ELIZALDE ACADEMY MODULE 3

PHYSICAL SCIENCE 12
TEACHER: MS. RODJHEN ANNE P. BARQUILLA WEEK 7

LESSON 1: HOW ENERGY IS PRODUCED AND MANAGED

I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
 describe the different sources of energy;
 give a brief summary of how energy is produced from different sources;
 differentiate between renewable and non-renewable sources of energy;
 outline the pros and cons of the different sources of energy.
II. CONCEPT NOTES:
HOW ENERGY IS PRODUCED AND MANAGED
A power plant is an industrial facility that generates electricity from primary energy. Most power plants use one or more
generators that convert mechanical energy into electrical energy in order to supply power to the electrical grid for society's
electrical needs. The exception is solar power plants, which use photovoltaic cells (instead of a turbine) to generate this
electricity.
The type of primary fuel or primary energy flow that provides a power plant its primary energy varies. The most common
fuels are coal, natural gas, and uranium (nuclear power). A substantially used primary energy flow for electricity generation is
hydroelectricity (water). Other flows that are used to generate electricity include wind, solar, geothermal and tidal. Electrical
sources can be broken down to two major groups: renewable and non-renewable sources.
Renewable source is produced from sources that do not deplete or can be replenished within a human's life time. The
most common examples include wind, solar, geothermal, biomass, and hydropower. This is in contrast to non-renewable source
which is a natural resource that cannot be 8 readily replaced by natural means at a quick enough pace to keep up with
consumption.
I. RENEWABLE SOURCES
1. GEOTHERMAL-Geothermal power utilizes the heat energy from the earth’s crust. This heat
energy heats up rocks which, in turn, heats up nearby groundwater. The Malitbog Geothermal
Power Station is a 232.5 MW geothermal power plant or an earth steam turbined electric
generator--the world's largest geothermal power plant under one roof located in Malitbog, Kananga,
Leyte, Philippines. The power plant is one of four operating in the Leyte Geothermal Production
Field. Geothermal energy is produced by the heat of Earth's molten interior.
This energy is harnessed to generate electricity when water is injected deep underground and
returns as steam (or hot water, which is later converted to steam) to drive a turbine on an electric power generator that produces
electricity. Geothermal energy is less of an environmental hazard compared to fossil fuels though it still has some emissions of
carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and sulfur dioxide.
• Malibarara Geothermal Power Plant in Sto. Tomas, Batangas
• Makban Geothermal Power Plant and Makban Binary Geothermal Power Plant in Bay,
Laguna
• Tiwi Geothermal Power Plant in Tiwi, Albay
• Bacon Manito Geothermal Power Plant in Sorosogon
• Unified Leyte Geothermal Power Plant Tongonan Geothermal Power Plant in Leyte
• Southern Negros Geothermal Production Field – Nasulo Geothermal Power Plant and Palinpinon Geothermal Power Plant in
Valencia Negros Occidental
2. HYDROELECTRIC- Hydroelectric power (hydropower) is derived from the energy of
falling or moving water to generate electricity. Among other purposes, water is widely
used to produce electricity. Hydropower is a proven, mature, predictable, and price
competitive technology. A number of on- and off-grid hydropower plants have been built
throughout the country, including impounding dams and run-of-river types. Impounding
dams are able to supply energy during peak and off-peak hours while run-of-river types
supply electricity whenever capable, depending on the volume of water that is discharged
from the watersheds.
A turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical energy.
Then a generator converts the mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy. The generator power is stepped up to a
higher voltage from the substation, and then exported for transmission.Some of the operational hydroelectric power plants in the
Philippines are:
• Palakpakin Hydroelectric Power Plant in San Pablo, Laguna
• Balugbog Hydroelectric Power Plant in Narcarlan, Laguna
• Cantingas Hydroelectric Power Plant in San Fernando, Romblon
3. WIND POWER
While an electric fan uses electricity to produce wind, a wind turbine uses wind to
produce electricity. A wind turbine can generate megawatts of power, depending on the
weather conditions. In fact, an indicator for a potential wind farm site is the presence of
flagging trees or trees that are bent like how a flag would look like due to strong winds.
Because of the vast land area a wind farm occupies, unused areas can be co-located with agricultural crops or even a solar
farm. Wind has been used in centuries to move ships and pump water.
 Wind turbines are installed in strategic locations to harness the mechanical energy from wind. Some of the most recent
developments are the Bangui Wind Farm, Burgos Wind Farm, and Caparispisan Wind Farm in Ilocos Norte, the Wind Energy
Power System in Oriental Mindoro, San Lorenzo Wind Farm in Guimaras, Nabas Wind Farm in Aklan and Pililla Wind Farm in
Rizal.
4. SOLAR CELLS -If plants photosynthesize using sunlight, electric-powered
technologies can also use sunlight for energy. Solar power is a variable energy source
that is dependent on the cycle of the sun. The Philippines, being situated near the
equator, has many potential sites where solar energy may be harnessed. With recent
technology, solar power systems can be both applied to on- and off-grid areas.
Aggressive economic growth for the country is not far behind.
A s l o n g a s t h e r e i s
is capable of supplying electricity to the grid at daytime. A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell,
is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the
photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon.
It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage, or
resistance, vary when exposed to light. Individual solar cell devices are often the electrical building blocks of photovoltaic
modules, known colloquially as solar panels. Some of the operational solar power plants in the Philippines are:
• Lian Sola Power Project and Calatagan Solar Power Project in Calatagan, Batangas
• Cavite Economic Zone Solar Power Project in Rosario and General Trias, Cavite
• CW Home Depot Solar Power Project and Central Mall Binan Solar Power Plant in Biñan City, Laguna
Solar energy is also known as “The People’s Power,” referring to the easy deployment of solar panels and the
introduction of “community solar gardens” where energy is shared among owners. • Solar energy is abundant, requires low
maintenance, and is environmentally friendly.
• Emissions associated with the manufacture of solar panels are present but very minimal compared to pollution caused by
burning fossil fuels.
• Two of the harmful emissions from the manufacture of solar panels are nitrogen trifluoride and sulfur hexafluoride.
• Both are potent greenhouse gases.
• Some disadvantages of solar energy are: it is expensive, requires rare metals, and requires a good amount of space.
Thankfully, the technology is continuously improving.
5. BIOMASS -Biomass refers to organic matter from plants and animals (microorganisms). Organic wastes such as crop
remains, manure, and garbage usually left to rot, can be used for electricity
generation. Rice husks and/or bagasse are burned as fuel to boil water. The steam
from the boiling water is used to run steam turbines, which in turn drive generators to
produce electricity.
• Wood is also a biomass fuel.
• As long as we replenish the trees that we cut, biomass can be a sustainable energy
source.
• Biomass is used to create methane and alcohol which are fuels useful in energy production and in powering automobiles.
• Production of biogas or biofuels involves the action of microorganisms that break down organic matter in a multi-step process.
• Technologies utilizing biomass are continuously evolving in order to improve efficiency.
II. NON-RENEWABLE SOURCES
1. FOSSIL FUELS -Coal, oil and gas are fossil fuels, which have been formed over the last 600
million years. Coal is the fossilized remains of huge forests which covered many 14 parts of the
world in prehistoric times and hence contains biomass. As the trees and plants died, they were
covered in layers of silt and sand and, under great pressure, gradually became formed into coal
deposits.
• Coal is the world’s most abundant fossil fuel. It is relatively inexpensive and is readily
available.
• The formation of fossil fuels is due to a series of geologic processes where the remains of
organic life are accumulated in the ocean bottom and are buried to eventually become part of
the geosphere.
• They are buried to depths having high temperature and pressure where they are converted to oil, natural gas, or coal. • In the
Philippines, around 69% of our electricity is derived from fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas, biomass).
• In the world, around 75% of our energy is generated by combustion of fossil fuels.
• Power plants burn fossil fuels and the heat generated during this process is used to turn
water into steam and this turns the turbines.
2. ELECTROCHEMICAL (BATTERIES)-A battery is a device that stores chemical energy
and converts it to electrical energy. The chemical reactions in a battery involve the flow of
electrons from one 15 material (electrode) to another, through an external circuit. The flow
of electrons provides an electric current that can be used to do work.
There are three main components of a battery: two terminals made of different
chemicals (typically metals), the anode and the cathode; and the electrolyte, which separates these terminals. The electrolyte is
a chemical medium that allows the flow of electrical charge between the cathode and anode. Batteries, compared to other
sources, have low intensity but they are commonly used since they are portable and efficient.
III. GUIDED ACTIVITY:
The diagram shows the different sources of energy in the Philippines and the percentages of each source. Analyze the different
sources of energy from the different regions in the Philippines based on Figure 1 Gross Power Generation by Fuel 2013. Then,
answer the questions that follow.

Figure1. Gross Power Generation by Fuel (2013), Retrieved July 17, 2020, http://
www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/images/2015.03.06/chart2.png).
Guide Questions:
1. What are the different sources of electricity in the Philippines?
2. Refer to the diagram above to complete the table below.

3. Based on the diagram, what can you

say about the sources of energy from the different regions in the Philippines?
IV. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE:
Modified True or False. Read each statement carefully. Write True if the statement is correct; if the statement is FALSE,
change the italicized word to make it true. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
_______1. Biomass is used to create methane and alcohol which are fuels useful in energy production and in powering
automobiles.
_______2. Electrical sources can be broken down into three major groups.
_______3. Hydroelectric power utilizes the heat energy from the earth’s crust.
_______4. Solar energy is abundant, requires low maintenance, and is environmentally-friendly.
_______5. Wind turbines are installed in strategic locations to harness the mechanical energy from wind.
_______6. The cushion is a chemical medium that allows the flow of electrical charge between the cathode and anode.
_______7. The world’s most abundant fossil fuel is natural gas.
_______8. The most common fuels are coal, natural gas, and uranium (nuclear power).
_______9. A generator converts the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical energy.
_______10. Batteries have high intensity but they are commonly used since they are portable and efficient.
_______11. Geothermal energy is less of an environmental hazard compared to fossil fuels.
_______12. Wastes such as crop remains, manure, and garbage are good sources of biomass.
_______13. Nonrenewable source is produced from sources that do not deplete or can be replenished within a human's life
time.
_______14. An electric fan uses electricity to produce wind.
_______15. Water is widely used to produce electricity
V. CLOSURE ACTIVITY:
Direction: Make either a poster, a flyer, or a brochure on a product (such as fuels, household, or personal care products)
indicating its uses, properties, mode of action, and precautions.
VI. REFERENCES:
 DepEd Modules- Physical Science 12

ELIZALDE ACADEMY MODULE 3

PHYSICAL SCIENCE 12 1ST QUARTER
TEACHER: MS. RODJHEN ANNE P. BARQUILLA WEEK 8

LESSON 1: ACTIVE INGREDIENT(S) OF CLEANING PRODUCTS USED AT HOME

I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
 Identify the active ingredients of cleaning product used at home
 Explain the active ingredients of cleaning product used at home
 Understand the active ingredients of cleaning product used at home
II. CONCEPT NOTES:
ACTIVE INGREDIENT(S) OF CLEANING PRODUCTS USED AT HOME
There are lots of cleaning products we use daily in our home, office, or school. These cleaning products play an
important vital role in order to make our home spick and span. They also help in safely and effectively removing dirt, germs and
other contaminants. They can also prevent the spread of infectious diseases and control allergens, such as dust and mold, in
order to keep us healthy. Cleaning products also enable us to care for our homes and possessions. There are different kinds of
cleaning products.
These are laundry detergents, bleaches, dishwashing products and other household cleaners. Active ingredients are
found in different household cleaning products. They may give different side 8 effects to human. They can give either positive or
negative side effects to us. So before using these cleaning materials be sure to read first the instructions. Don’t forget to follow
all precautionary and safety measures before using them. Here are some of the active ingredients found in different cleaning
materials we use at home.
1. ALCOHOL ETHOXYLATE (AE)- Alcohol ethoxylates are a class of compounds that are commonly used throughout many
industrial practices and commercial markets. These compounds are synthesized via the reaction of a fatty alcohol and ethylene
oxide, resulting in a molecule that consists of two main components, (1) the oleophilic, carbon-rich, fatty alcohol and (2) the
hydrophilic, polyoxymethylene chain. Alcohol ethoxylate surfactants enhance the mixing and solubilization of oil and water by
having these contrasting sections within the same compound.
With this unique structure, a single molecule can inhabit the interface of two immiscible phases (i.e. oil and water),
effectively bringing them closer together and lowering the interfacial energy associated between them. Because these
compounds are surfactants, they can be used whenever oily substances encounter water or a surface. It can be used as
detergents, wetting agents, emulsifiers, degreasers and emollients in many lines of commercially available products and
industrial practices.
2. SODIUM ALKYL SULFATES - Sodium alkyl sulfate are members of alkyl sulfates. They are water-soluble and can form soap
bubbles. The chemical formula is CnH2n+1OSO2ONa. It can be used in detergents, dish washing liquids, shower gels,
shampoos, hair conditioners and fabric softeners. It can also be used as fire extinguishing agent, because it is not flammable.
In the cosmetic industry it is used as an emulsifier to mix oily and water-soluble compounds for toothpaste or
moisturizing products. It can produce irritating vapors when heated, consisting of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur
dioxide and others. As all detergents it can irritate skin and eyes. If swallowed, it will cause nausea or vomiting.
3. AMINE OXIDE- An amine oxide, also known as amine-N-oxide and N-oxide, is a chemical compound that contains the
functional group R3N+–O−, an N–O bond with three additional hydrogen and/or hydrocarbon side chains attached to Long-chain
alkyl amine oxides are used as nonionic surfactants and foam stabilizers. Amine oxides are highly polar molecules and have a
polarity close to that of quaternary ammonium salts. Small amine oxides are very hydrophilic and have an excellent water
solubility and a very poor solubility in most organic solvents.
4. AMMONIA - Ammonia is a colorless, soluble alkali gas that occurs naturally in the environment. It is a chemical containing
one nitrogen and three hydrogen atoms bonded together. It was traditionally used in many household cleaners, though today it's
still found in glass cleaner, all-purpose cleaners, and smelling salts. When used in cleaning compounds, it’s called “household
ammonia.”
Ammonia fumes are powerful irritant, potentially harming your skin, eyes, nose, lungs and throat. When found in oven
cleaners and window cleaning formulations, it is an irritant to the mucous membranes. When working with ammonia, wearing
heavy-duty gloves, goggles, and a face mask are smart precautions to protect your health.
5. SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE - Sodium hypochlorite also known as bleach is another alkali disinfectant. Bleach works by
oxidizing or breaking down the molecular bonds of stains and germs. Another useful but dangerous cleaner it also has strong
corrosive properties that may do serious damage to the human body. Ammonia and bleach are a particularly dangerous
combination, creating potentially deadly gases when mixed. Never store these two chemicals in the same place. Bleach in the
bottle is generally a five percent solution. Toxic chlorine gas can be formed if bleach is mixed with acids, such as bowl cleaners.
6. ETHANOL- Ethanol is a natural byproduct of plant fermentation and can be produced through the hydration of ethylene. It
mixes easily with water and many organic compounds, and makes an effective solvent for use in paints, lacquers and varnish,
as well as personal care and household cleaning products. Ethanol is highly flammable and should not be used near open
flames. Ethanol inhalation can cause coughing or headaches.
7. PHENOL - Phenol, any of a family of organic compounds characterized by a hydroxyl (―OH) group attached to a carbon
atom that is part of an aromatic ring. Besides serving as the generic name for the entire family, the term phenol is also the
specific name for its simplest member, monohydroxybenzene (C6H5OH), also known as benzenol, or carbolic acid. Phenols are
similar to alcohols but form stronger hydrogen bonds.
They are more soluble in water than are alcohols and have higher boiling points. Phenols occur either as colorless
liquids or white solids at room temperature and may be highly toxic and caustic. Phenols are widely used in household products
and as intermediates for industrial synthesis. For example, phenol itself is used (in low concentrations) as a disinfectant in
household cleaners and in mouthwash. Phenol may have been the first surgical antiseptic. In 1865 the British surgeon Joseph
Lister used phenol as an antiseptic to sterilize his operating field.
8. QUATERNARY AMMONIUM - The quaternary ammonium compounds (or quats) are a family of low-level disinfectants
(according to Spaulding) with most quats being derived from benzalkonium. Quats are reacted to provide a variety of chain
lengths and molecular structures so that the mix of quats used in the disinfectant provide a wider range of efficacy than a single
chain. Quats are generally used to disinfect countertops, toilets and other high touch environmental surfaces and floors.
Quaternary ammonium compounds are cationic disinfectants. This means the quats chain carries a positive (plus) charge on
one end of the molecule; many soils and soaps/detergents carry an anionic or negative (minus) charge. Quats can also bind
with, or be absorbed by, materials and fibers including cotton (e.g., cleaning rags and mops). Quats generally take 3-10 minutes
to disinfect and should be used with cleaning tools that are tested to be compatible.
9. SODIUM PERCARBONATE- Sodium percarbonate is a powder that releases hydrogen peroxide, and very concentrated. It is
a granulated powder which can be nice for scrubbing stains and stuck-on-gunk off dishes. Scouring powder is made from
hydrogen peroxide. It can be made into a paste, too, and used on tile grout and tough stains. In using this product, follow and
read the instructions carefully. Be very careful in handling all household cleaning products.
III. GUIDED ACTIVITY:
PRODUCT DISCOVERY
1.With the following ingredients, specify their use as household cleaning materials.
a. garlic
b. onion
c. salt
d. vinegar
2. What properties they possessed to be considered as cleaning products
“Ingredients as Household Cleaning Products”
Ingredients Uses Properties
garlic
Onion
Salt
Vinegar

IV. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE:

Direction: Write T if statement is true and F if the statement is false and choose the word or set of words that make it incorrect.
Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.
1.Sodium percarbonate is a granulated powder that can be used in scrubbing stains.
2. Alcohol Ethoxylate are being synthesized through the reaction of a fatty alcohol and ethylene oxide.
3. Quaternary ammonium are compounds that belong to the family of high-level disinfectants.
4. Sodium alkyl sulfate are water-soluble sulfates that can form soap bubbles.
5. Phenols form stronger hydrogen bonds and more soluble in water than alcohols.
6. Small amine oxides are very hydrophilic and have an excellent water solubility.
7. Bleach is the other name for sodium hypochlorite.
8. Alcohol ethoxylate is an alkyl sulfate that enhances the mixing and solubilization of oil and water.
9. Quat is a powder that releases hydrogen peroxide which can be used for scrubbing stains.
10. Ethanol is a byproduct of plant fermentation and produced through the hydration of ethylene.
11. All cleaning agents can irritate skin and eyes and can cause nausea or vomiting if swallowed.
12. Ethanol is non-flammable, but inhalation can cause coughing or headaches.
13. Ammonia is a soluble alkali gas which contains one nitrogen and three hydrogen atoms bonded together.
14. Ethoxylate surfactants enhance the mixing and solubilization of oil and water.
15. Ammonia fumes are powerful irritants that can cause harm to your skin, eyes, nose, lungs and throat.
V. CLOSURE ACTIVITY:
Direction: Compose a jingle related to the topic active ingredients of cleaning agents. Write your output in a separate sheet of
paper.
VI. REFERENCES:
 DepEd Modules- Physical Science 12

ELIZALDE ACADEMY MODULE 3

PHYSICAL SCIENCE 12
TEACHER: MS. RODJHEN ANNE P. BARQUILLA WEEK 8

LESSON 2: USE OF THE OTHER INGREDIENTS IN CLEANING AGENTS

I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
 Identify and explain the uses of the other ingredients in cleaning agents
II. CONCEPT NOTES:
USE OF THE OTHER INGREDIENTS IN CLEANING AGENTS
With the different household cleaning products that we have in the market today, we don’t know which the best is to use
in our household. We assume that these cleaning products are safe to use. In fact, many popular household cleaners are
dangerously toxic. They contain different ingredients that are harmful to our health Together with the active ingredient there are
other ingredients found in cleaning agents. Let’s look at their uses.
1.BUILDERS
Builders are one of the important group of ingredients that help make cleaning products better. Builders give the
surfactants a helping hand. They are found in several different kinds of products, but you need less of them than you do
surfactants. Builders help make the surfactant more powerful by reacting with stuff found in tap water. Water in your home may
contain minerals (such as calcium and magnesium). The more minerals in your water, the “harder” the water is.
It is not bad to have minerals in water, but it can leave white marks on surfaces (like dishes). When calcium and
magnesium are present in water, they will stop surfactants from being able to do their job of removing soil. Builders help prevent
this by keeping the minerals out of the way of the surfactants. This leaves the surfactants alone to focus on the soil.
2. SOLVENTS
Solvents are chemicals that help ingredients stay mixed and gives cleaning products the right thickness, so they are
easy to use. In addition, solvents can help to prevent liquid products from freezing in cold climates. Without solvents, a product
will be very thick. But for other products, we want the liquid to pour out of the bottle. When we add solvents, we decrease the
viscosity, meaning the liquid will move faster when poured out of the bottle. The solvent also helps to makes sure we do not end
up with a separated solution like when you have pulp at the bottom of your glass of orange juice.
3. ENZYMES
Enzymes are powerful stain removing ingredients. Their power is to break down stains just like the enzymes in our
digestive system help break down the food we eat. Enzymes are not living organisms but are created by naturally occurring
microorganisms, like bacteria and fungi. In the laboratory, we use carefully selected microorganisms and allow them to grow in a
very controlled environment. As they grow, they produce the desired enzymes.
4. FRAGRANCES
Fragrances are a group of ingredients that provide the cleaning product with a pleasant smell. They are not found in
every product, and typically a very small amount can make a large difference in smell. In many cases, the fragrance is the
driving factor for why someone decided to buy a specific product. A fragrance is a mix of many different substances. These
ingredients may be natural compounds (that come from materials like flowers, fruit, trees, plants, or nuts), essential oils, or
synthetic compounds.
5. PRESERVATIVES
Just like it is important to prevent food from spoiling, cleaning products need to be preserved as well. Adding a small
amount of a preservative protects the product from microorganisms. A preservative is a substance that is added to a cleaning
product in order to make it stable and safe for a longer period. Without a preservative, it is possible for bacteria or fungi to grow
in the product. This can cause the ingredients in the product (like surfactants and enzymes) to break down and not work as well.
Adding a preservative allows a cleaning product to stay on the shelf longer both in the store and in your home.
6. PH ADJUSTERS
Every cleaning product needs to be “balanced” to work well and to be safe for your skin. In order to do this, chemists
use pH adjusters to make sure the product is balanced and safe for you to use. The amount used depends on the other
ingredients in the formula. pH is a measure of how acidic (like lemon juice) or basic (like baking soda) a solution is. One way to
measure this is by using the pH scale. The pH scale is read from 0 to 14 and tells us if a solution is acidic or basic. Pure water
has a pH of 7, which means it’s neutral.
pH adjusters are used in cleaning products to raise or lower the pH of a solution, making it either more basic or acidic.
Chemists make sure that the product is effective while balancing safety, in part, by making sure the pH will not be harmful if it
touches your skin. If the pH is less than 7, then the solution is acidic. Lemon juice has a pH around 2. Our skin is slightly acidic,
with a pH on average near 5.
If our skin comes into contact with a chemical that is too acidic it can cause itching or discomfort. Adjusting the pH
helps to keep the product working well as it gets old. It also affects how the product cleans. For example, each surfactant has a
different pH level in which they are the most powerful. Therefore, a chemist may want to adjust the pH to that level. If the pH is
greater than 7, then the solution is basic. For example, baking soda has a pH of around 9. If a solution is too alkaline (basic), it
can also irritate your skin.
7. DYE
There are several other ingredients used in cleaning products that help create a unique experience. For example, dye
can be used to give a product color.
8. THICKENER
Thickeners give soap the proper viscosity (thickness), making sure it can still flow out of a bottle. Can you imagine trying
to wash your hands with a soap that feels like water? It would run right off your skin!
9. FOAM ENHANCER
 Foam Enhancers help create suds or bubbles. While not necessary for effective cleaning, many people feel bubbles
show that a product is working.
10. ANTIBACTERIAL OR DISINFECTING INGREDIENTS
Cleaning washes away germs with any dirt and soil that is removed, but a further reduction of germs can be achieved
by using additional ingredients that will kill germs. Antibacterial or disinfecting ingredients can be included in a cleaning or hand
hygiene product or used separately after cleaning. Their use provides a further reduction in germs on our hands or surfaces in
our homes.
This reduction of germs helps to prevent people from getting sick when commonly used surfaces, such as door handles,
or our hands are cleansed using these products. In environments with sick individuals or where food is prepared, this is
especially important. There are many different types of antibacterial or disinfecting ingredients. Depending on the chosen
ingredient used in a product, it may be more effective on certain microbes that make us sick like bacteria, viruses or mold.
III. GUIDED ACTIVITY: “WHAT’S THAT WORD?”
Cleaning products play an essential role in daily life. They can remove dirt and stains from our clothes, dried on food
from our dishes and even germs from our hands! Let’s learn more about the chemistry that makes this happen. But before that
let’s solve these jumbled words below to see what our next lesson will be.
Direction: Arrange the following jumbled letters to form the words related to cleaning agents/ingredients/products.
1. S N D H A 9. L H T E H A
2. E A G S R E 10.L A O H L C O
3. I T D R 11.D I C A
4. S V U R I 12. G R D A E N
5. M U P F E RE 13. E G S A T R N M
6. T A B E I A C R 14. O F R O L
7. E C N A L 15. T E T R E U X
8. U E H S O
IV. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE:
Direction: Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Aside from the active ingredient, there are also other ingredients included in cleaning agents. This ingredient helps in keeping
the minerals out of the way of the surfactants.
a. builders b. fragrance c. pH adjusters d. solvents
2. Depending on the chosen ingredient used in a product, what is the ingredient that helps to be more effective on certain
microbes?
a. antibacterial b. enzymes c. foam enhancer d. preservatives
3. Adding of this ingredient in certain liquid cleaning agent will decrease the viscosity of the liquid. What is this ingredient?
a. dye b. enzymes c. solvents d. thickener
4. Many people feel bubbles show that a product is working. What is the ingredient that creates suds in a cleaning agent?
a. dye b. foam enhancer c. pH adjuster d. preservatives
5. What is the group of ingredients that came in a natural or synthetic compound which gives pleasant smell to the product?
a. antibacterial b. foam enhancer c. fragrance d. thickener
6. What ingredient has the power to break down stains like in digestive system which helps break down the food we eat?
a. enzymes b. fragrance c. solvents d. thickener
7. This ingredient balanced the acidity or base of a certain product. What is this ingredient?
a. dye b. fragrance c. pH adjuster d. solvents
8. What substance when added to a cleaning product makes it stable and safe for a longer period?
a. enzymes b. foam enhancer c. pH adjuster d. preservative
9. What kind of ingredient is used in cleaning products that help in creating a unique experience?
a. dye b. enzymes c. fragrance d. preservative
10. What is the pH of a certain product to be considered as basic?
a. pH greater than b. pH less than c. average pH is d. none of the above
11. What substance provides most of the cleaning power in cleaning products?
a. antibacterial b. enzymes c. solvents d. surfactants
12. What are these ingredients included in a hand hygiene product which provides reduction in germs?
a. antibacterial b. enzymes c. fragrance d. solvents
13. This substance can be extracted in natural compounds. Which of the following is a natural compound?
a. flowers b. fruits c. nuts d. all of the above
14. What substance helps the surfactant more powerful through the reaction of certain stuff which is found in tap water?
a. antibacterial b. builders c. enzymes d. fragrance
15. Which of the following ingredients is considered as the active substance in a cleaning product?
a. enzymes b. solvents c. surfactants d. thickener
V. CLOSURE ACTIVITY:
Direction: Make a short poem about the use of other ingredients found in household cleaning products incorporating your
answers in what’s that word activity.
VI. REFERENCES:

ELIZALDE ACADEMY MODULE 3

PHYSICAL SCIENCE 12 WEEK 9
TEACHER: MS. RODJHEN ANNE P. BARQUILLA

LESSON 2: ANCIENT GREEK PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY

I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
 At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain how the Greeks knew that the Earth is spherical.
 At the end of the lesson, you will be able to cite examples of astronomical phenomena known to astronomers
before the advent of telescopes.
 At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain how Brahe’s innovations and extensive collection of data in
observational astronomy paved the way for Kepler’s discovery of his laws of planetary motion.
II. CONCEPT NOTES:
ANCIENT GREEK PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY
Plato (428-348 BC)
• Argued for a model of the heavens that was simple and aesthetic.
• Believed that the Sun and Moon were perfect spheres that moved around the spherical Earth, along with
the stars, in crystalline spheres. This concept was to last for roughly 1000 years.
• Made many other contributions to philosophy.
• The theory of celestial spheres was incorrect, but it was a noble attempt in the sense that it was
falsifiable. In fact, it is the first example of what we consider today to be a scientific theory.
Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (499-428 B.C.)
-was a follower of Pythagoras but placed more emphasis on the material world. He brought philosophy from the
edges of the Greek world to Athens. He was the first to realize that the moon shines by reflected sunlight. He
thought that celestial objects were made of sensible materials and that the sun shone brightly because it was hot.
This got him in a lot of trouble and he was banned from Athens.
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
A student of Plato, but quite different in his approach.
Used physical arguments to explain nature.
For example, the Earth must be a sphere because;
• ships disappear over the horizon,
• the shadow of Earth on the moon is round,
• travelers see new stars above the horizon.
Eratosthenes of Alexandria (276-195 B.C.)
The second librarian at the Library of Alexandria.
Made many contributions to Mathematics (The Sieve of Eratosthenes), Astronomy, and Geography.
He determined the size of the Earth and the tilt of the Earth’s axis
He constructed an accurate calendar including leap years
He made a good map of the Nile river and deduced the correct explanations for its periodic flooding.
Lunar Rotation and Orbital Motion
• The moon orbits Earth once every 27.32 days.
• The moon rotates on its axis with exactly the same period. This is called synchronous rotation. The moon presents the
same face to the Earth at all times.
• Because the Earth is also rotating, it takes 29.53 days for the moon to return to the same location in the sky. This is the
synodic period.
• The moon’s orbital period is getting longer and its orbit larger by about 3 cm/year.
Planets known to the Ancients
• Mercury (Hermes), dim and close to the horizon, Mercury is difficult to see. He moves quickly across the sky.
Messenger of the gods.
• Venus (Aphrodite), the morning and evening star, very bright but variable, goddess of love.
• Mars (Ares), the red planet, god of war.
• Jupiter (Zeus), very bright, king of the gods.
• Saturn (Kronos), bright and pale yellow, first of the Titan’s, father of Zeus.
Arguments for a Geocentric Universe
• If the Earth were moving, we would have a sense of motion. There is no sensation of motion; therefore, the Earth is not
moving.
• We don’t fall off as the Earth speeds ahead.
• The apparent positions of the stars do not change, i.e. we see no parallax.
• The Earth is an important place and it is natural that it is at the center of the Universe.
Ptolemy’s Own Defense
• Ptolemy’s model can be criticized on the grounds that it is cumbersome and lacking in beauty and symmetry.
• “Let no one, seeing the difficulty of our devices, find troublesome such hypotheses. For it is not proper to apply human
things to divine things from such dissimilar examples.”
• Translation: What seems complicated to humans may seem simple to the gods.
Shape of the Earth
What is Earth’s shape?
 Is it flat like a coin, or spherical like a ball? Perhaps it’s like a tin can, flat on the ends and round in the middle?
 Describe the evidence that best supports you answer.
Spherical Earth?
 Scientists claim that Earth is much like a slightly flattened ball - an oblate spheroid.
 How do they know or do the merely have faith in the claim?
 What is the evidence that supports a scientific belief in a roughly spherical Earth?
Polaris, the North Star
 is located practically over the North Pole of planet Earth.
 If you stood at the North Pole, Polaris would be almost directly overhead.
Why do observations of Polaris help determine Earth’s shape?
 The North Star gradually appears lower and lower in the sky as you travel toward the equator.
 When the North Star is visible at the horizon, you are located at the equator.
 South of the equator the North Star is not visible at all.
 These observations are possible only for a roughly spherical Earth.
Lunar Eclipses
 Only a sphere can cast a shadow that always appears round. During lunar eclipses, Earth casts its shadow on the
moon and the shadow is always round.
Many other indications…
 Circumnavigation of the globe.
 Existence of time zones.
 Earth-orbiting satellites.
 Photographs from space.
 Eyewitness reports of astronauts.
 Other objects - sun, moon, planets - are roughly spherical.
Summary: How do we know the Earth to be spherical?
 Ships appear to sink GRADUALLY below the horizon as they travel away from observer and over the horizon - in all
directions.
 Polaris (North Star) changes altitude (angle measured in degrees above earth’s surface) with latitude – at all longitudes.
 Lunar Eclipses - Earth’s shadow on the moon is always round.
 Satellite imagery and much more.
Is Earth perfectly spherical?
 The Earth is NOT a perfect sphere
 It is flattened at the poles and bulges at the equator due to its spinning.
 Earth is very slightly out of round or OBLATE.
 Saturn is an even better example of being oblate.
What proof is there that the Earth is slightly oblate?
 Gravity measurements. Gravity is the force of attraction between any two objects.
 Increase mass of objects = increase gravity Decrease distances = increase gravity
 If Earth were a perfect sphere, it would be expected to exert an equal force on objects at equal distances from the
center of earth.
The Oblate Sphere
 The difference with a sphere is small
 We can not see it with the naked eye
 Earth still appears like a sphere
Why is Earth not perfectly round?
 Earth’s spinning (rotation) causes…
– bulging at equator and
– flattening at the poles.
ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA KNOWN TO ASTRONOMERS BEFORE THE ADVENT OF  TELESCOPES
Which planets are easily seen in the sky without the aid of telescopes?
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are easily seen in the sky without the aid of telescopes. These planets can
be easily confused with stars and are only seen at specific times of the day. The best time to look for these planets would be
before sunrise and after sunset.
Even before the invention of the telescope, ancient people have already observed different astronomical phenomena. The most
observable objects in the sky are the sun and moon.
Babylonian and Egyptian civilizations used a primitive version of a sundial, called gnomon, in systematically observing the
motion of the sun. By looking at the shadows that the gnomon casts, they were able to observe that the sun rises in the eastern
part of the sky, reaches its highest point in midday, and sets in the western part of the sky.
Also, they recorded that the points where the sun rises and sets on the horizon varies over a year and these variations happen
periodically. They observed that these variations are related to weather and so concluded that seasonal changes in climate
happen during a course of one year.
Phases of the Moon
Ancient people have observed that the moon changes its path and its appearance within a period of 29.5 days. They observed
that the moon changes its appearance from thin semi-circular disk to full circular disk. These phases of the moon is the basis of
ancient calendars.
Lunar Eclipse
Besides their observation in the different phases of the moon, they also noticed that there are times when the moon or part of it
seemed to be covered by a shadow for a brief moment. A lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth casts its shadow on the moon
when the Earth is between the Sun and the Moon.
A phenomenon such as this is known as a lunar eclipse wherein the moon changes into a dark or blood red color.
Solar Eclipse
Aside from lunar eclipse, the occurrence of a solar eclipse was also observed. Solar eclipse occurs when the Moon is in
between the Sun and the Earth and the moon partially or completely blocks out the sun.
The Motion of the Stars
It was also observed that the stars appear to be attached to a celestial sphere that rotates around an axis in one day. This axis
intersects the celestial sphere at a point in the northern sky and is presently close to the northern star, Polaris. Also, the
constellations’ positions in the night sky vary depending on the time of the year.
Visibility of Planets
Astronomers have discovered that Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are planets because they have noticed that the
stars are in a fixed position with respect to each other (like how constellations are always grouped). But there are very bright
stars that change positions periodically. These “stars” do not belong to any group of constellations in the sky. Thus, they are
called “wanderers” or planetes in Greek terms.
The Observations of Tycho Brahe
Precise Observations before the Invention of the Telescope
A Danish nobleman, Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), made important contributions by devising the most precise
instruments available before the invention of the telescope for observing the heavens. Brahe made his
observations from Uraniborg, on an island in the sound between Denmark and Sweden called Hveen.
The instruments of Brahe allowed him to determine more precisely than had been possible the detailed
motions of the planets. In particular, Brahe compiled extensive data on the planet Mars, which would later
prove crucial to Kepler in his formulation of the laws of planetary motion because it would be sufficiently
precise to demonstrate that the orbit of Mars was not a circle but an ellipse.

The Life and Times of Tycho Brahe

Brahe was by all accounts an extremely colorful character. He allegedly challenged a fellow student to a duel with swords in a
dispute over who was the better mathematician. Brahe's nose was partially cut off, and he was said to wear a gold and silver
replacement upon which he would continually rub oil. He fell out of favor when a new King came to power in 1588, and moved to
Prague shortly thereafter. This is of great historical significance because this move would eventually make Brahe's data
available to Kepler, who went to Prague also to become Brahe's assistant. Brahe is thought to have died when he contracted a
urinary infection while attending a banquet hosted by a baron in Prague in which he drank extensively but felt that etiquette
prevented him from leaving the table to relieve himself before the host left.

Summary of Brahe's Contributions

Among the important contributions of Brahe:

1. He made the most precise observations that had yet been made by devising the best instruments available before the
invention of the telescope.
2. His observations of planetary motion, particularly that of Mars, provided the crucial data for later astronomers like Kepler
to construct our present model of the solar system.
3. He made observations of a supernova (literally: nova= "new star") in 1572 (we now know that a supernova is an
exploding star, not a new star). This was a "star" that appeared suddenly where none had been seen before, and was
visible for about 18 months before fading from view. Since this clearly represented a change in the sky, prevailing
opinion held that the supernova was not really a star but some local phenomenon in the atmosphere (remember: the
heavens were supposed to be unchanging in the Aristotelian view). Brahe's meticulous observations showed that the
supernova did not change positions with respect to the other stars (no parallax). Therefore, it was a real star, not a local
object. This was early evidence against the immutable nature of the heavens, although Brahe did not interpret the
absence of parallax for stars correctly, as we discuss below.
4. Brahe made careful observations of a comet in 1577. By measuring the parallax for the comet, he was able to show that
the comet was further away than the Moon. This contradicted the teachings of Aristotle, who had held that comets were
atmospheric phenomena ("gases burning in the atmosphere" was a common explanation among Aristotelians). As for
the case of the supernova, comets represented an obvious change in a celestial sphere that was supposed to be
unchanging; furthermore, it was very difficult to ascribe uniform circular motion to a comet.
5. He made the best measurements that had yet been made in the search for stellar parallax. Upon finding no parallax for
the stars, he (correctly) concluded that either
o the earth was motionless at the center of the Universe, or
o the stars were so far away that their parallax was too small to measure.

Not for the only time in human thought, a great thinker formulated a pivotal question correctly, but then made the wrong
choice of possible answers: Brahe did not believe that the stars could possibly be so far away and so concluded that the
Earth was the center of the Universe and that Copernicus was wrong.
 6. Brahe proposed a model of the Solar System that was intermediate between the Ptolemaic and Copernican models (it
had the Earth at the center). It proved to be incorrect, but was the most widely accepted model of the Solar System for a
time.

The Laws of Planetary Motion

Tycho Brahe’s Observatory
Three years after the publication of Copernicus’ De Revolutionibus, Tycho Brahe was born to a family of Danish nobility. He
developed an early interest in astronomy and, as a young man, made significant astronomical observations. Among these was a
careful study of what we now know was an exploding star that flared up to great brilliance in the night sky. His growing
reputation gained him the patronage of the Danish King Frederick II, and at the age of 30, Brahe was able to establish a fine
astronomical observatory on the North Sea island of Hven .
At Hven, Brahe made a continuous record of the positions of the Sun, Moon, and planets for almost 20 years. His extensive and
precise observations enabled him to note that the positions of the planets varied from those given in published tables, which
were based on the work of Ptolemy. These data were extremely valuable, but Brahe didn’t have the ability to analyze them and
develop a better model than what Ptolemy had published. He was further inhibited because he was an extravagant and
cantankerous fellow, and he accumulated enemies among government officials. When his patron, Frederick II, died in 1597,
Brahe lost his political base and decided to leave Denmark. He took up residence in Prague, where he became court
astronomer to Emperor Rudolf of Bohemia. There, in the year before his death, Brahe found a most able young mathematician,
Johannes Kepler, to assist him in analyzing his extensive planetary data.
Johannes Kepler
Johannes Kepler was born into a poor family in the German province of Württemberg and lived much of his life amid the turmoil
of the Thirty Years’ War (see Figure 1). He attended university at Tubingen and studied for a theological career. There, he
learned the principles of the Copernican system and became converted to the heliocentric hypothesis. Eventually, Kepler went
to Prague to serve as an assistant to Brahe, who set him to work trying to find a satisfactory theory of planetary motion—one
that was compatible with the long series of observations made at Hven. Brahe was reluctant to provide Kepler with much
material at any one time for fear that Kepler would discover the secrets of the universal motion by himself, thereby robbing
Brahe of some of the glory. Only after Brahe’s death in 1601 did Kepler get full possession of the priceless records. Their study
occupied most of Kepler’s time for more than 20 years.
Through his analysis of the motions of the planets, Kepler developed a series of principles, now known as  Kepler’s three
laws, which described the behavior of planets based on their paths through space. The first two laws of planetary motion were
published in 1609 in The New Astronomy. Their discovery was a profound step in the development of modern science.
The First Two Laws of Planetary Motion

Figure 2: Conic Sections. The circle, ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola are all
formed by the intersection of a plane with a cone. This is why such curves are
called conic sections.
The path of an object through space is called its orbit. Kepler initially assumed that
the orbits of planets were circles, but doing so did not allow him to find orbits that
were consistent with Brahe’s observations. Working with the data for Mars, he
eventually discovered that the orbit of that planet had the shape of a somewhat
flattened circle, or ellipse. Next to the circle, the ellipse is the simplest kind of
closed curve, belonging to a family of curves known as conic sections (Figure 2).
You might recall from math classes that in a circle, the center is a special point. The
distance from the center to anywhere on the circle is exactly the same. In an ellipse, the sum of the distance from two special
points inside the ellipse to any point on the ellipse is always the same. These two points inside the ellipse are called its foci
(singular: focus), a word invented for this purpose by Kepler.
This property suggests a simple way to draw an ellipse (Figure 3). We wrap the ends of a loop of string around two tacks pushed
through a sheet of paper into a drawing board, so that the string is slack. If we push a pencil against the string, making the string
taut, and then slide the pencil against the string all around the tacks, the curve that results is an ellipse. At any point where the
pencil may be, the sum of the distances from the pencil to the two tacks is a constant length—the length of the string. The tacks
are at the two foci of the ellipse.
The widest diameter of the ellipse is called its major axis. Half this distance—that is, the distance from the center of the ellipse
to one end—is the semimajor axis, which is usually used to specify the size of the ellipse. For example, the semimajor axis of
the orbit of Mars, which is also the planet’s average distance from the Sun, is 228 million kilometers.
The shape (roundness) of an ellipse depends on how close together the two foci are, compared with the major axis. The ratio of
the distance between the foci to the length of the major axis is called the eccentricity of the ellipse.
If the foci (or tacks) are moved to the same location, then the distance between the foci would be zero. This means that the
eccentricity is zero and the ellipse is just a circle; thus, a circle can be called an ellipse of zero eccentricity. In a circle, the
semimajor axis would be the radius.
Next, we can make ellipses of various elongations (or extended lengths) by varying the spacing of the tacks (as long as they are
not farther apart than the length of the string). The greater the eccentricity, the more elongated is the ellipse, up to a maximum
eccentricity of 1.0, when the ellipse becomes “flat,” the other extreme from a circle.
The size and shape of an ellipse are completely specified by its semimajor axis and its eccentricity. Using Brahe’s data, Kepler
found that Mars has an elliptical orbit, with the Sun at one focus (the other focus is empty). The eccentricity of the orbit of Mars
is only about 0.1; its orbit, drawn to scale, would be practically indistinguishable from a circle, but the difference turned out to be
critical for understanding planetary motions.
Kepler generalized this result in his first law and said that the orbits of all the planets are ellipses. Here was a decisive moment
in the history of human thought: it was not necessary to have only circles in order to have an accepTable cosmos. The universe
could be a bit more complex than the Greek philosophers had wanted it to be.
Kepler’s second law deals with the speed with which each planet moves along its ellipse, also known as its orbital speed.
Working with Brahe’s observations of Mars, Kepler discovered that the planet speeds up as it comes closer to the Sun and
slows down as it pulls away from the Sun. He expressed the precise form of this relationship by imagining that the Sun and Mars
are connected by a straight, elastic line. When Mars is closer to the Sun (positions 1 and 2 in Figure 4), the elastic line is not
stretched as much, and the planet moves rapidly. Farther from the Sun, as in positions 3 and 4, the line is stretched a lot, and
the planet does not move so fast. As Mars travels in its elliptical orbit around the Sun, the elastic line sweeps out areas of the
ellipse as it moves (the colored regions in our figure). Kepler found that in equal intervals of time (t), the areas swept out in
space by this imaginary line are always equal; that is, the area of the region B from 1 to 2 is the same as that of region A from 3
to 4.
If a planet moves in a circular orbit, the elastic line is always stretched the same amount and the planet moves at a constant
speed around its orbit. But, as Kepler discovered, in most orbits that speed of a planet orbiting its star (or moon orbiting its
planet) tends to vary because the orbit is elliptical.

Kepler’s Third Law

Kepler’s first two laws of planetary motion describe the shape of a planet’s orbit and allow us to calculate the speed of its motion
at any point in the orbit. Kepler was pleased to have discovered such fundamental rules, but they did not satisfy his quest to fully
understand planetary motions. He wanted to know why the orbits of the planets were spaced as they are and to find a
mathematical pattern in their movements—a “harmony of the spheres” as he called it. For many years he worked to discover
mathematical relationships governing planetary spacing and the time each planet took to go around the Sun.
In 1619, Kepler discovered a basic relationship to relate the planets’ orbits to their relative distances from the Sun. We define a
planet’s orbital period, (P), as the time it takes a planet to travel once around the Sun. Also, recall that a planet’s semimajor
axis, a, is equal to its average distance from the Sun. The relationship, now known as  Kepler’s third law, says that a planet’s
orbital period squared is proportional to the semimajor axis of its orbit cubed, or
P2∝a3
When P (the orbital period) is measured in years, and a is expressed in a quantity known as an astronomical unit (AU), the two
sides of the formula are not only proportional but equal. One AU is the average distance between Earth and the Sun and is
approximately equal to 1.5 × 108 kilometers. In these units,
P2=a3P2=a3
Kepler’s third law applies to all objects orbiting the Sun, including Earth, and provides a means for calculating their relative
distances from the Sun from the time they take to orbit. Let’s look at a specific example to illustrate how useful Kepler’s third law
is.
For instance, suppose you time how long Mars takes to go around the Sun (in Earth years). Kepler’s third law can then be used
to calculate Mars’ average distance from the Sun. Mars’ orbital period (1.88 Earth years) squared, or  P2, is 1.882 = 3.53, and
according to the equation for Kepler’s third law, this equals the cube of its semimajor axis, or  a3. So what number must be cubed
to give 3.53? The answer is 1.52 (since 1.52 × 1.52 × 1.52 = 3.53). Thus, Mars’ semimajor axis in astronomical units must be
1.52 AU. In other words, to go around the Sun in a little less than two years, Mars must be about 50% (half again) as far from
the Sun as Earth is.
EXAMPLE 1: CALCULATING PERIODS
Imagine an object is traveling around the Sun. What would be the orbital period of the object if its orbit has a semimajor axis of
50 AU?
Answer
From Kepler’s third law, we know that (when we use units of years and AU)
P2=a3P2=a3
If the object’s orbit has a semimajor axis of 4 AU (a = 50), we can cube 50 and then take the square root of the result to get P:
P=√a3P=√50×50×50=√125,000=353.6 yearsP=a3P=50×50×50=125,000=353.6 years
Therefore, the orbital period of the object is about 350 years. This would place our hypothetical object beyond the orbit of Pluto.
What would be the orbital period of an asteroid (a rocky chunk between Mars and Jupiter) with a semimajor axis of 3 AU?
Answer
P=√3×3×3=√27=5.2 years
Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion can be summarized as follows:
Kepler’s first law: Each planet moves around the Sun in an orbit that is an ellipse, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse.
Kepler’s second law: The straight line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in space in equal intervals of time.
Kepler’s third law: The square of a planet’s orbital period is directly proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis of its orbit.
Kepler’s three laws provide a precise geometric description of planetary motion within the framework of the Copernican system.
With these tools, it was possible to calculate planetary positions with greatly improved precision. Still, Kepler’s laws are purely
descriptive: they do not help us understand what forces of nature constrain the planets to follow this particular set of rules. That
step was left to Isaac Newton.
EXAMPLE 2: APPLYING KEPLER’S THIRD LAW
Using the orbital periods and semimajor axes for Venus and Earth that are provided here, calculate  P2 and a3, and verify that
they obey Kepler’s third law. Venus’ orbital period is 0.62 year, and its semimajor axis is 0.72 AU. Earth’s orbital period is 1.00
year, and its semimajor axis is 1.00 AU.
Answer: We can use the equation for Kepler’s third law, P2∝a3P2∝a3. For Venus, P2 = 0.62 × 0.62 = 0.38 year and a3 = 0.72 ×
0.72 × 0.72 = 0.37 AU (rounding numbers sometimes causes minor discrepancies like this). The orbital period (0.38 year)
approximates the semimajor axis (0.37 AU). Therefore, Venus obeys Kepler’s third law. For Earth,  P2 = 1.00 × 1.00 = 1.00 year
and a3 = 1.00 × 1.00 × 1.00 = 1.00 AU. The orbital period (1.00 year) approximates (in this case, equals) the semimajor axis
(1.00 AU). Therefore, Earth obeys Kepler’s third law.Using the orbital periods and semimajor axes for Saturn and Jupiter that are
provided here, calculate P2 and a3, and verify that they obey Kepler’s third law. Saturn’s orbital period is 29.46 years, and its
semimajor axis is 9.54 AU. Jupiter’s orbital period is 11.86 years, and its semimajor axis is 5.20 AU.
Answer:  For Saturn, P2 = 29.46 × 29.46 = 867.9 years and a3 = 9.54 × 9.54 × 9.54 = 868.3 AU. The orbital period (867.9 years)
approximates the semimajor axis (868.3 AU). Therefore, Saturn obeys Kepler’s third law.
III. GUIDED ACTIVITY:
KEPLER’S 1ST AND 2ND LAW OF PLANETARY MOTION & THE ORBIT OF MERCURY
At about the same time that Galileo was publishing his observations of the moons of Jupiter and the Copernican model
was gaining in popularity, Johannes Kepler, a young Danish astronomer, suggested that the planets revolve about the Sun in
elliptical, rather than circular orbits. Kepler took over as Royal Astronomer from Tycho Brahe, inheriting Tycho's ingeniously
designed observatory and his more than 20 years' of observational data. Based on Tycho's data and his own observations,
Kepler proposed what are now known as "Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion". These famous laws rank second only to Newton's
Big Three in our understanding of classical physics and are studied by every beginning physics student.
In short, Kepler's Laws state:
1) The planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus;
2) A radius vector from the Sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal periods of time;
3) The ratio of the cube of the average distance of any planet from the Sun to the square of its period of revolution is a constant.
It was not until the latter part of the 1600's that Sir Isaac Newton provided a correct explanation of Kepler's Laws; based
on his own three force laws (inertia, F=ma, and action/reaction) and his law of gravitation.
Procedure:
Using the data table for Mercury, complete the following steps:
1. Place a dot in the center of your graph paper. This dot represents the Sun.
2. With a protractor, put dots at the angular distances indicated for each data point. Go counter clockwise, with 0 degrees on the
right.
3. Use an appropriate scale that will fit on your graph paper. A suggested scale is 2 cm = .1 A.U. Measure the distance from the
Sun for each data point and put a dot at that distance and label the data point. When you have plotted all 18 data points,
connect the dots as smoothly as you can. You have now plotted the orbit of the planet mercury.
4. Choose data points 2 and 3 as one pair, and data points 10 and 11 as another pair. Draw the radius vector from the Sun to
each of these data points. Label the sector formed by the radius vectors to points 2 and 3 “Sector A”, and the sector formed by
the radius vectors to points 10 and 11 “sector B”.
Kepler’s 1st Law
Questions:
1) How many days separate each observation?
2) Is the distance from the Sun to Mercury constant?
3) State Kepler’s 1st Law of Planetary Motion
4) Is the Sun in the center of Mercury’s orbit? Explain.
5) What shape is the orbit? 6) Is the orbit of Mercury highly elliptical or only a little elliptical?
 You can see that the orbit is not highly elliptical. In fact, if
you erase (for a moment) the dot you made for the Sun, and
only look at the path of Mercury, the orbit looks like a pretty good
circle, doesn't it? Actually, the farthest out planet, Pluto, has the
most eccentric (elliptical) orbit, sometimes even coming inside
the orbit of the second farthest planet, Neptune.

Kepler’s 2nd Law Questions:

1) Using grains of rice, completely fill in Sector A and Sector B.
Please do not spill the rice.
2) Count the rice grains in each sector. Record the number of
rice grains per each sector:
Sector A: _______ Sector B: _______
3) The time separating data points 2 and 3 is equal to the time
separating data points 10 and 11. Using the grains of rice, what
relationship did you find between the areas of the sectors A and
B?
4) When do you think Mercury is moving faster, from data point
2 to 3, or data point 10 to 11? Why?

IV: INDEPENDENT PRACTICE:

1. State at least 5 observations of Tycho Brahe.
2. Describe the three laws of Johannes Kepler
V. CLOSURE ACTIVITY:
Summary Paragraph
 Write what you had learned and give specific with examples!

VI. REFERENCES:
www2.phy.ilstu.edu › Earth › Proof_of_Earth's_Shape
www.lpl.arizona.edu › ptys206_2008 › lectures › Feb5
https://lagmandana.wordpress.com/2017/11/24/astronomical-phenomena-known-to-
astronomers-before-the-advent-of-telescopes/
http://www.pas.rochester.edu/~blackman/ast104/brahe10.html
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/astronomy/chapter/the-laws-of-planetary-motion/
https://www.whsd.k12.pa.us/userfiles/1448/Classes/10121/a5keplerslaws1.pdf