings[edit]
Western techniques of oil paintings began entering China in the 19th century, becoming
prevalent among Chinese artists and art students in the early 20th century, coinciding
with China's growing engagement with the West. Artists such as Li Tiefu, Hong Yi, Xu
Beihong, Yan Wenliang, Lin Fengmian, Fang Ganmin, Pang Yuliang went abroad,
predominantly to Paris and Tokyo, to learn Western art. Through them, artistic
movements such as Impressionism, Cubism, Fauvism, Post-impressionism grew and
thrived in China, only halted by the Second World War and the birth of the People's
Republic of China, when modernistic artistic styles were seen as being inconsistent with
the prevailing political ideals and realism was the only acceptable artistic form.
Nonetheless, the legacy of the close engagement with Western art in the early 20th
century endured. Oil paintings survived as a important medium in Chinese artistic
scenes; traditional Chinese ink paintings were also changed as a result.
Japanese[edit]
Main articles: Japanese painting and Japonism
Japanese painting (絵画) is one of the oldest and most highly refined of the Japanese
arts, encompassing a wide variety of genres and styles. As with Japanese arts in
general, Japanese painting developed through a long history of synthesis and
competition between native Japanese aesthetics and adaptation of imported
ideas. Ukiyo-e, or "pictures of the floating world," is a genre of Japanese woodblock
prints (or "woodcuts") and paintings produced between the 17th and 20th centuries,
featuring motifs of landscapes, theater, and courtesan districts. It is the main artistic
genre of Japanese woodblock printing. Japanese printmaking, especially from the Edo
period, exerted enormous influence on French painting over the 19th century.
Korean[edit]
Main article: Korean painting
Korean painting, as an independent form, began around 108 B.C., around the fall
of Gojoseon, making it one of the oldest in the world. The artwork of that time period
evolved into the various styles that characterized the Three Kingdoms of Korea period,
most notably the paintings and frescoes that adorn the tombs of Goguryeo's royalty.
During the Three Kingdoms period and through the Goryeo dynasty, Korean painting
was characterized primarily by a combination of Korean-style landscapes, facial
features, Buddhist-centered themes, and an emphasis on celestial observation that was
facilitated by the rapid development of Korean astronomy. It wasn't until the Joseon
dynasty that Confucian themes began to take root in Korean paintings, used in harmony
with indigenous aspects.
The history of Korean painting has been characterized by the use monochromatic works
of black brushwork, often on mulberry paper or silk. This style is evident in "Min-Hwa",
or colorful folk art, tomb paintings, and ritual and festival arts, both of which incorporated
an extensive use of colour.
South Asian[edit]
Mughal nilhgai, 1625–50
Ravana kills Jathayu; the captive Sita despairs, by Raja Ravi Varma
Indian[edit]
Madhubani painting
Madhubani painting is a style of Indian painting, practiced in the Mithila region of Bihar
state, India. The origins of Madhubani painting are shrouded in antiquity.
Mother Goddess A miniature painting of the Pahari style, dating to the eighteenth century. Pahari and Rajput
miniatures share many common features.
Mughal[edit]
Two Scribes Seated with Books and a Writing Table Fragment of a decorative margin Northern India (Mughal
school), ca. 1640–1650
Mughal painting is a particular style of Indian painting, generally confined to illustrations
on the book and done in miniatures, and which emerged, developed and took shape
during the period of the Mughal Empire 16th −19th centuries.
Rajput[edit]
Rajput painting evolved and flourished during the 18th century, in the royal courts
of Rajputana, India. Each Rajput kingdom evolved a distinct style, but with certain
common features. Rajput paintings depict a number of themes, events of epics like the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Krishna's life, beautiful landscapes, and humans.
Miniatures were the preferred medium of Rajput painting, but several manuscripts also
contain Rajput paintings, and paintings were even done on the walls of palaces, inner
chambers of the forts, havelies, particularly, the havelis of Shekhawait.
The colors extracted from certain minerals, plant sources, conch shells, and were even
derived by processing precious stones, gold and silver were used. The preparation of
desired colors was a lengthy process, sometimes taking weeks. Brushes used were
very fine.
Tanjore[edit]
Tanjore painting is an important form of classical South Indian painting native to the
town of Tanjore in Tamil Nadu. The art form dates back to the early 9th century, a
period dominated by the Chola rulers, who encouraged art and literature. These
paintings are known for their elegance, rich colors, and attention to detail. The themes
for most of these paintings are Hindu Gods and Goddesses and scenes from Hindu
mythology. In modern times, these paintings have become a much sought after
souvenir during festive occasions in South India.
The process of making a Tanjore painting involves many stages. The first stage
involves the making of the preliminary sketch of the image on the base. The base
consists of a cloth pasted over a wooden base. Then chalk powder or zinc oxide is
mixed with water-soluble adhesive and applied on the base. To make the base
smoother, a mild abrasive is sometimes used. After the drawing is made, decoration of
the jewellery and the apparels in the image is done with semi-precious stones. Laces or
threads are also used to decorate the jewellery. On top of this, the gold foils are pasted.
Finally, dyes are used to add colors to the figures in the paintings.
Madras School[edit]
During British rule in India, the crown found that Madras had some of the most talented
and intellectual artistic minds in the world. As the British had also established a huge
settlement in and around Madras, Georgetown was chosen to establish an institute that
would cater to the artistic expectations of the royal family in London. This has come to
be known as the Madras School. At first traditional artists were employed to produce
exquisite varieties of furniture, metal work, and curios and their work was sent to the
royal palaces of the Queen.
Unlike the Bengal School where 'copying' is the norm of teaching, the Madras School
flourishes on 'creating' new styles, arguments and trends.
Bengal School[edit]
Main article: Bengal school of art
South-East Asia[edit]
See also: Balinese art, List of Indonesian painters, Indonesian culture, List of
Malaysian artists, and History of Eastern art
Western[edit]
See also: Western painting and Ancient art
Egypt, Greece and Rome[edit]
Further information: Roman Wall Painting (200 BC-79 AD) and Pompeian Styles
Ancient Egypt, a civilization with very strong traditions of architecture and sculpture
(both originally painted in bright colours) also had many mural paintings in temples and
buildings, and painted illustrations on papyrus manuscripts. Egyptian wall painting and
decorative painting is often graphic, sometimes more symbolic than realistic. Egyptian
painting depicts figures in bold outline and flat silhouette, in which symmetry is a
constant characteristic. Egyptian painting has close connection with its written language
– called Egyptian hieroglyphs. Painted symbols are found amongst the first forms of
written language. The Egyptians also painted on linen, remnants of which survive today.
Ancient Egyptian paintings survived due to the extremely dry climate. The ancient
Egyptians created paintings to make the afterlife of the deceased a pleasant place. The
themes included journey through the afterworld or their protective deities introducing the
deceased to the gods of the underworld. Some examples of such paintings are
paintings of the gods and goddesses Ra, Horus, Anubis, Nut, Osiris and Isis. Some
tomb paintings show activities that the deceased were involved in when they were alive
and wished to carry on doing for eternity. In the New Kingdom and later, the Book of the
Dead was buried with the entombed person. It was considered important for an
introduction to the afterlife.
Ancient Egypt, papyrus
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt
Roman art showing Hercules and Telephus
Ancient Greece had skilled painters, sculptors (though both endeavours were regarded
as mere manual labour at the time), and architects. The Parthenon is an example of
their architecture that has lasted to modern days. Greek marble sculpture is often
described as the highest form of Classical art. Painting on pottery of Ancient
Greece and ceramics gives a particularly informative glimpse into the way society in
Ancient Greece functioned. Black-figure vase painting and Red-figure vase
painting gives many surviving examples of what Greek painting was. Some famous
Greek painters on wooden panels who are mentioned in texts are Apelles, Zeuxis and
Parrhasius, however no examples of Ancient Greek panel painting survive, only written
descriptions by their contemporaries or later Romans. Zeuxis lived in 5–6 BC and was
said to be the first to use sfumato. According to Pliny the Elder, the realism of his
paintings was such that birds tried to eat the painted grapes. Apelles is described as the
greatest painter of Antiquity for perfect technique in drawing, brilliant color and
modeling.
Roman art was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of
ancient Greek painting. However, Roman painting does have important unique
characteristics. Surviving Roman paintings include wall paintings and frescoes, many
from villas in Campania, in Southern Italy at sites such as Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Such painting can be grouped into four main "styles" or periods [34] and may contain the
first examples of trompe-l'œil, pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape.[35] Almost the
only painted portraits surviving from the Ancient world are a large number of coffin-
portraits of bust form found in the Late Antique cemetery of Al-Fayum. Although these
were neither of the best period nor the highest quality, they are impressive in
themselves, and give an idea of the quality that the finest ancient work must have had.
A very small number of miniatures from Late Antique illustrated books also survive, and
a rather larger number of copies of them from the Early Medieval period.
Middle Ages[edit]
Main articles: Medieval art, Byzantine art, Illuminated manuscript, Middle Ages, Dark
Ages (historiography), Insular art, Carolingian art, Anglo-Saxon art, Romanesque art,
and Gothic art
Book of Kells
Book of Kells
Limbourg Brothers
Limbourg Brothers
Book of Hours
Yaroslavl Gospels c. 1220s
Carolingian
Carolingian Saint Mark
Evangelist portrait
Giottino
Vitale da Bologna
Simone Martini
Simone Martini
Cimabue
Giotto
Giotto
Giotto
Andrei Rublev
Andrei Rublev
Ambrogio Lorenzetti
Pietro Lorenzetti
Duccio
Chora Church
Voronet Monastery
The rise of Christianity imparted a different spirit and aim to painting styles. Byzantine
art, once its style was established by the 6th century, placed great emphasis on
retaining traditional iconography and style, and gradually evolved during the thousand
years of the Byzantine Empire and the living traditions of Greek and
Russian Orthodox icon-painting. Byzantine painting has a hieratic feeling and icons
were and still are seen as a representation of divine revelation. There were
many frescos, but fewer of these have survived than mosaics. Byzantine art has been
compared to contemporary abstraction, in its flatness and highly stylised depictions of
figures and landscape. Some periods of Byzantine art, especially the so-
called Macedonian art of around the 10th century, are more flexible in approach.
Frescos of the Palaeologian Renaissance of the early 14th century survive in the Chora
Church in Istanbul.
Book of Hours
In post-Antique Catholic Europe the first distinctive artistic style to emerge that included
painting was the Insular art of the British Isles, where the only surviving examples are
miniatures in Illuminated manuscripts such as the Book of Kells.[36] These are most
famous for their abstract decoration, although figures, and sometimes scenes, were
also depicted, especially in Evangelist portraits. Carolingian and Ottonian art also
survives mostly in manuscripts, although some wall-painting remain, and more are
documented. The art of this period combines Insular and "barbarian" influences with a
strong Byzantine influence and an aspiration to recover classical monumentality and
poise.
Walls of Romanesque and Gothic churches were decorated with frescoes as well as
sculpture and many of the few remaining murals have great intensity, and combine the
decorative energy of Insular art with a new monumentality in the treatment of figures.
Far more miniatures in Illuminated manuscripts survive from the period, showing the
same characteristics, which continue into the Gothic period.
Panel painting becomes more common during the Romanesque period, under the
heavy influence of Byzantine icons. Towards the middle of the 13th century, Medieval
art and Gothic painting became more realistic, with the beginnings of interest in the
depiction of volume and perspective in Italy with Cimabue and then his pupil Giotto.
From Giotto on, the treatment of composition by the best painters also became much
more free and innovative. They are considered to be the two great medieval masters of
painting in western culture. Cimabue, within the Byzantine tradition, used a more
realistic and dramatic approach to his art. His pupil, Giotto, took these innovations to a
higher level which in turn set the foundations for the western painting tradition. Both
artists were pioneers in the move towards naturalism.
Churches were built with more and more windows and the use of colorful stained
glass become a staple in decoration. One of the most famous examples of this is found
in the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris. By the 14th century Western societies were
both richer and more cultivated and painters found new patrons in the nobility and even
the bourgeoisie. Illuminated manuscripts took on a new character and slim, fashionably
dressed court women were shown in their landscapes. This style soon became known
as International style and tempera panel paintings and altarpieces gained importance.
Renaissance and Mannerism[edit]
Main articles: Renaissance painting, Early Netherlandish painting, Italian Renaissance
painting, Mannerism, and High Renaissance
Masaccio, 1426–1427
Raphael, 1505–1506
Michelangelo, c. 1511
Giorgione, c. 1505
Titian, 1520–1523
Pontormo, 1526–1528
Bronzino, 1540–1545
El Greco, 1596–1600
The Renaissance (French for 'rebirth'), a cultural movement roughly spanning the 14th
through the mid-17th century, heralded the study of classical sources, as well as
advances in science which profoundly influenced European intellectual and artistic life.
In the Low Countries, especially in modern day Flanders, a new way of painting was
established in the beginning of the 15th century. In the footsteps of the developments
made in the illumination of manuscripts, especially by the Limbourg Brothers, artists
became fascinated by the tangible in the visible world and began representing objects in
an extremely naturalistic way.[37] The adoption of oil painting whose invention was
traditionally, but erroneously, credited to Jan van Eyck, made possible a
new verisimilitude in depicting this naturalism. The medium of oil paint was already
present in the work of Melchior Broederlam, but painters like Jan van Eyck and Robert
Campin brought its use to new heights and employed it to represent the naturalism they
were aiming for. With this new medium the painters of this period were capable of
creating richer colors with a deep intense tonality. The illusion of glowing light with a
porcelain-like finish characterized Early Netherlandish painting and was a major
difference to the matte surface of tempera paint used in Italy.[37] Unlike the Italians,
whose work drew heavily from the art of Ancient Greece and Rome, the northerners
retained a stylistic residue of the sculpture and illuminated manuscripts of the Middle
Ages (especially its naturalism). The most important artist of this time was Jan van
Eyck, whose work ranks among the finest made by artists who are now known as Early
Netherlandish painters or Flemish Primitives (since most artists were active in cities in
modern day Flanders). The first painter of this period was the Master of Flémalle,
nowadays identified as Robert Campin, whose work follows the art of the International
Gothic. Another important painter of this period was Rogier van der Weyden, whose
compositions stressed human emotion and drama, demonstrated for instance in
his Descent from the Cross, which ranks among the most famous works of the 15th
century and was the most influential Netherlandish painting of Christ's crucifixion. Other
important artists from this period are Hugo van der Goes (whose work was highly
influential in Italy), Dieric Bouts (who was among the first northern painters to
demonstrate the use of a single vanishing point), [37] Petrus Christus, Hans
Memling and Gerard David.
In Italy, the art of Classical antiquity inspired a style of painting that emphasized the
ideal. Artists such as Paolo Uccello, Masaccio, Fra Angelico, Piero della
Francesca, Andrea Mantegna, Filippo Lippi, Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo da
Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, and Raphael took painting to a higher level through the
use of perspective, the study of human anatomy and proportion, and through their
development of an unprecedented refinement in drawing and painting techniques. A
somewhat more naturalistic style emerged in Venice. Painters of the Venetian school,
such as Giovanni Bellini, Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto, and Veronese, were less
concerned with precision in their drawing than with the richness of color and unity of
effect that could be achieved by a more spontaneous approach to painting.
Flemish, Dutch and German painters of the Renaissance such as Hans Holbein the
Younger, Albrecht Dürer, Lucas Cranach, Matthias Grünewald, Hieronymous Bosch,
and Pieter Bruegel represent a different approach from their Italian colleagues, one that
is more realistic and less idealized. Genre painting became a popular idiom amongst
the Northern painters like Pieter Bruegel.
Renaissance painting reflects the revolution of ideas and science
(astronomy, geography) that occurred in this period, the Reformation, and the invention
of the printing press. Dürer, considered one of the greatest of printmakers, states that
painters are not mere artisans but thinkers as well. With the development of easel
painting in the Renaissance, painting gained independence from architecture. Easel
paintings—movable pictures which could be hung easily on walls—became a popular
alternative to paintings fixed to furniture, walls or other structures. Following centuries
dominated by religious imagery, secular subject matter slowly returned to Western
painting. Artists included visions of the world around them, or the products of their own
imaginations in their paintings. Those who could afford the expense could become
patrons and commission portraits of themselves or their family.
The High Renaissance gave rise to a stylized art known as Mannerism. In place of the
balanced compositions and rational approach to perspective that characterized art at
the dawn of the 16th century, the Mannerists sought instability, artifice, and doubt. The
unperturbed faces and gestures of Piero della Francesca and the calm Virgins of
Raphael are replaced by the troubled expressions of Pontormo and the emotional
intensity of El Greco. Restless and unstable compositions, often extreme or disjunctive
effects of perspective, and stylized poses are characteristic of Italian Mannerists such
as Tintoretto, Pontormo, and Bronzino, and appeared later in the work of Northern
Mannerists such as Hendrick Goltzius, Bartholomeus Spranger, and Joachim Wtewael.
Baroque and Rococo[edit]
Main articles: Baroque, Baroque painting, Rococo, Quadratura, Dutch Golden Age
painting, and Flemish Baroque painting
Caravaggio, 1595–1597
Canaletto, 1723
Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, c. 1752–1753
Jacques-Louis David 1787
John Constable 1802
Francisco de Goya 1814
Théodore Géricault 1819
Eugène Delacroix 1830
J. M. W. Turner 1838
Gustave Courbet 1849–1850
Ivan Aivazovsky 1850
Albert Bierstadt 1866
Camille Corot c.1867
Ilya Repin 1870–1873
Camille Pissarro 1872
Claude Monet 1872
Pierre-Auguste Renoir 1876
Edgar Degas 1876
Édouard Manet 1882
Thomas Eakins 1884–1885
Georges Seurat 1884–1886
Valentin Serov 1887
Paul Gauguin 1897–1898
Winslow Homer 1899
Paul Cézanne 1906
After Rococo there arose in the late 18th century, in architecture, and then in painting
severe neo-classicism, best represented by such artists as David and his heir Ingres.
Ingres' work already contains much of the sensuality, but none of the spontaneity, that
was to characterize Romanticism. This movement turned its attention toward landscape
and nature as well as the human figure and the supremacy of natural order above
mankind's will. There is a pantheist philosophy (see Spinoza and Hegel) within this
conception that opposes Enlightenment ideals by seeing mankind's destiny in a more
tragic or pessimistic light. The idea that human beings are not above the forces
of Nature is in contradiction to Ancient Greek and Renaissance ideals where mankind
was above all things and owned his fate. This thinking led romantic artists to depict
the sublime, ruined churches, shipwrecks, massacres and madness.
By the mid-19th-century painters became liberated from the demands of their patronage
to only depict scenes from religion, mythology, portraiture or history. The idea "art for
art's sake" began to find expression in the work of painters like Francisco de Goya,
John Constable, and J.M.W. Turner. Romantic painters saw landscape painting as an
important genre to express the vanity of mankind in opposition to the grandeur of
nature. Until then, landscape painting wasn't considered the most important genre for
painters (like portraiture or history painting). But painters like J.M.W. Turner and Caspar
David Friedrich managed to elevate landscape painting to an eminence rivalling history
painting. Some of the major painters of this period are Eugène Delacroix, Théodore
Géricault, J. M. W. Turner, Caspar David Friedrich and John Constable. Francisco de
Goya's late work demonstrates the Romantic interest in the irrational, while the work
of Arnold Böcklin evokes mystery and the paintings of Aesthetic movement artist James
McNeill Whistler evoke both sophistication and decadence. In the United States the
Romantic tradition of landscape painting was known as the Hudson River School:
[43]
exponents include Thomas Cole, Frederic Edwin Church, Albert Bierstadt, Thomas
Moran, and John Frederick Kensett. Luminism was a movement in American landscape
painting related to the Hudson River School.
Henri Matisse 1905, Fauvism
Pablo Picasso 1907, Proto-Cubism
Henri Rousseau 1910 Primitive Surrealism
Marc Chagall 1911, expressionism and surrealism
Marcel Duchamp, 1911–1912, Cubism and Dada
Albert Gleizes, 1912, l'Homme au Balcon, Man on a Balcony (Portrait of
Dr. Théo Morinaud), Cubism
Jean Metzinger, 1912, Danseuse au café (Dancer in a café), Cubism
Piet Mondrian, 1912, early De Stijl
Kasimir Malevich 1916, Suprematism
Stanton MacDonald-Wright 1920, Synchromism
Piet Mondrian's art was also related to his spiritual and philosophical studies. In 1908 he
became interested in the theosophical movement launched by Helena Petrovna
Blavatsky in the late 19th century. Blavatsky believed that it was possible to attain a
knowledge of nature more profound than that provided by empirical means, and much
of Mondrian's work for the rest of his life was inspired by his search for that spiritual
knowledge.
Piet Mondrian, "Composition No. 10" 1939–42, De Stijl
Francis Picabia, (Left) Le saint des saints c'est de moi qu'il s'agit dans ce portrait, 1 July 1915; (center) Portrait
d'une jeune fille americaine dans l'état de nudité, 5 July 1915: (right) J'ai vu et c'est de toi qu'il s'agit, De Zayas!
De Zayas! Je suis venu sur les rivages du Pont-Euxin, New York, 1915
Marcel Duchamp, Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2, 1912, Philadelphia Museum of Art
Joan Miró, Horse, Pipe and Red Flower, 1920, abstract Surrealism, Philadelphia Museum of Art
Max Ernst whose 1920 painting Murdering Airplane, studied philosophy and psychology
in Bonn and was interested in the alternative realities experienced by the insane. His
paintings may have been inspired by the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's study of the
delusions of a paranoiac, Daniel Paul Schreber. Freud identified Schreber's fantasy of
becoming a woman as a castration complex. The central image of two pairs of legs
refers to Schreber's hermaphroditic desires. Ernst's inscription on the back of the
painting reads: The picture is curious because of its symmetry. The two sexes balance
one another.[55]
During the 1920s André Masson's work was enormously influential in helping the newly
arrived in Paris and young artist Joan Miró find his roots in the new Surrealist painting.
Miró acknowledged in letters to his dealer Pierre Matisse the importance of Masson as
an example to him in his early years in Paris.
Long after personal, political and professional tensions have fragmented the Surrealist
group into thin air and ether, Magritte, Miró, Dalí and the other Surrealists continue to
define a visual program in the arts. Other prominent surrealist artists include Giorgio de
Chirico, Méret Oppenheim, Toyen, Grégoire Michonze, Roberto Matta, Kay
Sage, Leonora Carrington, Dorothea Tanning, and Leonor Fini among others.
Before and after the war[edit]
Egon Schiele, Symbolism and Expressionism 1912
Amedeo Modigliani Symbolism and Expressionism 1917
The name of the movement comes from a painting by Kandinsky created in 1903. It is
also claimed that the name could have derived from Marc's enthusiasm for horses and
Kandinsky's love of the colour blue. For Kandinsky, blue is the colour of spirituality: the
darker the blue, the more it awakens human desire for the eternal.
In the USA during the period between World War I and World War II painters tended to
go to Europe for recognition. Artists like Marsden Hartley, Patrick Henry Bruce, Gerald
Murphy and Stuart Davis, created reputations abroad. In New York City, Albert Pinkham
Ryder and Ralph Blakelock were influential and important figures in advanced American
painting between 1900 and 1920. During the 1920s photographer Alfred
Stieglitz exhibited Georgia O'Keeffe, Arthur Dove, Alfred Henry Maurer, Charles
Demuth, John Marin and other artists including European Masters Henri
Matisse, Auguste Rodin, Henri Rousseau, Paul Cézanne, and Pablo Picasso, at his
gallery the 291.
Social consciousness[edit]
See also: Social realism, Regionalism (art), and Mexican muralism
During the 1920s and the 1930s and the Great Depression, Surrealism, late Cubism,
the Bauhaus, De Stijl, Dada, German Expressionism, Expressionism,
and modernist and masterful color painters like Henri Matisse and Pierre
Bonnard characterized the European art scene. In Germany Max Beckmann, Otto
Dix, George Grosz and others politicized their paintings, foreshadowing the coming of
World War II. While in America American Scene painting and the social
realism and regionalism movements that contained both political and social commentary
dominated the art world. Artists like Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton, Grant
Wood, George Tooker, John Steuart Curry, Reginald Marsh, and others became
prominent. In Latin America besides the Uruguayan painter Joaquín Torres
García and Rufino Tamayo from Mexico, the muralist movement with Diego
Rivera, David Siqueiros, José Orozco, Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martinez
Delgado and the Symbolist paintings by Frida Kahlo began a renaissance of the arts for
the region, with a use of color and historic, and political messages. Frida Kahlo's
Symbolist works also relate strongly to Surrealism and to the Magic Realism movement
in literature. The psychological drama in many of Kahlo's self portraits (above)
underscore the vitality and relevance of her paintings to artists in the 21st century.
American Gothic is a painting by Grant Wood from 1930. Portraying a pitchfork-holding
farmer and a younger woman in front of a house of Carpenter Gothic style, it is one of
the most familiar images in 20th-century American art. Art critics had favorable opinions
about the painting, like Gertrude Stein and Christopher Morley, they assumed the
painting was meant to be a satire of rural small-town life. It was thus seen as part of the
trend towards increasingly critical depictions of rural America, along the lines
of Sherwood Anderson's 1919 Winesburg, Ohio, Sinclair Lewis' 1920 Main Street,
and Carl Van Vechten's The Tattooed Countess in literature.[57] However, with the onset
of the Great Depression, the painting came to be seen as a depiction of steadfast
American pioneer spirit.
Diego Rivera is perhaps best known by the public world for his 1933 mural, "Man at the
Crossroads", in the lobby of the RCA Building at Rockefeller Center. When his
patron Nelson Rockefeller discovered that the mural included a portrait of Vladimir
Lenin and other communist imagery, he fired Rivera, and the unfinished work was
eventually destroyed by Rockefeller's staff. The film Cradle Will Rock includes a
dramatization of the controversy. Frida Kahlo (Rivera's wife's) works are often
characterized by their stark portrayals of pain. Of her 143 paintings 55 are self-portraits,
which frequently incorporate symbolic portrayals of her physical and psychological
wounds. Kahlo was deeply influenced by indigenous Mexican culture, which is apparent
in her paintings' bright colors and dramatic symbolism. Christian and Jewish themes are
often depicted in her work as well; she combined elements of the classic religious
Mexican tradition—which were often bloody and violent—with surrealist renderings.
While her paintings are not overtly Christian they certainly contain elements of the
macabre Mexican Christian style of religious paintings.
Political activism was an important piece of David Siqueiros' life, and frequently inspired
him to set aside his artistic career. His art was deeply rooted in the Mexican Revolution,
a violent and chaotic period in Mexican history in which various social and political
factions fought for recognition and power. The period from the 1920s to the 1950s is
known as the Mexican Renaissance, and Siqueiros was active in the attempt to create
an art that was at once Mexican and universal. He briefly gave up painting to focus on
organizing miners in Jalisco.
World conflict[edit]
In its final form, Guernica is an immense black and white, 3.5 metres (11 feet) tall and
7.8 metres (26 feet) wide mural painted in oil. The mural presents a scene of death,
violence, brutality, suffering, and helplessness without portraying their immediate
causes. The choice to paint in black and white contrasts with the intensity of the scene
depicted and invokes the immediacy of a newspaper photograph. [59] Picasso painted the
mural sized painting called Guernica in protest of the bombing. The painting was first
exhibited in Paris in 1937, then Scandinavia, then London in 1938 and finally in 1939 at
Picasso's request the painting was sent to the United States in an extended loan (for
safekeeping) at MoMA. The painting went on a tour of museums throughout the USA
until its final return to the Museum of Modern Art in New York City where it was
exhibited for nearly thirty years. Finally in accord with Pablo Picasso's wish to give the
painting to the people of Spain as a gift, it was sent to Spain in 1981.
Max Beckmann, The Night (Die Nacht), 1918–1919, Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf
During the Great Depression of the 1930s, through the years of World War II American
art was characterized by Social Realism and American Scene Painting in the work
of Grant Wood, Edward Hopper, Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton, and several
others. Nighthawks (1942) is a painting by Edward Hopper that portrays people sitting in
a downtown diner late at night. It is not only Hopper's most famous painting, but one of
the most recognizable in American art. It is currently in the collection of the Art Institute
of Chicago. The scene was inspired by a diner (since demolished) in Greenwich Village,
Hopper's home neighborhood in Manhattan. Hopper began painting it immediately after
the attack on Pearl Harbor. After this event there was a large feeling of gloominess over
the country, a feeling that is portrayed in the painting. The urban street is empty outside
the diner, and inside none of the three patrons is apparently looking or talking to the
others but instead is lost in their own thoughts. This portrayal of modern urban life as
empty or lonely is a common theme throughout Hopper's work.
The Dynamic for artists in Europe during the 1930s deteriorated rapidly as the Nazi's
power in Germany and across Eastern Europe increased. The climate became so
hostile for artists and art associated with Modernism and abstraction that many left for
the Americas. Degenerate art was a term adopted by the Nazi regime in Germany for
virtually all modern art. Such art was banned on the grounds that it was un-German
or Jewish Bolshevist in nature, and those identified as degenerate artists were
subjected to sanctions. These included being dismissed from teaching positions, being
forbidden to exhibit or to sell their art, and in some cases being forbidden to produce art
entirely.
Degenerate Art was also the title of an exhibition, mounted by the Nazis in Munich in
1937, consisting of modernist artworks chaotically hung and accompanied by text labels
deriding the art. Designed to inflame public opinion against modernism, the exhibition
subsequently traveled to several other cities in Germany and Austria. German
artist Max Beckmann and scores of others fled Europe for New York. In New York City a
new generation of young and exciting Modernist painters led by Arshile Gorky, Willem
de Kooning, and others were just beginning to come of age.
Arshile Gorky's portrait of someone who might be Willem de Kooning (above) is an
example of the evolution of abstract expressionism from the context of figure
painting, cubism and surrealism. Along with his friends de Kooning and John D.
Graham Gorky created bio-morphically shaped and abstracted figurative compositions
that by the 1940s evolved into totally abstract paintings. Gorky's work seems to be a
careful analysis of memory, emotion and shape, using line and color to express feeling
and nature.
Towards mid-century[edit]
The 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American abstract expressionism,
a modernist movement that combined lessons learned from Henri Matisse, Pablo
Picasso, Surrealism, Joan Miró, Cubism, Fauvism, and early Modernism via great
teachers in America like Hans Hofmann and John D. Graham. American artists
benefited from the presence of Piet Mondrian, Fernand Léger, Max Ernst and the André
Breton group, Pierre Matisse's gallery, and Peggy Guggenheim's gallery The Art of This
Century, as well as other factors. The figurative work of Francis Bacon, Frida
Kahlo, Edward Hopper, Lucian Freud, Andrew Wyeth and others served as a kind of
alternative to abstract expressionism.
Post-Second World War American painting called Abstract expressionism included
artists like Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Arshile Gorky, Mark Rothko, Hans
Hofmann, Clyfford Still, Franz Kline, Adolph Gottlieb, Mark Tobey, Barnett
Newman, James Brooks, Philip Guston, Robert Motherwell, Conrad Marca-Relli, Jack
Tworkov, William Baziotes, Richard Pousette-Dart, Ad Reinhardt, Hedda Sterne, Jimmy
Ernst, Esteban Vicente, Bradley Walker Tomlin, and Theodoros Stamos, among others.
American Abstract expressionism got its name in 1946 from the art critic Robert Coates.
It is seen as combining the emotional intensity and self-denial of the German
Expressionists with the anti-figurative aesthetic of the European abstract schools such
as futurism, the Bauhaus and synthetic cubism. Abstract expressionism, action painting,
and Color Field painting are synonymous with the New York School.
Technically Surrealism was an important predecessor for abstract expressionism with
its emphasis on spontaneous, automatic or subconscious creation. Jackson Pollock's
dripping paint onto a canvas laid on the floor is a technique that has its roots in the work
of André Masson. Another important early manifestation of what came to be abstract
expressionism is the work of American Northwest artist Mark Tobey, especially his
"white writing" canvases, which, though generally not large in scale, anticipate the "all
over" look of Pollock's drip paintings.
Abstract expressionism[edit]
Main articles: Abstract expressionism, Action painting, Color Field painting, and Lyrical
abstraction
John Baeder, Photorealism
During the 1950s and 1960s as abstract painting in America and Europe evolved into
movements such as Color Field painting, post-painterly abstraction, op art, hard-edge
painting, minimal art, shaped canvas painting, Lyrical Abstraction, and the continuation
of Abstract expressionism. Other artists reacted as a response to the tendency toward
abstraction with art brut,[75] as seen in Court les rues, 1962, by Jean
Dubuffet, fluxus, neo-Dada, New Realism, allowing imagery to re-emerge through
various new contexts like pop art, the Bay Area Figurative Movement (a prime example
is Diebenkorn's Cityscape I, (Landscape No. 1), 1963, Oil on canvas, 60 1/4 x 50 1/2
inches, collection: San Francisco Museum of Modern Art) and later in the 1970s Neo-
expressionism. The Bay Area Figurative Movement of whom David Park, Elmer
Bischoff, Nathan Oliveira and Richard Diebenkorn whose painting Cityscape 1, 1963 is
a typical example were influential members flourished during the 1950s and 1960s in
California. Although throughout the 20th century painters continued to
practice Realism and use imagery, practicing landscape and figurative painting with
contemporary subjects and solid technique, and unique expressivity like Milton
Avery, Edward Hopper, Jean Dubuffet, Francis Bacon, Frank Auerbach, Lucian
Freud, Philip Pearlstein, and others. Younger painters practiced the use of imagery in
new and radical ways. Yves Klein, Martial Raysse, Niki de Saint Phalle, Wolf
Vostell, David Hockney, Alex Katz, Malcolm Morley, Ralph Goings, Audrey
Flack, Richard Estes, Chuck Close, Susan Rothenberg, Eric Fischl, John
Baeder and Vija Celmins were a few who became prominent between the 1960s and
the 1980s. Fairfield Porter was largely self-taught, and produced representational work
in the midst of the Abstract Expressionist movement. His subjects were primarily
landscapes, domestic interiors and portraits of family, friends and fellow artists, many of
them affiliated with the New York School of writers, including John Ashbery, Frank
O'Hara, and James Schuyler. Many of his paintings were set in or around the family
summer house on Great Spruce Head Island, Maine.
Also during the 1960s and 1970s, there was a reaction against painting. Critics like
Douglas Crimp viewed the work of artists like Ad Reinhardt, and declared the "death of
painting". Artists began to practice new ways of making art. New movements gained
prominence some of which are: Fluxus, Happening, Video art, Installation art Mail art,
the situationists, Conceptual art, Postminimalism, Earth art, arte povera, performance
art and body art among others.[76][77]
Neo-Dada is also a movement that started 1n the 1950s and 1960s and was related to
Abstract expressionism only with imagery. Featuring the emergence of combined
manufactured items, with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of
painting. This trend in art is exemplified by the work of Jasper Johns and Robert
Rauschenberg, whose "combines" in the 1950s were forerunners of Pop Art
and Installation art, and made use of the assemblage of large physical objects, including
stuffed animals, birds and commercial photography. Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper
Johns, Larry Rivers, John Chamberlain, Claes Oldenburg, George Segal, Jim Dine,
and Edward Kienholz among others were important pioneers of both abstraction and
Pop Art; creating new conventions of art-making; they made acceptable in serious
contemporary art circles the radical inclusion of unlikely materials as parts of their works
of art.
New abstraction from the 1950s through the 1980s [edit]
Americas[edit]
The Eternal Father Painting the Virgin of Guadalupe. Attributed to Joaquín Villegas (1713 – active in 1753)
(Mexican) (painter, Museo Nacional de Arte.
Detail from the Red Temple, c.600–700, Cacaxtla, Mexico
Painting on the Lord of the jaguar pelt throne vase, a scene of the Maya
court, 700–800 AD.
Painting on a Maya vase from the Late Classical Period (600–900)
Painted pottery figurine of a King from the burial site at Jaina Island,
Mayan art, 400–800 AD
Painted relief of the Maya site Palenque, featuring the son of K'inich Ahkal
Mo' Naab' III (678–730s?, r. 722–729).
South America[edit]
North America[edit]
United States[edit]
Detail of ledger painting on muslin by Silver Horn (1860–1940), ca.
1880, Oklahoma History Center
Caribbean[edit]
Islamic[edit]
Main articles: Islamic art, Arabic miniature, Persian miniature, and Arabesque
A scene from the book of Ahmad ibn al-Husayn ibn al-Ahnaf, showing two
galloping horsemen, 1210 AD.
Mehmet II, from the Sarai Albums of Istanbul, Turkey, 15th century AD
Pakistan[edit]
Main article: Culture of Pakistan
AR Chughtai, Anarkali
Oceania[edit]
Main article: Art of Oceania
Australia[edit]
Main articles: Aboriginal art, Art of Australia, List of Australian artists, and Visual arts of
Australia
New Zealand[edit]
Main articles: Art of New Zealand and List of New Zealand artists
Africa[edit]
Main articles: African art, African tribal masks, and Tingatinga (painting)
The Christian tradition of painting in Ethiopia dates back to the 4th century AD, during
the ancient Kingdom of Aksum.[92] During their exile to Axum, the 7th-century followers
of Muhammad described paintings decorating the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion.
[93]
However, the earliest surviving examples of church paintings in Ethiopia come from
the church of Debre Selam Mikael in the Tigray Region, dated to the 11th century AD.
[93]
Ethiopian paintings in illuminated manuscripts predate the earliest surviving church
paintings. For instance, the Ethiopian Garima Gospels of the 4th-6th centuries AD
contain illuminated scenes imitating the contemporary Byzantine illuminated style.[94]
See also[edit]
20th-century Western painting
Art periods
Hierarchy of genres
List of painters
Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and
Architects
Timeline of Italian artists to 1800
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Further reading[edit]
Clement Greenberg, Art and Culture, Beacon Press, 1961
Lyrical Abstraction, Exhibition Catalogue, Whitney Museum of
American Art, NYC, 1971.
O'Connor, Francis V. Jackson Pollock Exhibition Catalogue,
(New York, Museum of Modern Art, [1967]) OCLC 165852
Pictures of Nothing: Abstract Art since Pollock (A.W. Mellon
Lectures in the Fine Arts), Kirk Varnedoe, 2003
The Triumph of Modernism: The Art World, 1985–
2005, Hilton Kramer, 2006, ISBN 0-15-666370-8
Piper, David (1986). The Illustrated Library of Art: History,
Appreciation, and Tradition. ISBN 978-0-517-62336-7.
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