ECE467: Introduction to VLSI

Lecture-2:

IC Materials, Semiconductor Properties and

pn Junction Diode

Masud H. Chowdhury
Electrical & Computer Engineering
University of Illinois at Chicago
 IC building blocks & Materials
• Devices: Transistors and diodes
– Semiconductor: Silicon & Germanium
• Interconnect: The wires linking transistors together
– Metal: Copper & Aluminum
• Contact: A contact forms interconnection between metal and active or
polysilicon
– There are various contacts in integrated circuit, such as, gate, drain,
source, body contacts.
– Metal: Tungsten
– Poly-crystalline Silicon
• Via: Vias connect metal interconnect lines of different layers.
– Metal: Copper, Aluminum
• Insulation layers:
– Insulator: SiO2

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 Properties of Silicon
Conductivity of Silicon:
– Silicon (Si), a semiconductor forms the basic starting material for large
group of IC
– Pure crystalline Silicon is a a very poor conductor of electricity, since
there are hardly no free electrons available to conduct electricity
– Atomic density of Silicon crystal: NSi = 5x1022 atoms per cubic
centimeter
– Silicon is group IV element, so it forms covalent bonds with four
adjacent atoms.
– As all of its valance electrons are involved in chemical bonds, it is poor
conductor
Si Si Si

Si Si Si

Si Si Si

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 Electrical conduction in Silicon
Carrier: The term carrier is referred to charge carrier, meaning the particles
that carry electric charge through conduction medium. There are two
types of charge carrier in semiconductor.
– Free Electron (negative charge carrier): When an electron gains
sufficient thermal energy its bond with the nucleus of the host atom
breaks away, and it becomes free or mobile electron that can take part
in electric conduction
– Hole (positive charge carrier): A free electron leaves behind a
vacancy in the atomic orbit, which is called a hole. So a hole is the
absence of an electron, and is treated as a particle with properties
opposite to those of electron. It is a virtual carrier that can absorb a
free electron or negative particle

free electron

nucleus hole

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 Electrical conduction in Silicon
Electron-hole pair: Each time a free electron is created it also creates a hole.
Although the particles are treated independently of one another, they constitute
an electron-hole pair when they are created.
Silicon crystal Electron (-q)

free electron Hole (+q)

hole q = 1.602x10-19 coulombs

nucleus

Charge of Free Electron and Hole: An electron has a negative charge –q.
Since a hole is created due to absence of an electron, it is considered as a
charge carrier carrying a positive charge +q that allows it to participate in the
current conduction process.
Current Conduction in Silicon/Semiconductor:
– The ability of a material to conduct electricity depends upon the number
of available charge carriers
– In metal conductors, there is only one type of charge carrier – negative
free electrons. The electric current is due to the flow of free electrons
– In semiconductors, such as silicon, there are two types of charge carriers –
electron and hole. The electric current is due to the flow of both electrons
and holes.
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 Semiconductor Classification
Intrinsic Semiconductor:
– Silicon in its pure form is called intrinsic semiconductor
– Very poor conductivity
– Conductivity can not be controlled
Extrinsic or Doped Semiconductor:
– Some amounts of impurity atoms are purposely added to increase either
the number of free electrons or holes to enhance current carrying
capability of semiconductor.
– This type of semiconductor with impurity atoms in it is called extrinsic or
doped semiconductor
– Depending on the doping profile extrinsic semiconductor can be divided
into two classes
• N –type Semiconductor: Excess free electrons are available due to
doping with donor atoms.. Normally dopants that have five electrons
in their valance band can provide additional free electrons to
semiconductor.
• P –type Semiconductor: Excess holes are available due to doping with
acceptor atom. Dopants that have three electrons in their valance band
can create additional holes in the semiconductor
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 Some Definitions
Intrinsic carrier density (ni): The number of free charge carriers (electrons/holes)
available for current conduction per cubic centimeter of pure semiconductor

– For silicon at room temperature ni = 1.45x1010 cm-3

– Atomic density of Silicon crystal: NSi = 5x1022 atoms per cubic centimeter
– The value of ni increases with temperature. Due to thermal excitation electrons
gain enough thermal energy to break away from its host semiconductor atom.
– However the number remains much lower than the number in metal.
– Since in pure semiconductor the only way that a hole is created is by freeing
an electron from its host atom. Therefore,
n = p = ni ,
where n: free electron density and p: hole density

Mass-action Law: The relation between the densities of the two types of carriers at
equilibrium is called mass-action law
np = ni2
– This law governs the relative numbers of electrons and holes if no currents are
flowing.
– This is valid for any semiconductor in thermal equilibrium, which is
equivalent to having zero current flow.
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 Some Definitions
Doping: The Process of mixing impurity atoms in pure semiconductor to increase
either types of carrier is called doping
Dopant: The impurity atoms mixed with pure silicon are called dopants. Depending
on the type of carrier a dopant can contribute, it can fall in to either of two groups
– Donor atoms - Acceptor atoms
Donor atoms: Number of free electrons is increased by adding donor atoms such as,
arsenic (As) or phosphorus (P), that have five electrons in their valance band
– Four electrons from each dopant atom form four covalent bonds with four
valance-band electrons of a silicon atom. The fifth electron of dopant atom
becomes free inside the semiconductor crystal
– The resulting sample is called n-type semiconductor, having more free
electrons than available hole.
Donor density: Each donor atom donates one free electron. The number of donors
added to one cubic centimeter is called donor density, and given by Nd, with a
typical range of 1016 to 1019 cm-3.
– Typically donor density (Nd) is much higher than intrinsic carrier density ni
– Therefore, electron density in an n-type sample can be given by:
nn = ni + Nd ≅ Nd cm-3
ni2
– Hole density in an n-type sample: nn.pn = Nd.pn = ni2 >> p n = cm − 3
Nd

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 Some Definitions
Acceptor atoms: Number of available holes is increased by impurity like boron that
has three valance band electrons. This dopant induces hole in the semiconductor.
Since a hole can accept an electron, impurity like boron is called acceptor atom.
– Three electrons from an acceptor atom form covalent bonds with three
valance-band electrons of a silicon atom. Still the bonding scheme has one
electron less than the equilibrium number, which creates a vacancy or hole.
– Acceptor density is given by Na, with typical range of 1014 to 1019 cm-3. Each
acceptor atom creates one hole in the sample.
– Acceptor density (Na) is much higher than intrinsic carrier density (ni).
Therefore, hole density in a p-type sample is given by: pp ≅ Na cm-3
ni2
– Electron density in an p-type sample: np..pp = np.Na = ni2 >> n p = cm −3
Na
Majority and minority carriers:
• n-type semiconductor
– Electron …….majority carrier
– Hole …………minority carrier
• p-type semiconductor
– Hole ….. …….majority carrier
– Electron .……minority carrier
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Conductivity, Resistivity and Carrier Mobility
Conductivity: The ability of a material to conduct electricity. The conductivity
(σ) of a semiconductor sample is given by
σ = q(μn.n + μp.p)
where, μn: electron mobility & μp: hole mobility

Mobility: This is the parameter that indicates “how mobile” a particle is. Its unit
is cm2/V-sec. Small value of μ indicates that it is difficult to move, while large
value of μ indicates relatively easier motion

Resistivity: The property of a material to obstruct the electric conduction.

Resistivity (ρ) is the reciprocal of conductivity
ρ = 1/σ
At room temperature following are typical values for silicon:
μn = 1360
μp = 480
σ = 4.27 x 10-6 [Ω-cm]-1
ρ = 2.34 x 105 [Ω-cm]

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 Voltage, Current and Electric Field:
When a voltage (V) is applied across a semiconductor sample an electric field (E) is
d
created directed from positive to negative terminal. w

E
The electric field is given by: E = V I
t

d
The electric field is directed from the positive to the negative voltage + V -

V
Current is given by: I = this is called Ohm’s law
R
Current I is the amount of positive charge crossing the surface in one second.

Resistance R is given by: R = ρ d

wt
– Resistance is proportional to the length, and inversely proportional to the
width of the conducting medium
– Current (I) increases if the length (d) of the sample decreases.
– Current increases if the width (w) of the sample increases.
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 PN Junction Diode
Diode: Diode is the simplest semiconductor device formed by joining a p-type
semiconductor with an n-type semiconductor
Conduction in Diode: Conduction through pn
junction diode takes place in two mechanisms
– Diffusion
– Drift
Diffusion:
– Brining a p-type sample and an n-type sample
together causes a large charge concentration
gradient across the boundary.
– The electron concentration changes from very
high on n-side to very low on p-side
– The reverse is true for the holes concentration.
– Due to large concentration gradients electron
diffuses from n to p side. Similarly holes diffuse
from p to n side
– These phenomenon of charge carriers flow due to concentration gradient is
called diffusion
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Depletion Region:
PN Junction Diode
• Diffusion of holes leaves behind immobile
acceptor ions on p-side, which become
negative due to the loss of positive holes.
Similarly, diffusion of electrons leaves
behind immobile donor ions on n-side,
which become positive due to the loss of
electrons
• At some point an equilibrium is reached
when further diffusion of electrons is
prevented due to the repulsion by negative
acceptor atoms on the p-side. Similarly
further diffusion of holes is prevented by
the repulsion of positive donor atoms on the
n-side
• Consequently, from the region across the pn
junction the majority carriers have been
removed, leaving behind negatively
charged acceptor ions on p side and
positively charged donor ions on n side.
• This region is called depletion or space
charge region.
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Drift:
PN Junction Diode
• Opposite polarity charges across the
depletion region creates an electric field,
directed from n to p side.
• This electric field causes electrons to drift
from p to n side, and hole from n to p side.
• At equilibrium the diffusion current is
counter balanced by the drift current due to
the electric field set up by the depletion
charge, resulting in net zero flow.
Consequently, depletion region can not
spread further.
Built-in potential: When drift and diffusion
currents are at equilibrium, there exists a
potential difference across the junction
called the built-in potential, given by:
⎡ ⎤
⎢ N A.N D ⎥
φ 0 = φ T ln
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣⎢ ni ⎦⎥
kT
Here, thermal voltage: φ T = q = 26 mV at 300 K
Boltzman’s constant k:1.38 x 10-23 J/K and Electron charge q: 1.6 x 10-19 coulombs
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 Biasing PN Junction Diode
Biasing: Biasing means applying voltage across the pn junction
Forward bias: When a forward voltage VD is applied to the junction, the potential
of the p-region is raised with respect to the n-region.
– p terminal is connected to the battery positive, and n terminal is connected
to the battery negative
– Forward bias lowers the potential barrier. At a certain forward bias the
barrier disappears and diode becomes conducting
Reverse bias: When a reverse voltage VD is applied to the junction, the potential
of the p-region is lowered with respect to the n-region.
– P terminal is connected to battery negative and the n terminal is connected
to battery positive
– Reverse bias voltage raises the potential barrier. The barrier increases with
the increase of reverse bias. Diode doesn’t conduct.
P N P N

I I

+ V - - V+
Forward bias: diode conducts current Reverse bias: diode is non-conducting
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 Voltage-current relation of PN junction
Diode Current: Diode current is exponentially dependent on applied bias voltage
Ideal diode equation: The behavior of the diode at both forward and reverse
biased conditions can be described by ideal diode equation:
ID (mA) I D = I S (eV D / φT − 1)
φT: thermal voltage = 26 mV at 300 K
IS: Saturation current of diode, it is a function of
0.5 1.0
- the area of diode
VD (v) - doping levels
- the widths of the neutral regions
Typical values of IS for silicon diode is in the range 10-17 A/μm2
Diode Model:
ID = IS(eV D/φT – 1)
+
VD

Ideal diode model

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 Problem
Consider following values for an n-type semiconductor:
donor density Nd = 2x1019/cm3
mobility of electron = 1400
mobility of hole = 500
electron charge q = 1.602x10-19 coulombs
– Find the density of electrons in this sample
nn = ni + Nd ≅ Nd cm-3
– Find the density of holes in the given sample
ni2
pn = cm − 3
Nd
– Find the conductivity of the given sample
σ = q(μn.n + μp.p)
– Find the resistivity of the given sample?
ρ = 1/σ

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