ch08 41 85

8-41 The compressor and turbine of a simple Brayton cycle each have an isentropic efficiency of 82%.
The
compressor pressure ratio is 12. The minimum and maximum temperatures are 290 K and 1400 K. On the
basis of a cold-air-standard analysis, determine the following quantities for both an ideal cycle (isentropic
compressor and turbine) and for the non-ideal cycle (compressor and turbine isentropic efficiencies of 82%):
a. the net work per unit mass of air flowing (in kJ/kg)
b. the heat rejected per unit mass of air flowing (in kJ/kg)
c. the cycle thermal efficiency.
Approach:
We begin with basic definitions of the quantities
sought. Conservation of mass and energy are applied
to individual system components to evaluate the terms
in the definitions.
Assumptions:
1. The processes are steady.
2. Neglect potential and kinetic energy effects.
3. Compressor and turbine are isentropic.
4. A cold-air-standard analysis is used.
Solution:
a) The net work from the cycle is: Wnet = WT − WC . To calculate these powers, apply the mass and energy
equations to the compressor and turbine, and assume steady, adiabatic, negligible potential and kinetic energy
effects, and a cold-air-standard analysis:
Wnet = m ( h3 − h4 ) − m ( h2 − h1 ) → Wcycle m = w = ( h3 − h4 ) − ( h2 − h1 ) = cP (T3 − T4 ) − cP (T2 − T1 )
This equation can be used for both the real and ideal cycles; we only need to use T2 or T2s and T4 or T4s.
b) For the heat input, we apply the mass and energy equations to the combustor, and assume steady, no work,
negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, and cold-air-standard analysis:
Qout = m ( h2 − h1 ) → Qout m = q = h4 − h1 = cP (T4 − T1 )
This equation can be used for both the real and ideal cycles; we only need to use T4 or T4s.
W q c (T − T ) T −T
c) The cycle thermal efficiency is ηcycle = net = 1 − out = 1 − P 4 1 = 1 − 4 1
Qin qin cP (T3 − T2 ) T3 − T2
This equation can be used for both the real and ideal cycles; we only need to use T2 or T2s and T4 or T4s.
Therefore,we need to calculate T2 , T2 s , T4 , T4 s → from Appendix A-8 cP = 1.005 kJ / kg K .
Using the isentropic relation for an ideal gas to determine the outlet temperatures for both the real and the ideal
( k −1) k
⎛P ⎞ (1.4 −1) 1.4
cycles: T2 s = T1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 290 (12 ) = 589.8 K
⎝ P1 ⎠
Ws m ( h2 s − h1 ) cP (T2 s − T1 ) T2 s − T1 589.8 − 290
ηC = = = → T2 = T1 + = 290 + = 655.7 K
Wact m ( h2 − h1 ) cP (T2 − T1 ) ηC 0.82
( k −1) k 1.4 −1
⎛P ⎞ ⎛1⎞ 1.4
T4 s = T3 ⎜ 4 ⎟ = 1400 ⎜ ⎟ = 688.3K
⎝ P3 ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠
Wact m ( h3 − h4s ) cP (T3 − T4 )
ηT = = = → T4 = T3 − ηT (T3 − T4 s ) = 1400 − ( 0.82 )(1400 − 688.3) = 816.4 K
Ws m ( h3 − h4 s ) cP (T3 − T4 s )
Therefore, calculating the work and heat input per unit mass, and the cycle efficiency:
Ideal real
wnet ( kJ/kg ) 413.9 219.0 Answer
qout ( kJ/kg ) 400.3 529.0 Answer
ηcycle 0.508 0.293 Answer
Comments:
Note that the cycle efficiency drops by almost a half when irreversibilities are taken into account.
8- 56
8-42 An ideal air-standard Brayton cycle has a compressor pressure ratio of 10. Air enters the compressor at
P1=14.7 lbf/in.2, T1=70 °F, with a mass flow rate of 90,000 lbm/hr. The turbine inlet temperature is 1740
°F. Use an air-standard analysis with constant specific heats. Determine:
a. the net power developed (in hp and kW)
b. the cycle thermal efficiency.
Approach:
Because sufficient information is given to calculate
the outlet conditions, compressor and turbine power
are evaluated with energy balances. We can do the
same to the input and output heat exchangers.
Assumptions:
3. The compressor and turbine are isentropic.
4. Air, an ideal gas, is the working fluid.
5. Air has a constant specific heat.
Solution:
a) Net Power = Wnet = WT − WC . Applying conservation of mass and energy to the compressor and turbine, and
assuming steady, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, and adiabatic:
Wnet = m ( h3 − h4 ) − m ( h2 − h1 )
Assuming constant specific heats so that ∆h = c p ∆T
Wnet = m ⎡⎣ cP ,34 (T3 − T4 ) − cP ,12 (T2 − T1 ) ⎤⎦
We need to evaluate T2 and T4. We know that T1 = 530 R . Using the isentropic relation for an ideal gas:
k −1
T2 = T1 ( P2 P1 ) k
Assume T2 ≈ 1000 R → Tavg ≈ 765 R = 305 F . From Appendix B-8, c p ,12 ≈ 0.243Btu lbmiR and k ≈ 1.394
1.394 −1
T2 = 530 (10 ) 1.394
= 1016.1R
This temperature is close enough to our assumed value, so we do not need to iterate. Likewise, T3 = 2200 R .
Assume T4 ∼ 1200 R → Tavg ∼ 1700 R ∼ 1240 F . From Appendix B-8, c p ,34 ≈ 0.270 Btu lbmiR and k ≈ 1.342 :
k −1 1.342 −1
T4 = T3 ( P4 P3 ) k
= 2200 (1 10 ) 1.342
= 1223.4 R
Again, this is close enough so we do not need to iterate. Therefore,
lbm ⎡⎛ Btu ⎞ ⎤ 1hp
Wnet = 90000 ⎢ ⎜ 0.270 ⎟ ( 2200 − 1223.4 ) R − 0.243 (1016.1 − 530 ) ⎥
hr ⎣⎝ lbm R ⎠ ⎦ 2545 Btu / hr
= 5147 hp = 3838 kW Answer
b) The cycle thermal efficiency is defined as
W Q − Qout Q
η = net = in = 1 − out
Qin Qin Qin
Applying conservation of mass and energy to the air passing through the combustion chamber and the heat
rejection process, and assuming steady, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, air is an ideal gas with
constant specific heats we obtain:
h −h c p ,14 (T4 − T1 )
= 1− 4 1 = 1−
h3 − h2 c p ,32 (T3 − T2 )
For process 1-4, the average temperature is about 417 °F, and c p ,14 ∼ 0.245 Btu lbmiR . For process 3-2, the
average temperature is about 1148 °F, and c p ,32 ∼ 0.267 Btu lbmiR . Therefore,
0.245 (1223.4 − 530 )
η = 1− = 0.463 Answer
0.267 ( 2200 − 1016.1)
8- 57
8-43 For the cycle in Problem 8-42, include in the analysis turbine and compressor isentropic efficiencies of
88% and 84%, respectively. For the modified cycle, determine:
Approach:
The analysis is the same as in Problem 8-42. The only
change is that T2 and T4 now change and must be
calculated by taking into account the isentropic
efficiencies.
Assumptions:
Solution:
We need to calculate the actual outlet temperatures from the compressor and turbine. Beginning with the
definition of the compressor isentropic efficiency:
W h − h c (T − T )
ηC = sl = 2 s 1 = p 2 s 1
Wact h2 − h1 c p (T2 − T1 )
Note that the temperatures T2 and T2s are not significantly different, so the specific heats are essentially the same
and cancel:
T −T
T2 = T1 + 2 s 1
ηC
1016.1 − 530
T2 = 530 + = 1108.7 R
0.84
Likewise, for the turbine:
W h −h c (T − T )
ηT = act = 3 4 = P 3 4
Ws h3 − h4 s cP (T3 − T4 s )
Again, the specific heats are essentially the same, so:
T4 = T3 − ηt (T3 − T4 s ) = 2200 − 0.88 ( 2200 − 1223.4 ) = 1340.6 R
Using the equation for net power from the previous problem,
Wnet = m ⎡⎣ cP ,34 (T3 − T4 ) − cP ,12 (T2 − T1 ) ⎤⎦
cP varies slightly from what was used in Problem 8-42, but we will use the previous c p ,34 and c p ,12
⎛ lbm ⎞ ⎡⎛ Btu ⎞ ⎤⎛ 1hp ⎞
Wnet = ⎜ 90000 ⎟ ⎢⎜ 0.270 ⎟ ( 2200-1340.6 ) R-0.243 (1108.7-530 ) ⎥ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ hr ⎠ ⎣⎝ lbm R ⎠ ⎦⎝ 2545 Btu hr ⎠
=3233hp=2411kW Answer
Finally, the cycle thermal efficiency is:
c (T − T )
ηcycle = 1 − p ,14 4 1
c p ,32 (T3 − T2 )
0.245 (1340.6 − 530 )
= 1− = 0.318 Answer
0.267 ( 2200 − 1108.7 )
Comments:
As expected, when the compressor and turbine are not isentropic, the net power out decreases (2411 kW versus
3838 kW) and the cycle thermal efficiency decrease (0.318 versus 0.463). Note also that the outlet temperatures
increase from the compressor (1108.7 R versus 1016.1 R) and the turbine (1340.6 R versus 1223.4 R).
8- 58
8-44 For the cycle in Problem P 8-43, add a regenerator with an effectiveness of 80% to the cycle. For the
modified cycle, determine:
b. the thermal efficiency.
Approach:
Start with basic definitions of the quantities sought.
Apply conservation of energy and mass to individual
system components to evaluate the terms in the
definitions.
Assumptions:
Solution:
a) Net power is: Wnet = WT − WC . Using the same approach as in P8-43:
Wnet = m ⎡⎣ cP ,34 (T3 − T4 ) − cP ,12 (T2 − T1 ) ⎤⎦
The inlet and exit temperatures from the turbine and compressor ( T1 , T2 , T3 , T4 ) are the same as before. Hence,
the net power remains unchanged. Answer
b) For the cycle thermal efficiency:
Q cP ,1 y (Ty − T1 )
ηcycle = 1 − out = 1 −
Qin cP ,3 x (T3 − Tx )
We need to evaluate the exit temperatures from the regenerator, and to do that we use the regenerator
effectiveness:
Q
ε = act
Qmax
Qact = m ( hx − h2 ) = m ( h4 − hy ) = mcP , x 2 (Tx − T2 ) = mcP , y 4 (T4 − Ty )
Qmax = mcP ) min (T4 − T2 )
The mass flow rate is the same through all the components, and specific heat increases with temperature, so we
use mc p ,2 x as Cmin.
mcP ) 2 x (Tx − T2 )
ε= → Tx = T2 + ε (T4 − T2 ) = 1108.7 + ( 0.80 )(1340.6 − 1108.7 ) = 1294.2 R
mcP ) 2 x (T4 − T2 )
From a mass and energy balance on the regenerator, assuming steady, adiabatic, negligible potential and kinetic
energy effects, and constant specific heats:
mcP ,2 x (Tx − T2 ) = mcP , y 4 (T4 − Ty ) but cP ,2 x ≈ cP ,4 y
Therefore, Ty = T4 − (Tx − T2 ) = 1340.6 − (1294.2 − 1108.7 ) = 1155.1R
530 + 1155
For cP ,1 y Tavg ∼ = 843R = 383 o F from Appendix A-8 cP ,1 y ≈ 0.245 Btu lbmR
2
2200 + 1294.2
cP ,3 x Tavg ∼ = 1747 R = 1287 o F from Appendix A-8 cP ,3 x ≈ 0.271Btu lbmR
2
( 0.245 )(1155.1 − 535)

ηcycle = 1 − = 0.376 Answer
( 0.271)( 2200 − 1294.2 )
Comments:
Addition of a regenerator increases the cycle thermal efficiency from 0.318 to 0.376, a significant increase that
would fully justify the added capital expense of the regenerator.
8- 59
8-45 An ideal Brayton cycle is to be operated at full load and at part load. Air enters the compressor at 14.5
psia, 77 ºF. At full load, the air leaves the compressor at 116 psia, and the turbine inlet temperature is 1800
ºF; the air flowrate is 17.9 lbm/s. At part load, air leaves the compressor at 58 psia, and the turbine inlet
temperature is 1340 ºF; the air flowrate is 12.7 lbm/s. Determine:
a. for full load, the net work (in hp), the heat addition (in hp), and the cycle thermal efficiency
b. for part load, the net work (in hp), the heat addition (in hp), and the cycle thermal efficiency.
Approach:
Start with basic definitions, and apply conservation of
mass and energy to individual system components to
evaluate the terms in the definitions.
Assumptions:
4. An air-standard analysis is used.
Solution:
a) For full or part load operation, the net work is: Wnet = WT − WC . To evaluate these quantities, apply the mass
and energy equations to the turbine and compressor, and assume steady, isentropic, and negligible potential and
kinetic energy effects:
WT = m ( h3 − h4 ) and WC = m ( h2 − h1 )
From Appendix B-9: h1 ( 537R ) = 128.34 Btu / lbm Pr ,1 = 1.3593 h3 ( 2260R ) = 577.5 Btu / lbm Pr ,3 = 286.7
Using relative pressures to find states 2 and 4:
Pr ,2 = Pr ,1 ( P2 / P1 ) = 1.3593 (116 /14.5 ) = 10.88 → by interpolation h2 = 232.7 Btu lbm
Pr ,4 = Pr ,3 ( P4 / P3 ) = 286.7 (14.5 /116 ) = 35.84 → by interpolation h4 = 326.0 Btu / lbm
⎛ lbm ⎞ Btu ⎛ 778.2 ft-lbf ⎞ ⎛ 1hp ⎞
WT = ⎜ 17.9 ⎟ ( 577.5 − 326.0 ) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 6370 hp Answer
⎝ s ⎠ lbm ⎝ Btu ⎠⎝ 550 ft-lbf/s 2 ⎠
WC = (17.9 )( 232.7 − 128.34 )( 778.2 / 550 ) = 2643hp Answer
For the heat input, apply mass and energy equations to the combustor, and assume steady, no work, and negligible
potential and kinetic energy effects:
Qin = m ( h3 − h2 ) = (17.9 )( 577.5 − 232.7 )( 778.2 / 550 ) = 8733hp Answer
Wnet ( 6370 − 2643) hp
ηcycle = = = 0.427 Answer
Qin 8733hp
b) For part load, the analysis is the same; only the fluid properties and the flow rate change
h1 ( 537R ) = 128.34 Btu lbm Pr ,1 = 1.3593 h3 (1800R ) = 449.71Btu lbm Pr ,3 = 114.0
Pr ,2 = 1.3593 ( 58 /14.5 ) = 5.437 → by interpolation h2 = 190.9 Btu / lbm
Pr ,4 = 114.0 (14.5 58 ) = 28.50 → by interpolation h4 = 305.6 Btu / lbm
WT = (12.7 )( 449.71 − 305.6 )( 778.2 / 550 ) = 2590 hp Answer
WC = (12.7 )(190.9 − 128.34 )( 778.2 / 550 ) = 1124 hp Answer
Wnet = (12.7 )( 2590 − 1124 ) = 1465 hp Answer
Qin = (12.7 )( 449.71 − 190.9 )( 778.5 / 550 ) = 4651hp Answer
1466 hp
ηcycle = = 0.315 Answer
4621hp
Comments:
Power systems have maximum efficiency at their design operating point. Off-design operation typically results in
a decrease in system efficiency.
8- 60
8-46 The back work ratio in a Brayton cycle is defined as the ratio of the compressor work divided by the
turbine work.
a. Using a cold-air-standard analysis, show that this ratio in an ideal Brayton cycle is equal to the
absolute temperature at the compressor inlet divided by the absolute temperature at the turbine
outlet.
b. Develop an expression for the back work ratio again using a cold-air-standard analysis, but with
turbine and compressor efficiencies less than 1.
Approach:
Begin with the basic definition of backwork ratio.
Apply the conservation of mass and energy to the
turbine and compressor, and use isentropic ideal gas
relations to evaluate outlet temperatures from each
device.
Assumptions:
Solution:
a) The Back Work Ratio is defined as BWR = WC WT . To determine the isentropic compressor and turbine
powers, apply the energy and mass equations to the turbine and compressor, and assume steady, isentropic, and
negligible potential and kinetic energy effects
(
WC = m h2s − h1 )
and (
WT = m h3 − h4s )
Assume a cold-air-standard analysis with constant cP , so that ∆h = cP ∆T . Note that the mass flow rate is the
same through the turbine and compressor:
mcP (T2 − T1 ) T2 − T1
BWR = =
mcP (T3 − T4 ) T3 − T4
Adding subscript s to indicate the ideal process and rearranging
T (T T − 1)
BWR = 1 2 s 1
T4 (T3 T4 s − 1)
For an isentropic process of an ideal gas with constant specific heats
k −1 k −1
T2 s ⎛ P2 ⎞ k T3 ⎛ P3 ⎞ k
=⎜ ⎟ and =⎜ ⎟
T1 ⎝ P1 ⎠ T4 s ⎝ P4 ⎠
P2 s P T2 s T3 T
but = 3 so = Therefore BWR = 1 Answer
P1 P4 s T1 T4 s T4 s
b) The definition of isentropic efficiency is
h −h c (T − T )
ηT = 3 4 = P 3 4 ⇒ T3 − T4 = (T3 − T4 s )ηT
h3 − h4 s cP (T3 − T4 s )
h2 s − h1 cP (T2 s − T1 ) (T2 s − T1 )
ηC = = ⇒ T2 − T1 =
h2 − h1 cP (T2 − T1 ) ηC
Substituting these into the expression for the back work ratio
T −T (T2 s − T1 )
BWR = 2 1 =
T3 − T4 ηTηC (T3 − T4 s )
T1
We can proceed as above in part (a) to obtain BWR = Answer
ηTηC T4 s
8- 61
8-47 For an ideal Brayton cycle with given low temperature, T1, and high temperature, T3, derive the expression
(Eq. 8-35) for the maximum work at the optimum pressure ratio using a cold-air-standard analysis.
Approach:
Begin with the definition of net work in terms of
turbine and compressor powers. Apply conservation
of mass and energy to those devices to obtain
expressions for power in terms of properties. Evaluate
temperatures using isentropic ideal gas relations. Use
the expression for the optimum pressure ratio given in
the chapter.
Assumptions:
3. Air, an ideal gas, has a constant specific heat.
4. The turbine and compressor are isentropic.
.
Solution:
Applying the mass and energy equations to the turbine and compressor, and assuming steady, negligible potential
and kinetic energy effects, isentropic, and ideal gas with constant specific heat, the net work from a Brayton cycle
is
Wnet = WT − WC = m ( h3 − h4 ) − m ( h2 − h1 )
For a cold-air-standard analysis, ∆h = cρ ∆T , with the specific heats evaluated at room temperature, so that
W
= (T3 − T4 ) − (T2 − T1 )
m cρ
W T T T
Divide by T1 to obtain = 3 − 4 − 2 +1
m cρ T1 T1 T1 T1
For an isentropic process of an ideal gas with constant specific heat
( k −1) k
T2 ⎛ P2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
T1 ⎝ P1 ⎠
k
⎛ T ⎞ 2( k −1) P2 P3
Substituting in the optimum pressure ratio rP , opt =⎜ 3⎟ = =
⎝ T1 ⎠ P1 P4
( k −1) k
⎡ k
⎤ 12
T2 ⎢⎛ T3 ⎞ 2( k −1) ⎥ ⎛T ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ 3⎟
T1 ⎢⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎥ ⎝ T1 ⎠
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
T4 ⎛ T4 ⎞ ⎛ T3 ⎞
Now = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ . Again using the optimum pressure ratio
T1 ⎝ T3 ⎠ ⎝ T1 ⎠
− ( k −1)
k −1
⎡ k
⎤ k 12
T4 ⎛ 1 ⎞ k
⎛ T3 ⎞ ⎢⎛ T3 ⎞ 2( k −1) ⎥ ⎛ T3 ⎞ ⎛ T3 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟⎟ =
⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟
T1 ⎜⎝ rP ,opt ⎠ ⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎢⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎥ ⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ T1 ⎠
⎣ ⎦⎥
So that
12 12 12
W T3 ⎛ T3 ⎞ ⎛T ⎞ ⎛T ⎞ ⎛T ⎞
= −⎜ ⎟ −⎜ 3 ⎟ +1 = ⎜ 3 ⎟ − 2⎜ 3 ⎟ +1
m cρ T1 max , opt
T1 ⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ T1 ⎠
Recognizing that the three terms on the right hand side of the equation is a quadratic equation:
2
W ⎡⎛ T ⎞1 2 ⎤
= ⎢⎜ 3 ⎟ − 1⎥ Answer
m cρ T1 max,opt
⎢⎣⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎥⎦
8- 62
8-48 For an ideal Brayton cycle with given low temperature, T1, and high temperature, T2, derive the expression
(Eq. 8-34) for the optimum pressure ratio to produce the maximum work.
Approach:
Using conservation of mass and energy, evaluate the
turbine and compressor power expressions. Use
isentropic ideal gas relations to describe outlet
temperatures. Differentiate the net work expression
with respect to the pressure ratio and set the resulting
equation equal to zero. Solve for the pressure ratio.
Assumptions:
Solution:
We begin the analysis for the optimum pressure ratio, rP , for the maximum net work for a Brayton cycle by
noting that Wnet = WT − WC . To evaluate the two power terms, we apply the mass and energy equations to the
turbine and compressor, and assume steady, adiabatic, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, and ideal
gas with constant specific heat evaluated at room temperature:
Wnet WT WC
= − = cP (T3 − T4 ) − cP (T2 − T1 )
m m m
For an isentropic process of an ideal gas:
k −1 k −1
T2 ⎛ P2 ⎞ k T4 ⎛ P4 ⎞ k
=⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
T1 ⎝ P1 ⎠ T3 ⎝ P3 ⎠
Substituting into the work expression:
⎡ k −1
⎤ ⎡ k −1
⎤
Wnet ⎢ ⎛ P4 ⎞ k ⎥ ⎢ ⎛ P2 ⎞ k
= T3 − T3 ⎜ ⎟ − T1 ⎜ ⎟ − T1 ⎥
m cP ⎢ ⎝ P3 ⎠ ⎥ ⎢ ⎝ P1 ⎠ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
P2 P3
Noting that the pressure ratio is: rP = =
P1 P4
⎡ k-1
⎤
Wnet ⎢ ⎛ 1 ⎞ k
⎥ ⎡ k −1 ⎤ Wnet T ⎡ 1− k
⎤ ⎡ k −1 ⎤
= T3 1 − ⎜ ⎟ − T1 ⎢ rP k − 1⎥ → = 3 ⎢1 − rP k ⎥ − ⎢ rP k − 1⎥
m cP ⎢ ⎝ rP ⎠ ⎥ m cPT1 T1 ⎣
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Now taking the derivative of this expression with respect to the pressure ratio and setting the derivative to zero:
∂ ⎡ Wnet ⎤ ⎛ 1 − k ⎞ k −1
1− k k −1
⎛ k − 1 ⎞ k −1
⎢ ⎥ = − T3⎜ r
⎟ P − T1⎜ r
⎟ P =0
∂rP ⎣ m cP ⎦ ⎝ k ⎠ ⎝ k ⎠
Rearranging the equation and canceling terms:
1− k − k k −1− k
⎛ k −1 ⎞ ⎛ k −1 ⎞
0 = T3 ⎜ r
⎟ P
k
− T1 ⎜ r
⎟ P
k
⎝ k ⎠ ⎝ k ⎠
1− 2 k 1 1− 2 k 1
− −
0 = T3 rP k
− T1rP k
⇒ T3 rP k
= T1rP k
1
− ( 2 k −1)
1 2 k −1 1 2 k −1 2k −2
T3 r k − − + T3
= 1P− 2 k = rP k rP k = rP k k = rP k = rP k =
T1 T1
rP k
k
⎛ T ⎞ 2( k −1)
rP = ⎜ 3 ⎟ Answer
⎝ T1 ⎠
8- 63
8-49 Experimental data are obtained from a regenerative Brayton cycle. Air enters the compressor, which has an
isentropic efficiency of 75%, at 100 kPa, 27 ºC, with a flow rate of 12.4 kg/s, and exits the compressor at
1050 kPa, 400ºC. The air passes through the regenerator to the combustor where 15.21 MW of heat is
added, and then the air expands in the turbine to a pressure of 100 kPa, 967 ºC. At the exit of the
regenerator, the air temperature is 727 ºC. Determine:
a. the turbine isentropic efficiency
b. the net power output (in kW)
c. the cycle thermal efficiency
d. the regenerator effectiveness.
Approach:
In each part of this problem, begin with the appropriate
definition. Use conservation of energy and mass to
evaluate individual terms in each definition. Sufficient
information is given about states upstream and
downstream of each device to evaluate properties.
Assumptions:
3. No work occurs in the heat exchangers.
4. Air is an ideal gas.
5. The regenerator is adiabatic.
Solution:
a) The definition of isentropic efficiency for a turbine is: ηT = Wact Ws = ( h3 − h4 ) ( h3 − h4 s )
Because T4 is known, we can use the air table Appendix A-9 to evaluate it: h4 (T4 ) = 1324.93kJ / kg
To find h3 and h4s , first find h3 . Apply mass and energy equations to the combustor, and assume steady, no
work, and negligible potential and kinetic energy effects: Qin = m ( h3 − hx ) → h3 = hx + Q m
To get hx , apply an energy balance to the regenerator. Assume steady, adiabatic, no work, and negligible
potential and kinetic energy effects: m ( h4 − hy ) = m ( hx − h2 ) → hx = h4 − hy + h2
From the air table by interpolation, h2 (T2 ) = 684.4 kJ / kg and hy (Ty ) = 1046.04 kJ / kg
Therefore, hx = 1324.93 − 1046.04 + 684.4 = 963.3kJ / kg
h3 = 963.3kJ / kg + (15210kW 12.4 kg / s ) = 2189.9 kJ/ kg by interpolation Pr ,3 = 1852
For state h4s, we use the fact s4 = s3 to find the relative pressure Pr ,4 = Pr ,3 ( P4 P3 ) = 1852 (100 1050 ) = 176.4
By interpolation at this relative pressure, h4 ∆ = 1178.2 kJ / kg
2189.9 − 1324.93
ηT = = 0.855 Answer
2189.9 − 1178.2
b) The net power from the cycle is Wnet = WT -WC = Qin - Qout . To obtain Qout , apply the mass and energy
equations between y and 1, and assume steady, no work, and negligible potential and kinetic energy effects:
my = m1 = m and Qout = m ( hy − h1 )
⎛ 1 kW ⎞
Qout = (12.4 kg s )(1046.04 − 300.19 ) kJ kg ⎜ ⎟ = 9248.5 kW
⎝ 1 kJ/s ⎠
Wnet = 15210 kW − 9248.5 kW=5961.5 kW Answer
Wnet 5961.5 kW
c) The cycle thermal efficiency is ηcycle = = = 0.392 Answer
Qin 15210 kW
d) The heat exchanger effectiveness is
Q m ( h4 − hy ) h2 − hx 1324.93 − 1046.04
ε = act = = = = 0.435 Answer
Qmax m ( h4 − h2 ) h4 − h2 1324.93 − 684.4
8- 64
8-50 The following temperatures were measured on a test of a regenerative Brayton cycle with a pressure ratio
of 5.41.
T1 = 290.2 K T2 = 505.0 K
Tx = 629.4 K T3 = 1046.7 K
T4 = 713.7 K Ty = 590.1 K
Using the numbering system shown on the figure and a cold-air-standard analysis, determine:
a. the cycle thermal efficiency
b. the regenerator effectiveness
c. Assuming the regenerator is replaced with one with an effectiveness of 85%, what is the new cycle
efficiency?
Approach:
Start with basic definitions. Apply
conservation of mass and energy to individual
system components to evaluate terms in the
definitions.
Assumptions:
2. Neglect potential and kinetic energy
effects.
Solution:
Wnet Q
a) Cycle thermal efficiency is defined as: ηcycle = = 1 − out
Qin Qin
Applying the mass and energy equations to the heat addition and rejection processes, and assuming steady, no
work, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, and constant specific heats, and substituting into the
efficiency equation, we obtain:
m cP (Ty − T1 )
ηcycle = 1 −
m cP (T3 − Tx )
Substituting in the temperatures:
590.1 − 290.2
1046.7 − 629.4
b) Using the definition of regenerator effectiveness, applying the mass and energy equations to the regenerator,
and noting that with the same flow rate on both sides and evaluating all the specific heats at room temperature:
Q m cP (Tx − T2 ) 629.4 − 505.0
ε reg = act = = = 0.596 Answer
Qmax m cP (T4 − T2 ) 713.7 − 505.0
c) Again, using the definition of regenerator effectiveness:
T −T
ε reg = 0.85 = x 2 → Tx = 505 + 0.85 ( 713.7 − 505 ) = 682.4 K
T4 − T2
To obtain the outlet temperature on the hot side of the regenerator, apply an energy balance to the regenerator:
mcP ) 2 x (Tx − T2 ) = mcP ) 4 y (T4 − Ty )
Ty = T4 − (Tx − T2 ) = 713.7 − ( 682.4 − 505 ) = 536.3K
536.3 − 290.2
1046.7 − 682.4
Comments:
Increasing the regenerator effectiveness from 0.596 to 0.85 increased the cycle efficiency from 0.281 to 0.324.
This significant improvement could be obtained by a better heat exchanger. The cost of the better heat exchanger
would need to be balanced against the decreased fuel cost (increased cycle efficiency) to determine if the better
heat exchanger was worth the additional cost.
8- 65
8-51 A regenerative Brayton cycle power plant was designed and built. Before releasing the plant to the owners,
the construction company had to verify the actual cycle performance. The following test data were
obtained.
Entering Leaving
Compressor P1 = 97 kPa T1 = 17 °C P2 = 525 kPa T2 = 229 °C
Regenerator P2 = 525 kPa T2 = 229 °C P3 = 510 kPa T3 = 348 °C
Combustor P3 = 510 kPa T3 = 348 °C P4 = 502 kPa T4 = 727 °C
Turbine P4 = 502 kPa T4 = 727 °C P5 = 104 kPa T5 = 427 °C
Regenerator P5 = 104 kPa T5 = 427 °C P6 = 97 kPa T6 = 311 °C
The velocity at the entrance to the compressor was measured to be 135 m/sec in a pipe with a diameter of
1.6 m. Determine:
a. the compressor isentropic efficiency
b. the turbine isentropic efficiency
c. the regenerator effectiveness
d. the net power output (in kW)
e. the cycle thermal efficiency.
Approach:
Start with basic definitions. Apply conservation of
mass and energy to individual system components to
evaluate terms in the definitions.
Assumptions:
Solution:
a) The compressor isentropic efficiency is defined as: ηC = Ws Wact = ( h2 s − h1 ) ( h2 − h1 )
From the air tables, Appendix A-9, at the given temperatures:
h1 (T1 ) = 290.5 kJ / kg h2 (T2 ) = 505.4 kJ / kg
For state 2s, s2 = s1 , h2 s ( P2 , s2 ) = 471.1kJ / kg
471.1 − 290.5
ηC = = 0.84 Answer
505.4 − 290.5
b) The turbine isentropic efficiency is defined as ηT = Wact Ws = ( h4 − h5 ) ( h4 − h5 s )
From the air tables at the given temperatures: h4 (T4 ) = 1046 kJ / kg h5 (T5 ) = 713.5 kJ / kg
For state 4s, s5 = s4 h5 s ( P5 , s5 ) = 674.6 kJ / kg
1046 − 713.5
ηT = = 0.895 Answer
1046 − 674.6
c) The regenerator effectiveness is defined as: ε = Qact Qmax . From the air table:
h3 (T3 ) = 629.3kJ / kg
629.3 − 505.4
ε= = 0.595 Answer
713.5 − 505.4
d) The net power output is obtained from: Wnet = WT − WC = m ⎡⎣( h4 − h5 ) − ( h2 − h1 ) ⎤⎦
The mass flow rate is: m = ρ1 V1 A1 . Assuming air is an ideal gas, ρ1 ( P1 , T1 ) = 1.165 kg m3
m = (1.165 kg m3 ) (135 m s ) ⎡π (1.6 m ) 4 ⎤ = 316 kg / sec
2
⎣ ⎦
Wnet = ( 316 kg s ) ⎣⎡(1046.0 − 713.5 ) − ( 505.4 − 290.5 ) ⎦⎤ kJ kg = 37, 200 kW Answer
e) The cycle thermal efficiency is:
W Wnet 37,200kW
ηcycle = net = = = 0.282 Answer
Qin m ( h4 − h3 ) ( 316 kg s )(1046-629.3) kJ kg
8- 66
8-52 A regenerative Brayton cycle develops a net power output of 107 Btu/hr. Air enters the compressor at 14
lbf/in.2 and 80 °F and is compressed to 70 lbf/in2. The air then passes through the regenerator and exits at
500 °F. The temperature at the turbine inlet is 1080 °F. The compressor and turbine are ideal. Using an
air-standard analysis, determine:
b. the regenerator effectiveness
c. the volumetric flow rate of air entering the compressor (in ft3/min).
Approach:
Start with basic definitions. Apply conservation of
mass and energy to individual system components
to evaluate terms in the definitions.
Assumptions:
Solution:
a) The cycle thermal efficiency is: ηcycle = (WT − WC ) Qin = (WT m − WC m ) Qin m . To determine the energy( )
flows, begin with applying conservation of mass and energy to the control volumes around the turbine and
compressor, and assuming steady, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, adiabatic, and ideal gas with
constant specific heat: WT = m ( h4 − h5 ) = mcP ,45 (T4 − T5 ) → WT m = cP ,45 (T4 − T5 )
Evaluating the properties at the average temperature: Tavg = (T4 + T5 ) 2 , but since T5 is unknown, assume
an average temperature of 800 °F, so that cP ,45 = 0.257 Btu / lbm R and k = 1.365 . For an isentropic process of
( k −1) (1.365 −1) 1.365
T5 = T4 ( P5 P4 ) = 1540 (1 5 )
k
an ideal gas: = 1001.4 R
WT m = ( 0.257 Btu lbm R )(1540 − 1001.4 ) R = 138.4 Btu lbm
For the compressor, assuming an average temperature of 250 °F, cP ,12 = 0.242 Btu / lbm R and k = 1.3955
(1.3955 −1) 1.3955
WC m = cP ,12 (T2 − T1 ) T2 = 540 ( 5 ) = 852.1R WC m = ( 0.242 )( 852.1 − 540 ) = 75.5 Btu lbm
For the heat input, apply the mass and energy equations to the air flowing through the combustor, and assume
steady, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, and ideal gas with constant specific heat. The average
temperature is Tavg = (1540 + 960 ) 2 = 1250 R=790o F , so using the properties from above:
Q m = cP ,34 (T4 − T3 ) = ( 0.257 )(1540 − 960 ) = 149.1Btu lbm
138.4 − 75.5
Finally, the cycle thermal efficiency is: ηcycle =
= 0.422 Answer
149.1
h −h c (T − T )
b) The regenerator effectiveness is obtained from its definition: ε reg = 3 2 = P ,32 3 2
h5 − h2 cP ,52 (T5 − T2 )
960 − 852.1
but cP ,32 ≅ cP ,52 . Therefore, ε reg = = 0.722 Answer
1001.4 − 852.1
c) The mass flow rate is obtained from the given net work and the work per unit mass calculated for the turbine
and compressor.
⎛W W ⎞
Wnet = m ⎜ T − C ⎟ → m =
Wnet
=
(107 Btu/hr ) (1hr 60 min ) = 2650 lbm
⎝ m m ⎠ WT m − WC m (138.4 − 75.5 ) Btu lbm min
Assuming the air is an ideal gas, the inlet volume flow rate is
⎡ ⎛ ft lbm ⎞ ⎤
⎛ RT ⎞ ⎛ lbm ⎞ ⎢
⎢ ⎜ 1545 ⎟ ( 540 R ) ⎥ 3
V = mv = m ⎜ 1 ⎟ = ⎜ 2650 ⎝ lbmol R ⎠ ⎥ = 37,900 ft Answer
⎟
⎝ MP1 ⎠ ⎝ min ⎠ ⎢ ⎛ lbm ⎞ ⎛ lbf ⎞ ⎛ 144in.2 ⎞ ⎥ min
⎢ ⎜ 28.97 ⎟ ⎜ 14 ⎟⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ lbmol ⎠ ⎝ in.2 ⎠ ⎝ ft 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
8- 67
8-53 Air enters the compressor of an ideal regenerative Brayton cycle at 14.2 psia, 60 ºF and exits at a pressure
of 250 psia. The air flows through the regenerator, which has an effectiveness of 78%, to the combustor
where the air temperature is raised to 2500 ºF. A net power output of 10 MW electric power is needed.
The compressor and turbine are isentropic. The electric generator has an efficiency of 94%. Determine:
b. the overall plant efficiency
c. the required mass flow rate of air (in lbm/s).
Approach:
Start with the basic definition of cycle thermal
efficiency. Apply conservation of mass and
energy to individual system components to
evaluate terms in the definition.
Assumptions: 3. Air, an ideal gas, has a constant specific heat.

1. The processes are steady. 4. The turbine and compressor are isentropic.
2. Neglect potential and kinetic energy 5. The regenerator is adiabatic.
effects.
Solution:
a) The cycle thermal efficiency is ηcycle = Wnet Qin where Wnet = WT − WC . Apply the mass and energy
equations to the turbine, compressor, and combustor, and using the assumptions listed above, so that
WT = m ( h3 − h4 ) WC = m ( h2 − h1 ) Qin = m ( h3 − hx )
Substituting into the cycle efficiency equation:
( h − h ) − ( h2 − h1 )
ηcycle = 3 4
h3 − hx
Qact m ( hx − h2 )
We need the enthalpy hx, so using the definition of heat exchanger effectiveness ε = = and
Qmax m ( h4 − h2 )
solving for the enthalpy:
hx = h2 + ε ( h4 − h2 )
Evaluating the properties with the air tables, Appendix B-9:
h1 ( 520R ) = 124.27 Btu lbm Pr,1 = 1.2147 and h3 ( 2560R ) = 779.0 Btu lbm Pr ,3 = 889.4
For an isentropic turbine and compressor
⎛P ⎞ ⎛ 250 ⎞ Btu
Pr ,2 = Pr ,1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 1.2147 ⎜ ⎟ = 21.39 so by interpolation h2 = 281.9
⎝ P1 ⎠ ⎝ 14.2 ⎠ lbm
⎛P ⎞ ⎛ 14.2 ⎞ Btu
Pr ,4 = Pr ,4 ⎜ 3 ⎟ = 889.4 ⎜ ⎟ = 50.52 → h4 = 358.9 hx = 281.9 + 0.78 ( 358.9 − 281.9 ) = 342.0 Btu lbm
⎝ P4 ⎠ ⎝ 250 ⎠ lbm
⎡( 779.0 − 358.9 ) − ( 281.9 − 124.27 ) ⎤⎦ Btu lbm
ηcycle = ⎣ = 0.601 Answer
( 779.0-342.0 ) Btu lbm
b) The overall plant efficiency is: ηoverall = ηcycleη gen = ( 0.601)( 0.94 ) = 0.565 Answer
c) To find the mass flow rate, use the net power (10 MW ) , generator efficiency, and the cycle net work
η genWnet, cycle = Wnet , plant = 10 MW
η gen ⎡⎣WT − WC ⎤⎦ = Wnet, plant = η gen ⎡⎣ m ( h3 − h4 ) − m ( h2 − h1 ) ⎤⎦
⎛ 1Btu s ⎞
Wnet , plant
(10, 000 kW ) ⎜ ⎟
m= = ⎝ 1.055 kW ⎠ = 37.8
lbm
Answer
η gen ⎡⎣( h3 − h4 ) − ( h2 − h1 ) ⎤⎦ ( 0.94 ) ⎡⎣( 779.0 − 358.9 ) − ( 281.9 − 128.27 )⎤⎦ Btu lbm s
8- 68
8-54 A regenerative Brayton cycle power plant is shown in the figure below. Air enters the compressor at 1 bar,
27 °C and is compressed to 4 bar. The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 80% and the regenerator
effectiveness is 90%. All the power developed by the high-pressure turbine is used to run the compressor,
and the low-pressure turbine provides the net power output of 97 kW. Each turbine has an isentropic
efficiency of 87%. The temperature at the inlet to the high-pressure turbine is 1200 K. Using a cold-air-
standard analysis, determine:
a. the mass flow of air into the compressor (in kg/sec)
b. the thermal efficiency of the cycle
c. the temperature of the air at the exit of the regenerator (in K).
Approach:
With the known net power, conservation of mass and
energy are applied to the low-pressure power turbine
to determine the mass flow rate. The definition of
cycle thermal efficiency is evaluated with the mass
and energy equations applied this time to the heat
input process and knowing the net power output.
Assumptions:
4. The turbine and compressor are adiabatic.
Solution:
a) The flow is the same through all the components, and the low-pressure turbine provides net power output.
Therefore, applying the mass and energy equations to the low-pressure turbine, and assuming steady, negligible
potential and kinetic energy effects, ideal gas with constant specific heat, and adiabatic:
WT = m ( h5 − h6 ) = mcP (T5 − T6 ) ⇒ m = WT ⎡⎣ cP (T5 − T6 ) ⎤⎦ = Wnet ⎡⎣cP (T5 − T6 ) ⎤⎦
We will evaluate the temperatures below.
b) For the cycle thermal efficiency: ηcycle = Wnet Qin = Wnet ⎡⎣ m ( h4 − h3 ) ⎤⎦ = Wnet ⎡⎣ mcP (T4 − T3 ) ⎤⎦
c) For the exit temperature, T7 , from the regenerator, apply the mass and energy equations to the regenerator, and
assume steady, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, adiabatic, and ideal gas with constant specific heat:
m6 = m2 = m3 = m7 and m6 h6 + m2 h2 − m3 h3 − m7 h7 = 0 ⇒ h6 − h7 = h3 − h2
Therefore, cP (T6 − T7 ) = cP (T3 − T2 ) which leads to T7 = T6 − (T3 − T2 )
Now, we will calculate all the temperatures in the cycle using the isentropic relation for an ideal gas:
( k −1) (1.4 −1) 1.4
T2 s = T1 ( P2 P1 ) = 300 K ( 4 )
k
T2 s : = 445.8 K
Using the isentropic efficiency for T2 :
h2 s − h1 cP (T2 s − T1 ) T2 s − T1 445.8 − 300
ηC = = → T2 = T1 + = 300 + = 482.2 K
h2 − h1 cP (T2 − T1 ) ηC 0.8
T5 : To calculate T5 , recognize that the work of the high-pressure turbine equals to work input to the compressor
WC = WT → mcP (T2 − T1 ) = mcP (T4 − T5 ) which leads to
T5 = T4 − (T2 − T1 ) = 1200 − ( 482.2 − 300 ) = 1017.8K
To get to T6 we need P5 , and we can calculate P5 from T5s
h4 − h5 T −T T4 − T5 1200 − 1017.8
T5 s : ηT = = 4 5 → T5 s = T4 − = 1200 − = 990.6 K
h4 − h5 s T4 − T5 s ηT 0.87
8- 69
( k −1) k k ( k −1) 1.4 (1.4 −1)
T5 s ⎛ P5 ⎞ ⎛T ⎞ ⎛ 990.6 ⎞
P5 : =⎜ ⎟ → P5 = P4 ⎜ 5 s ⎟ = 4 bar ⎜ ⎟ = 2.04 bar
T4 ⎝ P4 ⎠ ⎝ T4 ⎠ ⎝ 1200 ⎠
( k −1) k (1.4 −1) 1.4
⎛P ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
T6 s : T6 s = T5 ⎜ 6 ⎟ = 1017.8 ⎜ ⎟ = 829.7K
⎝ P5 ⎠ ⎝ 2.04 ⎠
T −T
T6 : ηT = 5 6 → T6 = T5 − ηT (T5 − T6 ) = 1017.8 − ( 0.87 )(1017.8 − 829.7 ) = 854.2K
T5 − T6 s
T3 : To get T3 we use the regenerator effectiveness
h3 − h2 cP (T3 − T2 )
ε reg = =
h6 − h2 cP (T6 − T2 )
T3 = T2 + ε reg (T6 − T2 ) = 482.2 + 0.9 ( 854.2 − 482.2 ) = 817.0 K
Using above equations with cP = 1.005 kJ / kg K

97 kW
m= = 0.590 kg / sec Answer
kJ
1.005 (1017.8 − 854.2 ) K
kg K
97 kW
⎛ kg ⎞ ⎛ kJ ⎞
⎜ 0.590 ⎟ ⎜1.005 ⎟ (1200 − 817.0 ) K
⎝ s ⎠⎝ kg K ⎠
T7 = 854.2 − ( 817.0 − 482.2 ) = 519.4 K Answer
8- 70
8-55 Air enters the compressor of an ideal reheat Brayton cycle at 100 kPa, 300 K and leaves at 1600 kPa. It is
heated to 1300 K before it enters the high-pressure turbine. The air expands to 400 kPa, is extracted, and
sent to a reheater, from which it exits at 1300 K. It expands in the low-pressure turbine to a pressure of 100
kPa. The compressor and both turbines are ideal. Determine
a. the net work per unit mass of air flowing (in kJ/kg)
b. the heat transfer per unit mass of air flowing in each heat transfer process (in kJ/kg)
d. the net work per unit mass of air flowing (in kJ/kg) and the cycle efficiency if the expansion occurs
in one stage with no reheat.
Approach:
Start with basic definitions of each of the quantities
sought. Apply conservation of mass and energy to
individual system components to evaluate terms in
the definitions.
Assumptions:
Solution:
a) The net work is Wnet = WT , A + WT , B − WC . Dividing by mass flow rate: Wnet m = WT , A m + WT , B m − WC m .
For the net work per unit mass, apply the mass and energy equations to the turbines and compressor, and assume
steady, isentropic, and negligible potential and kinetic energy effects:
WT , A = m ( h3 − h4 ) → WT , A m = h3 − h4 Likewise, WT , B m = h5 − h6 WC m = h2 − h1
From air tables, Appendix A-9: h1 = ( 300 K ) = 300.19 kJ kg Pr ,1 = 1.3860
h3 = (1300 K ) = 1395.97 kJ kg Pr ,3 = 330.9 h5 = h3 Pr ,5 = Pr ,3
For an isentropic compressor
Pr ,2 = Pr,1 ( P2 P1 ) = 1.3860 (1600 100 ) = 22.18 → h2 = 662.5 kJ kg
Pr ,4 = Pr ,3 ( P4 P3 ) = 330.9 ( 400 1600 ) = 82.73 → h4 = 957.5 kJ kg
Pr ,6 = Pr ,5 ( P6 P5 ) = 330.9 (100 400 ) = 82.73 → h6 = h4
WT , A m = 1395.97 − 957.5 = 438.5 kJ kg and WT , B m = 1395.97 − 957.5 = 438.5 kJ kg
WC m = 662.5 − 300.19 = 362.3kJ kg
Wnet m = 438.5 + 438.5 − 362.3 = 514.7 kJ kg Answer
b) For the heat input, apply the mass and energy equations to the combustor and reheater, and assume steady, no
work, and negligible potential and kinetic energy effects:
QA m = h3 − h2 = 1395.97 − 662.5 = 733.5 kJ kg and QB m = h5 − h4 = 1395.97 − 957.5 = 438.5 kJ kg
Qin m = QA m + QB m = 733.5 + 438.5 = 1172 kJ kg Answer
c) For the cycle thermal efficiency:
W m 514.7 kJ kg
ηcycle = net = = 0.439 Answer
Qin m 1172 kJ kg
d) With no reheat and one stage of expansion, nothing changes with the compressor or combustor QA . The ( )
outlet from the turbine changes (call it 6′ )
Pr ,6′ = Pr ,3 ( P6 P3 ) = 330.9 (100 1600 ) = 20.68 → h6′ = 649.6 kJ kg

Wnet m = ( h3 − h6′ ) − ( h2 − h1 ) = (1395.97 − 649.6 ) − ( 662.5 − 300.19 ) = 384.1kJ kg
384.1kJ kg
1172 kJ kg
8- 71
8-56 Data from a regenerative Brayton cycle power plant with one stage of reheat were measured to determine
the cycle’s actual performance. The measured airflow rate was 1.4 kg/s. The measured conditions of the
air are shown in the following table.
Device Inlet conditions Outlet conditions
Compressor P1 = 0.10 MPa; T1 = 27 ºC P2 = 1.72 MPa; T2 = 427 ºC
Regenerator P3 = 1.69 MPa; T3 = 417 ºC P4 = 1.67 MPa; T4 = 614 ºC
Combustor P5 = 1.66 MPa; T5 = 607 ºC P6 = 1.65 MPa; T6 = 1021 ºC
High-pressure turbine P7 = 1.64 MPa; T7 = 1000 ºC P8 = 0.42 MPa; T8 = 657 ºC
Reheater P9 = 0.40 MPa; T9 = 642 ºC P10 = 0.38 MPa; T10 = 950 ºC
Low-pressure turbine P11 = 0.37 MPa; T11 = 941 ºC P12 = 0.11 MPa; T12 = 667 ºC
Regenerator P13 = 0.11 MPa; T13 = 662 ºC P14 = 0.10 MPa; T14 = 467 ºC
Determine:
a. the heat addition (in kW)
b. the net power produced (in kW)
c. the heat rejection (in kW)
d. the isentropic efficiencies of the high- and low-pressure turbines and the compressor
e. the regenerator effectiveness
f. the cycle thermal efficiency.
Approach:
Apply conservation of mass and energy to individual
system components. Because all the states are
specified up and downstream of each component,
the properties can be evaluated with the ideal gas
tables.
Assumptions:
3. No work occurs in the combustor or reheater.
Solution:
a) For the heat addition, apply the energy and mass equations to the combustor and reheater, and assume steady,
no work, and negligible potential and kinetic energy effects:
Qcomb = m ( h6 − h5 ) Qreheater = m ( h10 − h9 )
From the ideal gas table Appendix A-9 h5 ( 880K ) = 910.56 kJ kg h6 (1294K ) = 1388.9 kJ kg
h9 ( 915K ) = 949.8 kJ kg h10 (1223K ) = 1304.9 kJ kg
⎛ 1kW s ⎞
Qcomb = (1.4 kg s )(1388.9 − 910.56 ) kJ kg ⎜ ⎟ = 670 kW
⎝ 1kJ ⎠
Qreheater = (1.4 )(1304.9 − 949.8 ) = 497 kW
Qin = Qcomb +Qreheater = 670 + 497 = 1167 kW Answer
b) For the net power produced, apply the energy and mass equations to the compressor and turbines, and assume
steady, adiabatic, and negligible potential and kinetic energy effects:
Wc = m ( h2 − h1 ) WT , A = m ( h7 − h8 ) WT , B = m ( h11 − h12 )
h1 ( 300K ) = 300.19 kJ kg h2 ( 700 K ) = 713.27 kJ kg h7 (1273K ) = 1363.9 kJ kg
h8 ( 930 K ) = 966.7 kJ kg h11 (1214K ) = 1294.3kJ kg h12 ( 940 ) = 977.92 kJ kg
WC = (1.4 )( 713.27 − 300.19 ) = 578 kW
WT , A = (1.4 )(1363.9 − 966.7 ) = 556 kW
8- 72
WT , B = (1.4 )(1294.3 − 977.92 ) = 443kW
Wnet = WT , A + WT , B − WC = 556 + 443 − 578 = 421kW Answer
c) The heat rejection is determined from what we know about cycles: Qnet = Wnet = Qin − Qout
Qout = Qin − Wnet = 1167 − 421 = 746 kW Answer
h1 − h2 s
d) Using the definition of isentropic efficiency for a compressor: ηC = , so evaluating the properties
h1 − h2
Pr ,2 = Pr ,1 ( P2 P1 ) = 1.386 (1.72 0.10 ) = 23.84 by interpolation, h2 s = 676.2 kJ kg
300.19 − 676.2
ηC = = 0.910 Answer
300.19 − 713.27
h −h
Likewise, for the turbines: ηT , A = 7 8
h7 − h8 s
Pr ,8 = Pr ,7 ( P8 P7 ) = 303.5 ( 0.42 1.64 ) = 77.74 by interpolation, h8 s = 941.1kJ kg
1363.9 − 966.7
ηT , A = = 0.939 Answer
1363.9 − 941.1
h −h
ηT , B = 11 12 Pr ,12 = Pr ,11 ( P12 P11 ) = 249.7 ( 0.11 0.37 ) = 74.23 by interpolation, h12 s = 929.2 kJ kg
h11 − h12 s
1294.3 − 977.92
ηT , B = = 0.867 Answer
1294.3 − 929.2
e) The regenerator effectiveness is determined with its definition

h −h h −h
ε = 13 14 = 4 3
h13 − h3 h13 − h3
h13 ( 935 K ) = 972.3kJ kg h4 ( 887K ) = 918.3kJ kg
h14 ( 740 K ) = 756.4 kJ kg h3 ( 690 K ) = 702.5 kJ kg
972.3 − 756.1 918.3 − 702.5
ε= = = 0.800 Answer
972.3 − 702.5 972.3 − 702.5
f) The cycle thermal efficiency is:
W 421kW
Qin 1167 kW
Comments:
In actual systems, pressure and heat losses occur between devices. These losses lower the actual system
performance.
8- 73
8-57 For an ideal Brayton cycle with two turbines, assume that the reheat process raises the temperature of the
air entering the low-pressure turbine to the same temperature as the air entering the high-pressure turbine.
Using a cold-air-standard analysis, show that the maximum work is developed when the pressure ratio is
the same across each turbine. Assume that the inlet state (pressure and temperature) to the high-pressure
turbine is known, and the inlet pressure to the low-pressure turbine is the same as the outlet pressure from
the first turbine.
Approach:
Begin with an expression for power from the two
turbines as developed by application of conservation
of mass and energy. Use isentropic ideal gas
expressions to evaluate temperatures. Differentiate
the resulting expression with respect to the pressure at
the outlet of the first turbine/inlet to the second
turbine. Solve the resulting expression for the
pressure.
Assumptions:
3. Air, an ideal gas, has a constant specific heat
evaluated at room temperature.
4. The turbines are isentropic.
Solution:
The work produced by the two turbines is obtained by applying the mass and energy equations, and assuming
steady, isentropic, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, and ideal gas with all specific heats evaluated at
room temperature:
WT m = cρ (T1 − T2 ) + cρ (T3 − T4 )
W ⎡ T T ⎤
With T3 = T1 and simplifying the above equation: = cρ T1 ⎢ 2 − 2 − 4 ⎥
m ⎣ T1 T1 ⎦
( k −1) k ( k −1) k
T2 ⎛ P2 ⎞ T4 T4 ⎛ P4 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ and = =⎜ ⎟
T1 ⎝ P1 ⎠ T1 T3 ⎝ P3 ⎠
Substituting into the work expression and noting that P2 = P3
W ⎡ ⎛ P ⎞( k −1) k ⎛ P ⎞( k −1) k ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ P ⎞( k −1) k ⎛ P ⎞( k −1) k ⎤

= cρ T1 ⎢ 2 − ⎜ 2 ⎟ −⎜ 4 ⎟ ⎥ = cρ T1 ⎢ 2 − ⎜ 2 ⎟ −⎜ 4 ⎟ ⎥
m ⎢⎣ ⎝ P1 ⎠ P
⎝ 3⎠ ⎥
⎦ ⎢
⎣ ⎝ P1 ⎠ ⎝ P2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
The pressure, P2 , that will maximize the work output from the turbines can be determined by setting the
derivative of the work expression to zero, and solving for P2 .
∂ (W m ) ⎡ ⎛ k − 1 ⎞ ⎛ P ⎞( k −1) k ⎛ 1 ( k −1)
⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
k
⎞ ⎛ k − 1 ⎞ ⎛ P4 ⎞
= 0 = cρ T1 ⎢ − ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
2
⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎥
∂P2 ⎢⎣ ⎝ k ⎠⎝ 1 ⎠
P ⎝ P2 ⎠ ⎝ k ⎠ ⎝ P2 ⎠ ⎝ P2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎛ k −1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Cancel the quantity: −cρ T1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ to obtain
⎝ k ⎠ ⎝ P2 ⎠
( k −1) k ( k −1) k
⎛P ⎞ ⎛P ⎞ P2 P4
0=⎜ 2 ⎟ −⎜ 4 ⎟ Simplifying = Answer
⎝ P1 ⎠ ⎝ P2 ⎠ P1 P2
Comments:
This result says that for maximum work, the pressure ratio across the two turbines should be the same. To
confirm that the work is maximized, the second derivative can be checked.
8- 74
8-58 Air is compressed in two stages from 95 kPa, 27 ºC to 1350 kPa. After the air is compressed to 400 kPa in
the first compressor, it is routed to an intercooler where the temperature of the air is lowered to 27 ºC. In
the second compressor, the air is further compressed to 1350 kPa. Both compressors are isentropic. For a
flow rate of 0.5 kg/s, determine
a. the power required for the compression process (in kW)
b. the power required for the compression process if it occurs in one stage and there is no intercooling
(in kW).
Approach:
Apply conservation of mass and energy to the two
compressors and evaluate the fluid properties using
the ideal gas tables.
Assumptions:
3. The compressors are isentropic.
Solution:
a) The power required for the compression process is WC = WA + WB . To evaluate each term, apply the mass and
energy equations to the compressors, and assume steady, isentropic, and negligible potential and kinetic energy
effects:
WA = m ( h2 − h1 ) and WB = m ( h4 − h3 )
Evaluating the properties using the air table, Appendix A-9:
h1 ( 300 K ) = 300.15 kJ kg Pr ,1 = 1.3860
Pr 2 = Pr1 ( P2 P1 ) = 1.386 ( 400 95 ) = 5.836 by interpolation h2 = 453.1kJ kg
h3 = h1
Pr 4 = Pr 3 ( P4 P3 ) = 1.386 (1350 400 ) = 4.678 by interpolation ⇒ h4 = 425.3kJ kg
⎛ 1kWs ⎞
WA = ( 0.5 kg s )( 453.1 − 300.19 ) kJ kg ⎜ ⎟ = 76.5 kW
⎝ 1kJ ⎠
WB = ( 0.5 )( 425.3 − 300.19 ) = 62.6 kW
WC = 76.5 + 62.6 = 139 kW Answer
b) For one-stage compression without intercooling, the compression power can be calculated with
WC = m ( h4 − h1 )
Pr 4 = Pr1 ( P4 P1 ) = 1.3860 (1350 95 ) = 19.70 by interpolation h4 = 637.6 kJ kg
⎛ 1kWs ⎞
WC = ( 0.5 kg s )( 637.6 − 300.19 ) kJ kg ⎜ ⎟ = 169 kW
⎝ 1kJ ⎠
Therefore, the percent increase in power required for one-stage compression compared to two-stage compression
is:
169 − 139
% increase = × 100% = 21.6 % Answer
139
8- 75
8-59 A Brayton cycle has both intercooling and reheat. Air enters compressor A at 105 kPa, 300 K with a
volumetric flow rate of 15 m3/s where it is compressed to 400 kPa. The intercooler cools the air to 300 K.
Compressor B compresses the air to 1500 kPa. In the combustion chamber, the air is heated to 1200 K
before it enters the turbine A where it expands to 400 kPa, and then is routed to the reheater where it is
reheated to 1200 K. The air finally expands back to 105 kPa in turbine B. Both compressor and turbine
stages are isentropic. Determine:
a. the net power developed (in kW)
b. the heat addition (in kW)
c. the cycle thermal efficiency.
Approach:
Net power is calculated by applying
conservation of mass and energy to each
turbine and compressor, and evaluating the
appropriate properties. The same approach
is used for the heat addition process.
Assumptions:
effects.
3. The compressors and turbines are
isentropic.
4. No work done in the combustor or
reheater.
Solution:
a) The net power produced by the cycle is Wnet = WT , A + WT , B − WC , A − WC , B
Apply the mass and energy equations to the compressor and turbines, and assume steady, isentropic, and
negligible potential and kinetic energy effects:
WC , A = m ( h2 − h1 ) WC , B = m ( h4 − h3 )
WT , A = m ( h5 − h6 ) WT , B = m ( h7 − h8 )
The mass flow rate is evaluated with the volume flow and the ideal gas equation:
V R T ( 8.314 kJ kmol K )( 300 K )(1kN-m 1kJ ) m3
m= 1 v1 = = = 0.82
v1 MP ( 28.97 kg kmol ) (105 kN m 2 ) kg
m=
(15 m s )
3
= 18.3
kg
( 0.82 m 3
kg ) s
Now evaluating the properties using the air table, Appendix A-9:
h1 ( 300 K ) = 300.19 kJ kg Pr1 = 1.386
Pr 2 = Pr1 ( P2 P1 ) = 1.386 ( 400 105 ) = 5.280 by interpolation h2 s = 440.6 kJ kg
h3 = h1
Pr 4 = Pr 3 ( P4 P3 ) = 1.386 (1500 400 ) = 5.198 by interpolation h4 s = 438.3kJ kg
h5 (1200 K ) = 1277.79 kJ kg Pr 5 = 238.0
Pr 6 = Pr 5 ( P6 P5 ) = 238.0 ( 400 1500 ) = 63.47 by interpolation h6 s = 889.7 kJ kg
h7 = h5
Pr 8 = Pr 7 ( P8 P7 ) = 238.0 (105 400 ) = 62.48 by interpolation h8 s = 885.8 kJ kg
⎛ 1kWs ⎞
WC , A = (18.3kg s )( 440.6 − 300.19 ) kJ kg ⎜ ⎟ = 2570 kW
⎝ 1kJ ⎠
WC , B = (18.3)( 438.3 − 300.19 ) = 2530 kW
8- 76
WT , A = (18.3)(1277.79 − 889.7 ) = 7100 kW
WT , B = (18.3)(1277.79 − 885.8 ) = 7170 kW
Wnet = 7100 + 7170 − 2570 − 2530 = 9170 kW Answer
b) To calculate the input heat transfer rates, apply the mass and energy equations to air flowing through the
combustor and reheater, and assume steady, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, and no work:
Qcomb = m ( h5 − h6 ) = (18.3)(1277.79 − 889.7 ) = 7100 kW
Qreheater = m ( h7 − h8 ) = (18.3)(1277.79 − 885.8 ) = 7170 kW
Qin = 7100 + 7170 = 14, 270 kW Answer
c) The cycle thermal efficiency is:

W 9170 kW
Qin 14, 270 kW
Comments:
This is a very high cycle thermal efficiency. If the compressor had an isentropic efficiency of 0.85 and the
turbines had isentropic efficiencies of 0.85, then the net power output would be reduced to about 6140 kW and the
cycle thermal efficiency would be 0.293.
8- 77
8-60 As shown in the figure below, a Brayton cycle is equipped with a regenerator whose effectiveness is 70%
(εreg=0.70). There are two stages of compression and two stages of expansion with a pressure ratio of 2.5
across each stage. The air enters the first compressor at 100 kPa and 22 °C. The intercooler reduces the
compressed air temperature back to 22 °C before entering the second compressor. Both compressors have
isentropic efficiencies of 78%. At the entrance to the first turbine, the temperature is 827 °C. The
temperature of the air exiting the reheater is 827 °C. Both turbines have isentropic efficiencies of 84%.
Using a cold-air-standard analysis, determine:
a. the compressor work per unit mass of flowing air (in kJ/kg)
b. the turbine work per unit mass of flowing air (in kJ/kg)
c. the heat addition per unit mass of flowing air (in kJ/kg)
d. the cycle thermal efficiency.
Approach:
For the power and heat input, apply conservation
of mass and energy to individual system
components. Use isentropic ideal gas expressions
for evaluating properties.
Assumptions:
3. No work done in the combustor or reheater.
4. Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heat
5. The compressors and turbines are adiabatic.
Solution:
a) For the compression power, apply the mass and energy equations to the compressors, and assume steady,
adiabatic, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, and ideal gas with constant specific heats:
WC m = ( h2 − h1 ) + ( h4 − h3 ) = cρ (T2 − T1 ) + cρ (T4 − T3 )
Using cold air standard analysis, cρ = 1.005 kJ kg K and k = 1.4 .
Note that T1 = T3 and T4 = T2 . Therefore, WC m = 2cρ (T2 − T1 )
(1.4 −1) 1.4
Using an ideal gas isentropic process with constant specific heats T2 s = T1 ( P2 P1 ) = 295 ( 2.5 )
k −1 k
= 383.3K
From the definition of compressor isentropic efficiency
T2 = T1 + (T2 s − T1 ) ηC = 295 + ( 383.3 − 295 ) 0.78 = 408.2 K
WC m = 2 (1.005 kJ kg K )( 408.2 − 295 ) K (1kWs 1kJ ) = 227.5 kJ kg
b) For the turbine work, we apply the same analysis to obtain WT m = cρ (T6 − T7 ) + cρ (T8 − T9 ) but T7 = T9
( k −1) (1.4 −1) 1.4
and T6 = T8 . Therefore, WT m = 2cρ (T8 − T9 ) and T9 s = T8 ( P9 P8 ) = 1100 (1 2.5 )
k
= 846.6 K ,
T9 = T8 − ηT (T8 − T9 s ) = 1100 − 0.84 (1100 − 846.6 ) = 887.2 K ,
WT m = 2 (1.005 kJ kg K )(1100 − 887.2 ) kJ kg = 427.7 kJ kg
c) For the heat input, apply the mass and energy equations to air flowing through the combustor and reheater, and
assume steady, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, and no work: Qin m = cρ (T6 − T5 ) + cρ (T8 − T7 )
From definition of heat exchanger effectiveness T5 = T4 + ε (T9 − T4 ) = 408.2 + 0.70 ( 887.2 − 408.2 ) = 743.5 K
Qin m = (1.005 kJ kg K ) ⎣⎡(1100 − 743.5 ) + (1100 − 887.2 ) ⎦⎤ kJ kg = 572.6 kJ kg
Wnet m WT m − WC m 427.7 − 227.5
d) The cycle thermal efficiency is: ηcycle = = = = 0.350 Answer
Qin m Qin m 572.6
Comments:
Note that if there were no regenerator, T5 = T4 , the heat input rate would be
Qin m = (1.005 ) ⎡⎣(1100 − 408.2 ) + (1100 − 887.2 ) ⎤⎦ = 909.1kJ kg , and ηcycle = ( 427.7 − 227.5 ) 909.1 = 0.220
8- 78
8-61 For an ideal Brayton cycle with an ideal regenerator and given low temperature, T1, and high temperature,
T2, derive the cycle thermal efficiency (Eq. 8-42) using a cold-air-standard analysis.
Approach:
Start with the definition of cycle thermal efficiency.
Apply conservation of mass and energy to individual
system components to evaluate terms in the definition.
Use isentropic ideal gas relations to evaluate
temperatures.
Assumptions:
3. Air, an ideal gas, has a constant specific heat
Solution:
The cycle thermal efficiency of an ideal Brayton cycle with an ideal regenerator is:
Q
ηcycle = 1 − out
Qin
Energy and mass balances on the heat addition and heat rejection processes, assuming steady, negligible potential
and kinetic energy effects, ideal gas with constant specific heat, and isentropic turbine and compressor gives:
Qout = m ( hy − h1 ) and Qin = m ( h3 − hx )
For a cold-air-standard analysis, ∆h = cP ∆T , with cP evaluated at room temperature for all processes, so
that
m ( hy − h1 ) cP (Ty − T1 ) Ty − T1
ηcycle = 1 − = 1− = 1−
m ( h3 − hx ) cP (T3 − Tx ) T3 − Tx
For an ideal regenerator ( ε = 100% ) Tx = T4 and Ty = T2 so that
T1 ⎛⎜ 2 − 1⎞⎟
T
T2 − T1 ⎝ T1 ⎠
ηcycle = 1 − = 1−
T3 − T4 T3 ⎛⎜1 − 4 ⎞⎟
T
⎝ T3 ⎠
( k −1) k ( k −1) k
T2 ⎛ P2 ⎞ T4 ⎛ P4 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ and =⎜ ⎟
T1 ⎝ P1 ⎠ T3 ⎝ P3 ⎠
Because rP = P2 P1 = P3 P4
( k −1) k
T4 ⎛ 1 ⎞
Therefore =⎜ ⎟ = rP − ( k −1) k
T3 ⎝ rP ⎠
Substituting these expressions into the cycle thermal efficiency definition
( k −1) k ⎡ rP( k −1) k − 1⎤

T1 ⎡⎣ rP − 1⎤⎦ T ⎣ ⎦
ηcycle = 1− − ( k −1) k
= 1− 1
T3 ⎡1 − rP ⎤ T3 ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎣ ⎦ ⎢1 − ( k −1) k ⎥
⎣⎢ rP ⎦⎥
Simplifying this expression, we obtain:
⎛T ⎞
ηcycle = 1 − ⎜ 1 ⎟ rP( k −1) k Answer
⎝ T3 ⎠
8- 79
8-62 Mercury and steam are used in a combined cycle, as shown on the figure below. The mercury leaves the
mercury-steam heat exchanger as a saturated liquid at 0.04 MPa, flows through a pump where the pressure
is raised to 1.6 MPa, leaves the boiler as a saturated vapor, expands in an isentropic turbine cycle, and
condenses at 0.04 MPa. Use the mercury properties given below; the specific volume of saturated liquid
mercury at 0.04 MPa is 7.35×10-5 m3/kg. In the steam cycle, water leaves the condenser as a saturated
liquid at 10 kPa, flows through a pump where the pressure is raised to 5 MPa, leaves the mercury-steam
heat exchanger as a saturated vapor, leaves the steam superheater at 500 ºC, the expands in the turbine to a
pressure of 10 kPa. Determine:
a. the ratio of mercury flow rate to steam flow rate
b. the total heat addition per unit mass of steam flowing (in kJ/kg water)
c. the total heat rejection per unit mass of steam flowing (in kJ/kg steam)
P (MPa) T (°C) hf (kJ/kg) hg (kJ/kg) sf (kJ/kg·K) sg (kJ/kg·K)
0.04 309 42.21 335.64 0.1034 0.6073
1.60 562 75.37 364.04 0.1498 0.4954
Approach:
The ratio of mercury to steam mass flow rates can
be determined from an energy balance on the
mercury to steam heat exchanger. Heat addition is
obtained from energy balances on the mercury
boiler and the steam superheater, and heat rejection
is only from the steam condenser.
Assumptions:
3. No work done in the heat addition process.
4. The pumps and turbines are isentropic.
5. The mercury-water heat exchanger is
adiabatic.
Solution:
a) The ratio of mercury flow to water flow can be determined by an energy balance on the mercury-water heat
exchanger. Assuming steady, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, adiabatic, and no work:
mM h −h
mM ( hD − hA ) = mW ( h3 − h2 ) → = 3 2
mW hD − hA
We will evaluate all properties once the analysis is done.
b) There are two heat inputs, the mercury boiler and the steam superheater. Applying the mass and energy
equations to the fluid passing through the two devices, and assuming steady, negligible potential and kinetic
energy effects, no work:
Qboiler = mM ( hC − hB ) and Q superheater = mW ( h4 − h3 )
Qtot ⎛ mM ⎞
Qtot = Qboiler +Qsuperheat = mM ( hC − hB ) + mW ( h4 − h3 ) → qin = =⎜ ⎟ ( hC − hB ) + ( h4 − h3 )
mW ⎝ mW ⎠
c) The only heat output is from the steam condenser.
Qout = mW ( h5 − h1 ) qout = Qout mW = h5 − h1
d) The combined cycle efficiency is
W Q − Qout q
ηcombined = net = in = 1 − out
cycle Qin Qin qin
Evaluating all water properties using Appendices A-10—A-12:
h1 = h f ( P1 ) = 191.83kJ kg
h2 = h1 + ∆hp = h1 + v f 1 ( P2 − P1 ) = 191.83kJ kg + ( 0.001010 m3 kg ) ( 5000-10 ) kN m 2 = 196.9 kJ kg
h3 = hg ( P3 ) = 2794.3kJ kg
8- 80
h4 ( P4 , T4 ) = 3433.8 kJ kg s4 = 6.9759 kJ kg K
s5 − s f 6.9759 − 0.6493
Noting that s5 = s4 and that state 5 is in the two-phase region, so x5 = = = 0.843
s fg 7.5009
h5 ( P5 , s5 ) = 191.83 + ( 0.843)( 2392.8 ) = 2210.0 kJ kg
hA = h f ( PA ) = 42.2 kJ kg
hB hA + ∆hp = 42.2 + ( 7.35 × 10 −5 ) (1600 − 40 ) = 42.3kJ kg
hC = hg ( PC ) = 364.04 kJ kg sC = 0.4954 kJ kg K
sD − s f 0.4954 − 0.1034
Noting that sD = sC and that state D is in the two-phase region xD = = = 0.778
s fg 0.6073 − 0.1034
hD ( PD , sD ) = 42.2 + ( 0.778 )( 335.64 − 42.2 ) = 270.5 kJ kg
Therefore:
mM 2794.3 − 196.9 kg mercury
= = 11.4 Answer
mW 270.5 − 42.2 kg water
kJ
qin = (11.4 )( 364.04 − 42.3) + ( 3433.8 − 2794.3) = 4307 Answer
kg water
kJ
qout = 2210.0 − 191.83 = 2018.2 Answer
kg water
2018.2
ηcombined = 1 − = 0.531 Answer
cycle 4307
8- 81
8-63 In a combined cycle, hot air leaving the exit of the turbine in a simple air-standard Brayton cycle is used in
the boiler of a simple Rankine cycle. Air enters the compressor of the Brayton cycle at 14.7 psia, 60 ºF and
enters the turbine at 115 psia, 1840 ºF. In the air-steam heat exchanger, the steam leaves the boiler in the
Rankine cycle at 500 psia, 650 ºF and expands in the turbine to a pressure of 1 psia. Saturated liquid leaves
the condenser in the Rankine cycle. Air leaves the air-steam heat exchanger at 14.7 psia, 620 ºF. Turbines,
pump, and compressor are isentropic. For a net power output of 250 MW, determine:
a. the airflow rate (in lbm/s)
b. the steam flow rate (in lbm/s)
c. the combined cycle thermal efficiency.
Approach:
Net power is given, and net power can be calculated
by applying conservation of mass and energy to
compressor, turbines, and pump. The only unknowns
are the mass flow rates of water and air. The ratio of
water to air mass flow rates can be determined from
an energy balance on the air to water heat exchanger.
Assumptions:
5. The compressors, pumps, and turbines are
isentropic.
6. The air water heat exchanger is adiabatic.
Solution:
a) With the given information about the net power and operating conditions in both cycles,
Wnet = 250 MW = WRANKINE +WBRAYTON where WRANKINE = WT , R − WP , R and WBRAYTON = WT , B − WC , B
Applying the mass and energy equations to the turbines, compressor, and pump, and assuming steady, isentropic,
negligible potential and kinetic energy effects:
WT , R = mw ( hC − hD ) WP , R = mw ( hB − hA )
WT , B = ma ( h3 − h4 ) WC , B = ma ( h2 − h1 )
We have enough information to evaluate the properties, but we have too many unknowns (water and air flow
rates) for the number of equations we have. We need one more equation, and the one device that incorporates
both flow rates is the air-water heat exchanger. Applying a mass and energy balance to the air-water heat
exchanger with the first three assumptions listed above plus adiabatic heat exchanger:
mw ( hC − hB ) = ma ( h4 − h5 )
mw h −h
= 4 5
ma hC − hB
From the net work expression Wnet = mw ( hC − hD ) + ma ( h3 − h4 ) − mw ( hB − hA ) − ma ( h2 − h1 )
⎡m m ⎤
Wnet = ma ⎢ w ( hC − hD ) − w ( hB − hA ) + ( h3 − h4 ) − ( h2 − h1 ) ⎥
m
⎣ a m a ⎦
Solving for the air mass flow rate:
Wnet
ma =
mw
[ hC − hD − hB + hA ] + [ h3 − h4 − h2 + h1 ]
ma
We need all the properties. For air using Appendix B-9: h1 ( 520R ) = 124.27 Btu lbm Pr1 = 1.2147
Pr 2 = Pr1 ( P2 P1 ) = 1.2147 (115 14.7 ) = 9.503 by interpolation h2 = 223.9 Btu lbm
h3 ( 2300R ) = 588.82 Btu lbm Pr 3 = 308.1
Pr 4 = Pr 3 ( P4 P3 ) = 308.1(14.7 115 ) = 39.38 by interpolation h4 = 334.7 Btu lbm
8- 82
h5 (1080R ) = 260.97 Btu lbm
For water using Appendices A-10—A-12: hA = h f ( PA ) = 69.74 Btu lbm and hB = hA + ∆hP . For an
incompressible liquid in reversible process
lbf ⎛ 144in.2 ⎞ ⎛ Btu ⎞
∆hP = v fA ( PB − PA ) = ( 0.01614 ft 3 lbm ) ( 500 − 1) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 1.49 Btu lbm
in.2 ⎝ ft 2 ⎠ ⎝ 778.2 ft-lbf ⎠
hB = 69.74 + 1.49 = 71.23Btu lbm
hC ( PC , TC ) = 1327.5 Btu lbm sC = 1.5849 Btu lbm R
To obtain hD ( PD , sD ) , we know for the isentropic turbine, sD = sC , and that state D is in the two-phase
sD − s fD 1.5849 − 0.1327
region. Therefore, xD = = = 0.787
s fgD 1.8453
hD = h f + xD h fg = 69.74 + ( 0.787 )(1036.0 ) = 885.0 Btu lbm
We have all the properties evaluated, so
mw h −h 334.7 − 260.97 lbm H 2 O
= 4 5 = = 0.0587
ma hC − hB 1327.5 − 71.23 lbm Air
⎛ 1.055 kWs ⎞
250000 kW ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1Btu ⎠ lbm
ma = = 1460 Answer
0.0587 [1327.5-885.0-71.23+69.74] + [588.82 − 334.7 − 223.9 + 124.27 ] Btu lbm s
mw = ( 0.0587 )(1462 ) = 85.8lbm s Answer
b) For the cycle thermal efficiency ηcombined = Wnet Qin . The only heat input is to the Brayton cycle, so
cycle
⎛ 1.055 kWs ⎞
Qin = ma ( h3 − h2 ) = (1460 lbm s )( 588.82 − 223.9 ) Btu lbm ⎜ ⎟ = 562,900 kW
⎝ 1Btu ⎠
250, 000 kW
ηcombined = = 0.444 Answer
cycle 562,900 kW
8- 83
8-64 In a combined cycle, hot air leaving the exit of the turbine in a simple air-standard Brayton cycle is used in
the boiler of a regenerative Rankine cycle. Air enters the compressor (ηC = 85%) of the Brayton cycle at
100 kPa, 27 ºC and is compressed to 1500 kPa. At the inlet to the turbine (ηT = 88%), the air temperature is
1227 ºC. The exhaust gas from the turbine is used in an air-steam heat exchanger, from which the steam
exits as a superheated vapor at 10 MPa, 500 ºC and the air exits at 227 ºC. The steam flows to the turbine
(ηT = 90%) and expands to 0.5 MPa, at which point some of the steam is extracted and routed to the open
feedwater heater. The remainder of the steam continues its expansion to the condenser pressure of 15 kPa.
Liquid water exits the condenser and the open feedwater heater as saturated liquids at the appropriate
pressures. The two water pumps in the Rankine cycle are isentropic. The net power output of the
combined cycle is 1000 MW. Determine:
a. the ratio of steam mass flow rate to air mass flow rate
b. the air and steam flow rates (in kg/s)
c. the heat input to the combined cycle (in MW)
d. the combined cycle thermal efficiency.
Approach:
Net power is given, and net power can be calculated
by applying conservation of mass and energy to
compressor, turbines, and pump. The only unknowns
are the mass flow rates of steam and air. The ratio of
steam to air mass flow rates can be determined from
an energy balance on the air to water heat exchanger.
Assumptions:
5. The compressors, pumps, and turbines are
adiabatic, and the pumps are isentropic.
6. The air-water heat exchanger is adiabatic.
Solution:
a) The ratio of water flow to air flow can be determined from an energy balance on the water-air heat exchanger.
Assuming steady, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, and adiabatic, we obtain
mw h −h
mw ( hE − hD ) = ma ( h4 − h5 ) → = 4 5
ma hE − hD
We will evaluate all the properties once the analysis is done.
b) The flow rates can be determined from the given net power output, the ratio of flows, and analysis of the
turbines, compressor, and pumps. Applying the mass and energy equations to the devices, and assuming steady,
negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, and adiabatic:
Wnet = ⎡⎣WT , B − WC , B ⎤⎦ + ⎡⎣WT , I + WT , II − WP , I − WP , II ⎤⎦
WT , B = ma ( h3 − h4 ) and WC , B = ma ( h2 − h1 )
WT , I = mw ( hE − hF ) and WT , II = (1 − y ) mw ( hF − hG )
WP , I = (1 − y ) mw ( hB − hA ) and WP , II = mw ( hD − hC )
When these individual work terms, the ratio of flows, and y are all combined, the only unknown is mw .
The fraction, y , extracted from the steam turbine is obtained from an energy balance on the open feedwater
heater. Assuming steady, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, no work, and adiabatic:
h − hB
y mw hF + (1 − y ) mw hB = mw hC → y= C
hF − hB
Evaluating air properties using Appendix A-9: h1 ( 300 K ) = 300.19 kJ kg Pr1 = 1.3860
Pr 2 = Pr1 ( P2 P1 ) = 1.3860 (1500 100 ) = 20.79 by interpolation h2 s = 650.5 kJ kg
Using the isentropic efficiency h2 = h1 − ( h1 − h2 s ) ηC = 300.19 − ( 300.19 − 650.5 ) 0.85 = 712.3kJ kg
8- 84
h3 (1500 K ) = 1635.97 kJ kg Pr 3 = 601.9
Pr 4 = Pr 3 ( P4 P3 ) = 601.9 (100 1500 ) = 40.13 by interpolation h4 s = 782.8 kJ kg
h4 = h3 − ηT ( h3 − h4 s ) = 1635.97 − 0.88 (1635.97 − 782.8 ) = 885.2 kJ kg h5 ( 500 K ) = 503.02 kJ kg
Evaluating steam properties with Appendices A-10—A-12:
hA = h f ( PA ) = 225.94 kJ kg
hB = hA + ∆hP , I For an incompressible reversible pump ∆hP , I = v f A ( PB − PA )
⎛ m3 ⎞ kN ⎛ 1kJ ⎞ kJ
∆hP , I = ⎜ 0.001014 ⎟ ( 500 − 15 ) 2 ⎜ ⎟ = 0.49 hB = 225.94 + 0.49 = 226.4 kJ kg
⎝ kg ⎠ m ⎝ 1kN-m ⎠ kg
hC = h f ( PC ) = 640.23kJ kg
hD = hC + ∆hP , II = hC + v f C ( PD − PC ) = 640.23 + ( 0.001093)(10000 − 500 ) = 650.6 kJ kg
hE ( PE , TE ) = 3373.7 kJ kg sE = 6.5966 kJ kg K
sF − s fF 6.5966 − 1.8607
State F is in the two-phase region, so recognizing sF = sE xF s = = = 0.955
s fgF 4.9606
hF s ( PF , sF ) = h f + xF h fg = 640.23 + ( 0.955 )( 2108.5 ) = 2653.2 kJ kg
Using the isentropic efficiency hF = hE − ηT ( hE − hFs ) = 3373.7 − 0.90 ( 3373.7 − 2653.2 ) = 2725.3kJ kg
hF − h f 2725.3 − 640.23
For sF ( PF , hF ) ⇒ xF = = = 0.989 sF = 1.8607 + ( 0.989 )( 4.9606 ) = 6.7661kJ kg K
h fg 2108.5
6.7661 − 0.7549
To evaluate state G, we note sGs = sFs , so to evaluate hG , s ( PG , sG ) ⇒ xG , s = = 0.829
7.2536
hG , s = 225.94 + ( 0.829 )( 2373.1) = 2192.6 kJ kg
hG = hF − ηT ( hF − hG , s ) = 2725.3 − 0.90 ( 2725.3 − 2192.6 ) = 2245.8 kJ kg
Therefore
640.23 − 226.4 mw 885.2 − 503.2 kg H 2 O
y= = 0.166 = = 0.140 Answer
2725.3 − 226.4 ma 3373.7 − 650.6 kg Air
WT , B = ma (1635.97 − 885.2 ) = 750.8 ma WC , B = ma ( 712.3 − 300.19 ) = 412.1 ma
WT , I = mw ( 3373.7 − 2725.3) = 648.4 mw WT , II = (1 − 0.166 ) mw ( 2725.3 − 2245.8 ) = 399.9 mw
WP , II = (1 − 0.166 ) mw ( 226.4 − 225.94 ) = 0.38 mw WP , II = mw ( 650.6 − 640.23) = 10.4 mw
Wnet = ( 750.8 ma − 412.1 ma ) + ( 648.4 mw + 399.9 mw − 0.38 mw − 10.4 mw )
⎡ m ⎤
= 338.7 ma + 1037.5 mw = ma ⎢338.7 + 1037.5 w ⎥
⎣ ma ⎦
⎛ 1kJ ⎞
(1, 000, 000 kW ) ⎜ ⎟
ma =
Wnet
= ⎝ 1kWs ⎠
= 2066
kg
Answer
338.7+1037.5 ( mW mA ) ⎣⎡338.7 + 1037.5 ( 0.140 ) ⎦⎤ kJ kg s
mw = 0.14 ( 2066 ) = 289 kg s Answer
c) The net heat input occurs all in the Brayton cycle

kJ ⎛ 1kWs ⎞
Qin = ma ( h3 − h2 ) = ( 2066 kg s )(1635.97 − 712.3) ⎜ ⎟ = 1,908,300 kW Answer
kg ⎝ 1kJ ⎠
d) The cycle thermal efficiency is
W 1, 000, 000 kW
Qin 1,908,300 kW
8- 85
8-65 A cogeneration steam (Rankine) cycle is used to produce electric power and process steam for heating in an
oil refinery. The boiler generates 10 kg/s of steam at 8 MPa, 500 ºC. This steam is expanded in a turbine
to a pressure of 0.5 MPa, at which point 4 kg/s of steam is extracted for process heating; the remainder of
the steam expands to the condenser pressure of 10 kPa. Saturated liquid leaves the condenser and is
pumped to a mixing tank in which the saturated liquid condensate from the process heaters is drained. The
mixture is pumped to the boiler pressure. Both pumps and turbines are isentropic. Determine:
a. the heat input to the boiler (in kW)
b. the net power output (in kW)
c. the process heat supplied (in kW)
d. the cogeneration system efficiency.
Approach:
Apply conservation of mass and energy to
the boiler, turbines and pumps to find the
heat input and net power. Process heat
supplied is calculated by applying
conservation of mass and energy to the
process heater. Cogeneration system
efficiency is obtained by application of its
definition and the quantities evaluated in
parts (a), (b), and (c).
Assumptions:
4. The pumps and turbines are isentropic.
Solution:
a) Heat input to the boiler is obtained from a mass and energy balance applied to the water flowing through it.
Assuming steady, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, no work:
Qin = m5 ( h5 − h4 )
We will evaluate all properties once the analysis is done.
b) The net power output is obtained from energy balances across the turbines and pumps. Assuming steady,
negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, and isentropic:
m
WT , A = m5 ( h5 − h6 ) and WT , B = (1 − y ) m5 ( h6 − h7 ) where y = 8
m5
WP , A = (1 − y ) m5 ( h2 − h1 ) and WP , B = m5 ( h4 − h3 )
Wnet = WT , A + WT , B − WP , A − WP , B
c) The process heat supplied is obtained from a mass and energy balance on steam flowing through the process
heater. Assuming steady, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects, no work
Q process = m8 ( h6 − h8 )
Wnet + Q process
d) The cogeneration efficiency is ηcogen =
Qin
Evaluating the properties using Appendices A-10—A-12:
h1 = h f ( P1 ) = 191.83kJ kg
h2 = h1 + ∆hP , A ⇒ For an incompressible liquid in a reversible process ∆hp = v f ( P2 − P1 )
kJ ⎛ m3 ⎞ kN ⎛ 1kJ ⎞ kJ
h2 = 191.83 + ⎜ 0.001010 ⎟ ( 500 − 10 ) 2 ⎜ ⎟ = 192.3
kg ⎝ kg ⎠ m ⎝ 1kN-m ⎠ kg
h5 ( P5 , T5 ) = 3398.3kJ kg s5 = 6.7240 kJ kg K
8- 86
s6 − s f 6.7240 − 1.8607
Noting that s6 = s5 and that state 6 is in the two-phase region x6 = = = 0.980
s fg 4.9606
h6 ( P6 , s6 ) = 6450.23 + ( 0.980 )( 2108.5 ) = 2707.4 kJ kg
6.7240 − 0.6493
Noting that s7 = s6 = s5 and state 7 is in the two-phase region x7 = = 0.810
7.5009
h7 ( P7 , s7 ) = 191.83 + 0.810 ( 2392.8 ) = 2129.7 kJ kg
h8 = h f ( P8 ) = 640.23kJ kg
To obtain h3 , we need an energy analysis on the mixer. Assuming steady, adiabatic, negligible potential and
kinetic energy effects, and no work:
m8 h8 + m2 h2 − m3 h3 = 0
m8 h8 + m2 h2 m8 m
h3 = = h8 + 2 h2 = y h8 + (1 − y ) h2 = 0.5 ( 640.23) + (1 − 0.5 )(192.3) = 416.3kJ kg
m3 m3 m3
h4 = h3 + ∆hP , B = h3 + v f 3 ( P4 − P3 ) = 416.3 + ( 0.001043)( 8000 − 500 ) = 424.1kJ kg
Therefore,
⎛ 10 kg ⎞ kJ ⎛ 1kWs ⎞
Qin = ⎜ ⎟ ( 3398.3 − 424.1) ⎜ ⎟ = 29, 740 kW Answer
⎝ s ⎠ kg ⎝ 1kJ ⎠
WT , A = (10 )( 3398.3 − 2707.4 ) = 6,910 kW
WT , B = (1 − 0.5 )(10 )( 2707.4 − 2129.7 ) = 2,890 kW
WP , A = (1 − 0.5 )(10 )(192.3 − 191.83) = 2.4 kW
WP , B = (10 )( 424.1 − 416.3) = 78.0 kW
Wnet = 6,910 + 2,890 − 2.4 − 78 = 9720 kW Answer
Q process = ( 5 )( 2707.4 − 640.23) = 10,300 kW Answer
( 9, 720 + 10,300 ) kW
ηcogen = = 0.673 Answer
29, 740 kW
8- 87
8-66 A cogeneration plant is designed to provide 50 MW of electric power and 100 MW of process heating. A
reheat Rankine cycle is used. Steam exits the boiler at 10 MPa, 450 ºC and expands in a high-pressure
turbine (ηT = 85%) to a pressure of 0.8 MPa. Part of the steam is extracted and routed to the heating load
while the remainder is routed to a reheater in which the steam temperature is raised to 400 ºC. The
reheated steam is fed to the low-pressure turbine (ηT = 85%) and is expanded to the condenser pressure of
50 kPa; saturated liquid exits the condenser and is pumped to a mixing tank. Saturated liquid at 0.5 MPa
from the process heating load is drained into the mixing tank. The mixture exiting the mixing tank is
pumped to the boiler. Both pumps have an isentropic efficiency of 75%. Determine:
a. the mass flow rates through the high-pressure turbine, the process heating load, and the low-pressure
turbine (in kg/s)
b. the total heat input (in MW)
c. the cogeneration system efficiency.
Approach:
The process heating rate is given. Flow
to the process heater can be evaluated by
applying conservation of mass and energy
to it. Likewise, since the net power is
given, flow through the turbines can be
determined by application of conservation
of mass and energy to the turbines and
pumps. Total heat input is obtained by
application of conservation of mass and
energy to the boiler and reheater.
Assumptions:
effects.
3. No work done in the heat addition
process.
4. The pumps are isentropic.
Solution:
a) The mass flow rate through the process heater can be determined from mass and energy balances. Assuming
steady, no work, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects:
Q process + m9 h6 − m10 h10 = 0 → m9 = m10 = Q process ( h6 − h10 )
The flow through the turbines can be obtained from the net work produced and energy balances on the turbines
and pumps. Assuming steady, adiabatic, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects:
Wnet = WT , I + WT , II − WP , I − WP , II
WT , I = m5 ( h5 − h6 ) WT , II = m7 ( h7 − h8 ) = ( m5 − m9 )( h7 − h8 )
WP , I = m1 ( h2 − h1 ) = ( m5 − m9 )( h2 − h1 ) WP , II = m5 ( h4 − h3 )
Evaluating properties with the appropriate steam tables, Appendices A-10—A-12:
h1 = h f ( P1 ) = 340.49 kJ kg
For an incompressible fluid undergoing a reversible process
v f 1 ( P2 − P1 ) ( 0.00103m kg ) ( 500 − 50 ) kN m (1kJ 1kN-m )
3 2
kJ
h2 − h1 = ∆hP , I = = = 0.62
ηP 0.75 kg
∆hP , II v f 3 ( P4 − P3 ) ( 0.001093)(10000 − 500 ) kJ
h4 − h3 = = = = 13.8
ηP ηP 0.75 kg
h5 ( P5,T5 ) = 3240.9 kJ kg s5 = 6.4190 kJ kg K
For the isentropic turbine, s6 = s5 , and state 6 is in the two-phase region, so
8- 88
s6 − s fs 6.4190 − 2.0462
x6 s = = = 0.947
s fg 6 4.6166
h6 s ( P6 , s6 ) = h f 6 + x6 s h fg 6 = 721.11 + 0.947 ( 2048.0 ) = 2661.0 kJ kg
h6 = h5 − ηT ( h5 − h6 s ) = 3240.9 − ( 0.85 )( 3240.9 − 2661.0 ) = 2747.9 kJ kg
h7 ( P7 , T7 ) = 3267.1kJ kg s7 = 7.5716 kJ kg K
7.5716 − 1.0910
Likewise for the second turbine, with s8 = s7 : x8 s = = 0.997
6.5029
h8 s ( P8 , s8 ) = 340.49 + 0.997 ( 2305.4 ) = 2638.0 kJ kg
h8 = h7 − η s ,T ( h7 − h8 s ) = 3267.1 − 0.85 ( 3267.1 − 2638.0 ) = 2732.4 kJ kg
h10 = h f ( P10 ) = 640.23kJ kg
Therefore,
⎛ 1kJ ⎞
100, 000 kW ⎜ ⎟
m9 = ⎝ 1kWs ⎠ = 47.4 kg Answer
( 2747.9 − 640.23) kJ kg s
Wnet = m5 ( h5 − h6 ) + ( m5 − m9 )( h7 − h8 ) − ( m5 − m9 )( h2 − h1 ) − m5 ( h4 − h3 )
= m5 ⎡⎣( h5 − h6 ) + ( h7 − h8 ) − ( h2 − h1 ) − ( h4 − h3 ) ⎤⎦ − m9 ⎡⎣( h7 − h8 ) + ( h2 − h1 ) ⎤⎦
Wnet + m9 ⎡⎣( h7 − h8 ) + ( h2 − h1 ) ⎤⎦
m5 =
( h5 − h6 ) + ( h7 − h8 ) − ( h2 − h1 ) − ( h4 − h3 )
50000 kW + ( 47.4 ) ⎣⎡( 3267.1 − 2732.4 ) + 0.62 ⎦⎤ kW kg
= = 74.4 Answer
⎡⎣( 3240.9 − 2747.9 ) + ( 3267.1 − 2732.4 ) − 0.62 − 13.8⎤⎦ kJ kg s
m7 = m5 − m9 = 74.4 − 47.4 = 27.0 kg s Answer
b) Total heat input is obtained from a mass and energy balance around the boiler and reheater. Assuming steady,
no work, negligible potential and kinetic energy effects:
Qin = Qboiler +Qreheater = m5 ( h5 − h4 ) + m7 ( h7 − h6 )
h3 is obtained from an energy balance on the mixer, assuming steady, no work, negligible potential and kinetic
energy effects, and adiabatic:
m2 h2 + m10 h10 − m3 h3 = 0 → ( m5 − m9 ) h2 + m9 h10 − m5 h3 = 0
( m5 − m9 ) h2 + m9 h10 ( 27.0 )( 340.49 + 0.62 ) + 47.4 ( 640.23)
h3 = = = 531.7 kJ kg
m5 74.4
h4 = h3 + ∆hP , II = 531.7 + 13.8 = 545.5 kJ kg
Qin = 74.4 ( 3240.9 − 545.5 ) + 27.0 ( 3267.1 − 2747.9 ) = 214,560 kW Answer
c) The overall process efficiency is
W +Q process 50, 000 + 100, 000
ηcogen = net = = 0.699 Answer
Qin 214,560
8- 89
8-67 Air at 100 kPa, 300 K enters an ideal Otto cycle. The initial volume is 500 cm3. The compression ratio is
8.5, and the maximum temperature in the cycle is 2100 K. Using a cold-air-standard analysis, determine:
a. the heat addition (in kJ)
b. the heat rejection (in kJ)
c. the net work (in kJ)
Approach:
For the heat addition and rejection processes, apply
the closed system energy equation, and evaluate
properties using the isentropic ideal gas relations.
Assumptions:
3. All processes are ideal.
4. Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heat.
Solution:
a) The heat addition is obtained by applying the closed system energy equation to process 2-3. Neglecting
potential and kinetic energy effects
Q23 − W23 = ∆U = m ( u3 − u2 )
With no volume change W23 = 0 and assuming a cold-air-standard analysis where ∆u = cv ∆T
Q23 = mcv (T3 − T2 )
We will evaluate the properties after analyzing all processes.
b) The heat rejection is determined in a similar manner, except we analyze process 4-1
Q41 = mcv (T4 − T1 )
c) Net work is Wnet = Qnet = Qin − Qout = Q23 − Q41
d) Cycle thermal efficiency is ηcycle = Wnet Qin
Evaluating the properties, we begin with the ideal gas law to find the mass
m=
PV
1 1M
=
(100 kN m 2 )( 500 cm3 ) (1m 100 cm ) ( 28.97 kg kmol )
3
= 5.81× 10−4 kg
R T1 (8.314 kJ kmol K )( 300 K )
For isentropic process of ideal gas with constant specific heats
T2 = T1 (V1 V2 ) = T1 ( rV )
k −1 k −1
From the air tables in Appendix A-8 at 300K cv = 0.718 kJ kg K , k = 1.400 , with T1 = 300 K
T2 = 300 ( 8.5 )
1.4 −1
So that = 706.1K
T4 = T3 (V3 V4 ) = T3 (1 rV ) = 2100 K (1 8.5 )
k −1 k −1 1.4 −1
= 892.2 K
Therefore, Q23 = ( 5.81× 10 kg ) ( 0.718 kJ kg K )( 2100 − 706.1) = 0.581kJ
−4
Answer
Q41 = ( 5.81× 10−4 ) ( 0.718 )( 892.2 − 300 ) = 0.247 kJ Answer
Wnet = 0.581 − 0.247 = 0.334 kJ Answer
0.334 kJ
Cycle thermal efficiency is ηcycle = = 0.576 Answer
0.581kJ
8- 90
8-68 For Problem P 8-67, rework the problem with an air-standard analysis. Compare the results of these two
problems.
Approach:
Apply the closed system energy equation to the heat
addition and rejection processes. The properties are
evaluated using the air tables in appendix A.
Assumptions:
4. Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heat.
Solution:
Q23 − W23 = ∆U = m ( u3 − u2 )
With no volume change W23 = 0 , and Q23 = m ( u3 − u2 )
We will evaluate the properties after analyzing all processes.
Q41 = m ( u4 − u1 )
c) Net work is Wnet = Qnet = Qin − Qout = Q23 − Q41
d) Cycle thermal efficiency is ηcycle = Wnet Qin
Evaluating the properties, we begin with the ideal gas law to find the mass
m=
PV
1 1M
=
(100 kN m 2 )( 500 cm3 ) (1m 100 cm ) ( 28.97 kg kmol )
3
= 5.81× 10−4 kg
R T1 (8.314 kJ kmol K )( 300 K )
From ideal gas table Appendix A-9 u3 ( 2100 K ) = 1775.3kJ kg vr ,3 = 2.356
For u2 assume an isentropic process so that
vr 2 = vr1 (V2 V1 ) = vr1 (1 rV )
u1 ( 300 K ) = 214.07 kJ kg vr1 = 621.2
vr 2 = 621.2 (1 8.5 ) = 73.1 → by interpolation u2 = 503.1kJ kg
vr 4 = vr 3 (V4 V3 ) = vr 3 ( rV ) = 2.356 ( 8.5 ) = 20.03 → u4 = 827.2 kJ kg
Therefore Q23 = ( 5.81× 10 kg ) (1775.3 − 503.1) kJ kg = 0.739 kJ
−4
Answer
Q41 = ( 5.81× 10−4 ) ( 827.2 − 214.07 ) = 0.356 kJ Answer
Wnet = 0.739 − 0.356 = 0.383kJ Answer
0.383kJ
0.739 kJ
Comments:
Comparing the above air-standard results with the cold-air-standard result of problem P8-67 shows that variable
property effects can have a significant influence on the efficiency and net work.
8- 91
8-69 An ideal Otto cycle uses air as the working fluid. The minimum temperature in the cycle is 70 ºF, and the
maximum temperature is 2000 ºF. The compression ratio is 10. Using a cold-air-standard analysis,
determine:
a. the heat addition per unit mass (in Btu/lbm)
b. the heat rejection per unit mass (in Btu/lbm)
c. the net work per unit mass (in Btu/lbm)
d. the cycle thermal efficiency
e. the Carnot cycle efficiency when operating between the same two temperatures.
Approach:
Direct application of conservation of energy to each of
the processes is used.
Assumptions:
2. No work occurs during the heat transfer
processes.
3. The compression and expansion processes are
reversible and adiabatic (isentropic).
4. All properties are evaluated at room temperature.
Solution:
Q23 − W23 = ∆U = m ( u3 − u2 )
with no volume change W23 = 0 , and assuming a cold-air standard analysis where ∆u = cv ∆T
Q23 = m cv (T3 − T2 ) → Q23 m = cv (T3 − T2 )
Evaluating properties from Appendix B-8 at room temperature: cv = 0.172 Btu lbmiR , k = 1.400
T1 = 530 R
T2 = T1 (V1 V2 ) = T1 ( rv ) = 530 R (10 )
k −1 k −1 1.4 −1
= 1331.3R
T3 = 2460 R
k −1 k −1 1.4 −1
⎛V ⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
T4 = T3 ⎜ 3 ⎟ = T3 ⎜ ⎟ = 2460 R ⎜ ⎟ = 979.3R
⎝ V4 ⎠ ⎝ rv ⎠ ⎝ 10 ⎠
Q ⎛ Btu ⎞ Btu
Therefore, 23 = ⎜ 0.172 ⎟ ( 2460 − 1331.3) R=194.1 Answer
m ⎝ lbm R ⎠ lbm
Q41
Q41 = m cv (T4 − T1 ) → = cv (T4 − T1 )
m
Q41 Btu
= ( 0.172 )( 979.3 − 530 ) = 77.3 Answer
m lbm
c) Net work is Wnet = Qnet = Qin - Qout = Q23 − Q41
Wnet Btu
= 194.1 − 77.3 = 116.8 Answer
m lbm
d) Cycle thermal efficiency is
W W m 116.8 Btu lbm
ηcycle = net = net = = 0.602 Answer
Qin Qin m 194.1Btu lbm
e) The Carnot efficiency working between the same two temperature limits is:
T 530
ηCarnot = 1 − 1 = 1 − = 0.785 Answer
T3 2460
8- 92
8-70 Rework Problem P 8-69 using an air-standard analysis. Determine:
a. the heat addition per unit mass (in Btu/lbm)
b. the heat rejection per unit mass (in Btu/lbm)
c. the net work per unit mass (in Btu/lbm)
d. the cycle thermal efficiency
e. the Carnot cycle efficiency when operating between the same two temperatures.
Approach:
Assumptions:
processes.
Solution:
Q23 − W23 = ∆U = m ( u3 − u2 )
With no volume change W23 = 0 , so that
Q23 m = u3 − u2
Evaluating the properties using Appendix A-9
u1 ( 530 R ) = 90.3Btu lbm vr1 = 151.4
with an isentropic process from 2-3
⎛V ⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
vr 2 = vr1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ = vr1 ⎜ ⎟ = 151.4 ⎜ ⎟ = 15.14 → u2 = 226.3Btu lbm
V
⎝ 1⎠ r
⎝ v⎠ ⎝ 10 ⎠
u3 ( 2460 R ) = 465.7 Btu lbm vr 3 = 2.238
⎛V ⎞
vr 4 = vr 3 ⎜ 4 ⎟ = vr 3 ( rv ) = 2.238 (10 ) = 22.38 → u4 = 194.0 Btu lbm
⎝ V3 ⎠
Therefore,
Q23 m = 465.7 − 226.3 = 239.4 Btu lbm Answer
Q41 m = u4 − u1 = 194.0 − 90.3 = 103.7 Btu lbm Answer
c) Net work is Wnet = Qnet = Qin - Qout = Q23 − Q41
Wnet m = 239.4 − 103.7 = 135.7 Btu lbm Answer
d) Cycle thermal efficiency is
W W m 135.7 Btu lbm
Qin Qin m 239.4 Btu lbm
e) The Carnot efficiency working between the same two temperature limits is:
T 530
ηCarnot = 1 − 1 = 1 − = 0.785 Answer
T3 2460
Comment:
Comparing the cold-air-standard analysis with the air-standard analysis, using properties that vary with
temperature, the net work increased and the cycle efficiency decreased when operating this Otto cycle with the
same compression ratio.
8- 93
8-71 Air at 100 kPa, 33ºC enters an ideal Otto cycle. The peak pressure and temperature in the cycle are 4.6
MPa and 1950 ºC, respectively. Using an air-standard analysis, determine:
a. the net work per unit mass (in kJ/kg)
Approach:
Because net work is equal to net heat transfer, apply
conservation of energy for a closed system to the heat
addition and heat rejection processes to determine net
work. Evaluate properties using the ideal gas tables.
Assumptions:
3. Air is the working fluid.
Solution:
a) The net work is Wnet = Qin - Qout = Q23 − Q41 . Applying the closed system energy equation to the two
processes, neglecting potential and kinetic energy effects, and noting that with no volume change W = 0 :
Q23 = m ( u3 − u2 ) and Q41 = m ( u4 − u1 )
We need to evaluate the four internal energies. From the air table, Appendix A-9:
u1 ( 310 K ) = 221.25 kJ kg vr1 = 572.3
vr 2 v2 v3
For state 2 = = using the ideal gas law
vr1 v1 v1
RT vr 2 v3 PT
v= so that = = 1 3
MP vr1 v1 P3T1
PT (100 kPa )( 2223K )
so vr 2 = vr1 1 3
= 572.3 = 89.22 → by interpolation u2 = 465.1kJ kg
P3T1 ( 4600 kPa )( 310 K )
u3 ( 2223K ) = 1894.9 kJ kg vr 3 = 1.944
P3T1 ( 4600 kPa )( 310 K )
Similar to process 1-2, vr 4 = vr 3 = 1.944 = 12.47 → u4 = 985.9 kJ kg
PT
1 3 (100 kPa )( 2223K )
Q23 kJ
Therefore, = 1894.9 − 465.1 = 1429.8 Answer
m kg
Q41 kJ
= 985.9 − 221.25 = 764.7 Answer
m kg
Wnet kJ
= 1429.8 − 764.7 = 665.1 Answer
m kg
b) Cycle thermal efficiency is

W W m 665.1kJ kg
Qin Qin m 1429.8 kJ kg
8- 94
8-72 Otto cycles are used in spark-ignition engines. Too high a compression ratio will cause gasoline to
autoignite (that is, ignite without the use of a spark) and the engine will “knock.” If the autoignition
temperature of gasoline is 700 ºF and the air-fuel mixture is compressed isentropically, determine the
maximum compression ratio that will prevent autoignition at the end of the compression stroke. Perform
the calculations for initial air temperatures of 0, 40, 80, and 120 ºF.
Approach:
The basic definition of compression ratio is used,
along with the relative volume function listed in the
ideal gas tables in appendix B.
Assumptions:
3. Air is the working fluid.
Solution:
We know T1 = 0, 40, 80, 120 F or T1 = 460, 500, 540, 580 R . To prevent auto ignition, T2 must be less
than 760 F=1160 R . For an isentropic compression of an ideal gas and using the relative volume:
vr1 V1
= = rV
vr 2 V2
From the air table, Appendix B-9, at T2 = 1160 R vr 2 = 20.29
T1 ( R ) υ r1 Maximum rV
460 215.33 10.6
500 174.90 8.62 Answers
540 144.32 7.11
580 120.70 5.95
Comments:
These results show that as the ambient air temperature increases, an Otto cycle would be more prone to “knock”
since the compression ratio is fixed.
8- 95
8-73 Air at 96 kPa, 27 ºC enters an eight-cylinder, four-stroke Otto cycle that operates at 3,000 RPM. Each
cylinder has a bore of 9 cm and a stroke of 8.5 cm. At top dead center, the volume is 15% of the cylinder
volume at bottom dead center. The maximum temperature in the cycle is 2200 K. Using an air-standard
analysis, determine:
a. the net work per cycle per cylinder (in kJ)
b. the cycle thermal efficiency
c. the power developed (in kW and hp).
Approach:
For a cycle net work is equal to net heat transfer.
Apply conservation of energy to the heat addition and
heat rejection processes to determine the heat transfer.
Evaluate properties using the ideal gas tables.
Assumptions:
3. Air is the working fluid and is an ideal gas.
Solution:
a) The net work per cycle Wnet = Qnet = Q23 − Q41
Applying the closed system energy equation to these processes, neglecting potential and kinetic energy effects,
and noting that no work occurs during processes 2-3 and 4-1: Q23 = m ( u3 − u2 ) and Q41 = m ( u4 − u1 )
PV
1 1M
Evaluating the properties from the air tables and using the ideal gas equation to determine the mass: m =
R T1
Volume 1 needs to be determined. From the given geometry
V1 − V2 = π B 2 S 4 = (π 4 )( 0.09 m ) ( 0.085 m ) = 5.41× 10−4 m3
2
We are also given V2 = 0.15V1 . Therefore, combining these two equations we obtain
V1 = 6.36 × 10−4 m3 and V2 = 0.954 × 10−4 m3
The compression ratio is rV = V1 V2 = 6.67
m=
PV
1 1M
=
( 96 kN m 2 )( 6.36 × 10−4 m3 ) ( 28.97 kg kmol )
= 7.09 × 10 −4 kg
R T1 (8.314 kJ kmol K )( 300 K )
From the air table, Appendix A-9: u1 ( 300 K ) = 214.02 kJ kg vr1 = 621.2
vr 2 = vr1 (V2 V1 ) = 621.2 (1 6.67 ) = 93.18 by interpolation u2 = 457.1kJ kg
u3 ( 2200 K ) = 1872.4 kJ kg vr 3 = 2.012
vr 4 = vr 3 (V4 V3 ) = 2.012 ( 6.67 ) = 13.41 → u4 = 959.9 kJ kg
Therefore, Q23 = ( 7.09 × 10 kg ) (1872.4 − 457.1) kJ kg = 1.003kJ
−4
Answer
Q41 = ( 7.09 × 10−4 ) ( 959.9 − 214.07 ) = 0.529 kJ Answer
Wnet = 1.003 − 0.529 = 0.475 kJ Answer
Note that these results are per cylinder
W W 0.475 kJ
b) Cycle thermal efficiency ηcycle = net = net = = 0.473 Answer
Qin Q23 1.003kJ
c) Power developed can be calculated following the procedure given in Example 8-15.
⎛ kJ ⎞ ⎛ rev ⎞⎛ 1min ⎞ ⎛ 1kW s ⎞
⎜ 0.475 ⎟ ( 8cylinders ) ⎜ 3000 ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
Wnet n N ⎝ cylinder-powerstroke ⎠ ⎝ min ⎠⎝ 60s ⎠ ⎝ 1 kJ ⎠
Wnet = =
X rev
2
powerstroke
= 95 kW = 127 hp Answer
8- 96
8-74 An eight-cylinder, four-stroke Otto cycle runs at 5000 rpm. The compression ratio is 12.2, and the engine
displacement is 396 in3. Air enters the engine at 14.4 psia, 70 ºF. The maximum temperature in the engine
is 4000 ºF. Using an air-standard analysis, determine:
a. the net work per cycle per cylinder (in Btu)
c. the net power output (in kW and hp)
d. the airflow through the engine (in ft3/min).
Approach:
The approach used in Example 8-15 can be followed.
Assumptions:
Solution:
a) The net work per cycle is Wnet = Qnet = Q23 − Q41
Applying the closed system energy equation to processes 2-3 and 4-1, neglecting potential and kinetic energy
effects, and noting that W23 = W41 = 0 , Q23 = m ( u3 − u2 ) and Q41 = m ( u4 − u1 )
Using the ideal gas equation for one cylinder
PV M (14.4 lbf in. )( 49.5in. ) ( 28.97 lbm lbmol )(1ft 12in.)
2 3
m= 1 1 = = 0.0021 lbm
R T1 (1545ft-lbf lbmol R )( 530R )
Evaluating properties from the ideal gas table, Appendix B-9:
u1 ( 530 R ) = 90.33Btu lbm vr1 = 151.4
vr 2 = vr1 (V2 V1 ) = vr1 (1 rV ) = 151.4 (1 12.2 ) = 12.41 by interpolation u2 = 244.6 Btu lbm
u3 ( 4460 R ) = 922.0 Btu lbm vr 3 = 0.3116
vr 4 = vr 3 ( rV ) = 0.3116 (12.2 ) = 3.802 → u4 = 394.1Btu lbm
Therefore, Q23 = ( 0.0021lbm )( 922.0 − 244.6 ) Btu lbm = 1.423 Btu Answer
Q41 = ( 0.0021)( 394.1 − 90.33) = 0.638 Btu Answer
Wnet = 1.423 − 0.638 = 0.785 Btu Answer
Note that these quantities are per cylinder.
W W 0.785Btu
b) Cycle thermal efficiency ηcycle = net = net = = 0.552 Answer
Qin Q23 1.423Btu
c) Net power produced can be calculated following the procedure given in Example 8-15.
⎛ Btu ⎞ ⎛ rev ⎞ ⎛ 60 min ⎞ ⎛ 1hp hr ⎞
⎜ 0.785 ⎟ ( 8cylinders ) ⎜ 5000 ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
W nN ⎝ cylinder-powerstroke ⎠ ⎝ min ⎠ ⎝ 1hr ⎠ ⎝ 2545Btu ⎠
Wnet = net =
X rev
2
powerstroke
= 370 hp = 276 kW Answer
d) Air flow through the engine can be determined from the net power
⎛ 2454 Btu ⎞ ⎛ 1hr ⎞
( 0.0021lbm )( 370 hp ) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎛ Wnet ⎞
Wnet = m ⎜ → m =
mWnet
= ⎝ hp hr ⎠ ⎝ 60 min ⎠ = 5.06 lbm
⎟ 8 ( 0.785 Btu )
⎝ m ⎠ Wnet min
⎛ ft-lbf ⎞ ⎛ lbm ⎞
⎜ 1545 ⎟ ( 530 R ) ⎜ 5.06 ⎟
R T1 lbmol R ⎠ ⎝ min ⎠ ft 3
V = vm = m= ⎝ = 69.0 Answer
P1 M ⎛ lbf ⎞⎛ lbm ⎞ ⎛ in.2 ⎞ min
⎜ 14.4 2 ⎟⎜ 28.97 ⎟ ⎜144 2 ⎟
⎝ in. ⎠⎝ lbmol ⎠⎝ ft ⎠
8- 97
8-75 Many motorcycles have two-stroke engines. Assume we have a two-cylinder, 250 cm3 displacement
engine that operates on an ideal Otto cycle at 4500 RPM. The compression ratio is 9. Air enters the engine
at 14.7 lbf/in.2, 77 ºF and peak temperature is 3690 ºF. Using an air-standard analysis, determine:
a. the net work per cylinder (in Btu)
c. the net power output (in kW and hp).
d. What is the cycle efficiency if a cold-air-standard analysis is used?
Approach:
Assumptions:
Solution:
a) The net work per cycle is Wnet = Qin - Qout = Q23 − Q41
Applying the closed system energy equation to processes 2-3 and 4-1, neglecting potential and kinetic energy
effects, and noting that W23 = W41 = 0 :
Q23 = m ( u2 − u3 ) and Q41 = m ( u4 − u1 )
Using the ideal gas equation for one cylinder
m=
PV
1 1M
=
(14.7 lbf in.2 )(125 cm3 ) (1in. 2.54 cm ) ( 28.97 lbm lbmol )(1ft 12in.)
3
= 3.26 × 10−4 lbm

R T1 (1545ft-lbf lbmol R )( 537 R )
Evaluating properties from the ideal gas table, Appendix B-9:
u1 ( 537 R ) = 91.53Btu lbm vr1 = 146.34
vr 2 = vr1 (V2 V1 ) = vr 2 (1 rV ) = 146.34 (1 9 ) = 16.26 by interpolation u2 = 220.1Btu lbm
u3 ( 4150 R ) = 849.9 Btu lbm vr 3 = 0.3985
vr 4 = vr 3 ( rV ) = 0.3985 ( 9 ) = 3.587 → u4 = 391.9 Btu lbm
Therefore,
Q23 = ( 3.26 × 10−4 lbm ) ( 849.09 − 220.1) Btu lbm = 0.205 Btu Answer
Q41 = ( 3.26 × 10−4 ) ( 391.9 − 91.53) = 0.0979Btu Answer
Wnet = 0.205 − 0.0979 = 0.107 Btu Answer
These numbers are for one cylinder
Wnet Wnet 0.107 Btu
b) Cycle thermal efficiency is ηcycle =
= = = 0.523 Answer
Qin Q23 0.205 Btu
c) Net power produced can be calculated following the procedure given in Example 8-15
⎛ 0.107 Btu ⎞ ⎛ rev ⎞ ⎛ 60 min ⎞ ⎛ 1hp hr ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ( 2 cylinders ) ⎜ 4500 ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
Wnet n N ⎝ cylinder-powerstroke ⎠ ⎝ min ⎠ ⎝ 1hr ⎠ ⎝ 2545Btu ⎠
Wnet = =
X rev
1
powerstroke
= 22.7 hp = 16.9 kW Answer
8- 98
8-76 Air at 14.7 lbf/in.2, 80 ºF enters a Diesel cycle, which has a compression ratio of 15 and a cutoff ratio of
2.2. The volume at the beginning of the compression process is 0.45 ft3. Using an air-standard analysis,
determine:
a. the heat addition (in Btu)
b. the maximum temperature in the cycle (in R)
c. the heat rejection (in Btu)
Approach:
Assumptions:
Solution:
a) The heat added is obtained by an energy balance on process 2-3. Neglecting potential and kinetic energy
effects
Q23 − W23 = U 3 − U 2
For a reversible closed system, with constant pressure
W23 = ∫ P dV = P (V3 − V2 ) = PV
3 3 − P2V2
So that Q23 = (U 3 + PV
3 3 ) − (U 2 + P2V2 ) = m ( h3 − h2 )
Evaluating the mass with the ideal gas equation

PV M (14.7 lbf in. )( 0.45ft ) ( 28.97 lbm lbmol ) (144in. 1ft )
2 3 2 2
m= 1 1 = = 0.033 lbm
From the ideal gas table, Appendix B-9:
h1 ( 540 R ) = 129.06 Btu lbm u1 = 92.04 Btu lbm vr1 = 144.32
vr 2 = vr1 (V2 V1 ) = vr1 (1 rV ) = 144.32 15 = 9.62 by interpolation h2 = 373.9 Btu lbm and T2 = 1517.7 R
For state 3 (constant pressure), using the ideal gas law
P V M PV M ⎛V ⎞
m= 2 2 = 3 3 → T3 = T2 ⎜ 3 ⎟ = T2 rC = (1517.7 R ) 2.2 = 3338 R
R T2 R T3 ⎝ V2 ⎠
h3 = 890.6 Btu lbm vr 3 = 0.8293
Therefore,
Q23 = ( 0.033lbm )( 890.6 − 373.9 ) Btu lbm = 17.1Btu Answer
b) As shown above T3 = 3338 R=2878 F Answer
c) The heat rejection is obtained by an energy balance on process 4-1; neglecting potential and kinetic energy
effects, and noting W41 = 0
Q41 = m ( u4 − u1 )
For state 4 with an isentropic expansion and using the relative volume:
⎛V V ⎞ ⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 15 ⎞
vr 4 = vr 3 (V4 V3 ) = vr 3 (V1 V3 ) = vr 3 ⎜ 1 2 ⎟ = vr 3 ⎜ V ⎟ = 0.8293 ⎜ ⎟ = 5.655
⎝ V2 V3 ⎠ ⎝ rC ⎠ ⎝ 2.2 ⎠
by interpolation u4 = 330.6 Btu lbm
Therefore, Q41 = 0.033 ( 330.6 − 92.04 ) = 7.87 Btu Answer
d) The cycle thermal efficiency is
Q Q 7.87 Btu
ηcycle = 1- out = 1 − 41 = 1 − = 0.540 Answer
Qin Q23 17.1Btu
8- 99
8-77 Air at 100 kPa, 300 K enters a Diesel cycle, which has a compression ratio of 18 and a volume at the
beginning of the compression process of 0.05 m3. The maximum temperature of the cycle is 2200 K.
Using an air-standard analysis, determine:
a. the net work per cycle (in kJ)
c. the cutoff ratio
Approach:
Direct application of conservation of energy to each
of the processes is used.
Assumptions:
processes.
Solution:
a) The net work is
Wnet = Qnet = Qin - Qout = Q23 − Q41
Applying the energy equation to these two processes (2-3 and 4-1), with the above assumptions
Q23 = m ( h3 − h2 ) and Q41 = m ( u4 − u1 )
Evaluating mass with the ideal gas equation
PV M (100 kN m )( 0.05 m ) ( 28.97 kg kgmol )
2 3
m= 1 1 = = 0.0581kg
R T1 (8.314 kJ kgmoliK )( 300 K )
Evaluating the properties using Appendix A-9:
u1 ( 300 K ) = 214.07 kJ kg vr1 = 596.0
⎛V ⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ kJ
vr 2 = vr1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ = vr1 ⎜ ⎟ = 596.0 ⎜ ⎟ = 33.1 → h2 = 945.6
V
⎝ 1⎠ r
⎝ v⎠ 18
⎝ ⎠ kg
h3 ( 2200 K ) = 2503.2 kJ kg vr 3 = 2.012
⎛V ⎞ ⎛V ⎞ ⎛V V ⎞
vr 4 = vr 3 ⎜ 4 ⎟ = vr 3 ⎜ 1 ⎟ = vr 3 ⎜ 1 2 ⎟
⎝ V3 ⎠ ⎝ V3 ⎠ ⎝ V2 V3 ⎠
Using ideal gas equation for V2 V3
P2V2 M PV M V2 T2
m= = 3 3 ⇒ =
R T2 R T3 V3 T3
from h2 → T2 = 911.3K so that
⎛ 911.3 ⎞ kJ
vr 4 = 2.012 (18 ) ⎜ ⎟ = 15.0 → u4 = 921.1
⎝ 2200 ⎠ kg
Therefore, Q23 = ( 0.0581kg )( 2503.2 − 945.6 ) kJ kg = 90.5 kJ
Q41 = ( 0.0581)( 921.1 − 214.07 ) = 41.08 kJ
Wnet = 90.5 − 41.08 = 49.42 kJ Answer
b) Cycle thermal efficiency
W W 49.42 kJ
η = net = net = = 0.546 Answer
Qin Q23 90.5 kJ
V3 T3 2200 K
c) Cut off ratio, rc = = = = 2.41 Answer
V2 T2 911.3K
8-100
8-78 For Problem P 8-77, rework the problem using a cold-air-standard analysis and compare the results of the
two problems.
Approach:
Assumptions:
Solution:
a) Following Problem P 8-77
Q23 = m ( h3 − h2 ) and Q41 = m ( u2 − u1 )
For the cold-air standard analysis, specific heats are constant and evaluated of room temperature, so that
∆h = cP ∆T and ∆u = cV ∆T
From Appendix A-8, c p = 1.005 kJ kg K , cv = 0.718 kJ kg K , k = 1.40
Mass is as was calculated before m = 0.0581kg
For an isentropic process of ideal gas with constant specific heats, with T1 = 300 K
T2 = T1 (V1 V2 ) = T1 ( rV ) = 300 K (18 )
k −1 k −1 1.4 −1
= 953.3K
Likewise for the process 3-4, with T3 = 2200 K
k −1 k −1 k −1
⎛V ⎞ ⎛V ⎞ ⎛V V ⎞
T4 = T3 ⎜ 3 ⎟ = T3 ⎜ 3 ⎟ = T3 ⎜ 3 2 ⎟
⎝ V4 ⎠ ⎝ V1 ⎠ ⎝ V2 V1 ⎠
Using the ideal gas equation for V3 V2
P2V2 M PV M V3 T3
m= = 3 3 → =
R T2 R T3 V2 T2
1.4 −1
⎡⎛ 2200 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
so that T4 = 2200 ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎥ = 967.4 K
⎣⎝ 953.3 ⎠ ⎝ rV ⎠ ⎦
Therefore
Q23 = ( 0.0581kg )(1.005 kJ kg K )( 2200 − 953.3) K = 72.8 kJ Answer
Q41 = ( 0.0581)( 0.718 )( 967.4 − 300 ) = 27.8 kJ Answer
Wnet = 72.8 − 27.8 = 45.0 kJ Answer
b) The cycle thermal efficiency is

W W 45.0 kJ
Qin Q23 72.8 kJ
V3 T3 2200 K
c) The cutoff ratio is rC = = = = 2.31 Answer
V2 T2 953.3K
Comments:
Comparing the present results with those from P 8-77, we can see that incorporating the temperature effect on the
air properties reduces the cycle thermal efficiency from 0.618 to 0.546. Because we used a cold-air-standard
analysis, we could have used the following equation to calculate the cycle thermal efficiency:
1 ⎡ r k −1 ⎤ 1 ⎡ 2.311.4 − 1 ⎤
ηcycle = 1 − k −1 ⎢ c ⎥ = 1 − 1.4 −1 ⎢ ⎥ = 0.618
rV ⎣⎢ k ( rC − 1) ⎦⎥ 18 ⎣⎢1.4 ( 2.31 − 1) ⎦⎥
8-101
8-79 A Diesel cycle produces net work of 617 kJ/kg of air flowing through the cycle with a heat addition of 947
kJ/kg. Air enters the compressor at 27 ºC and leaves at 727 ºC. Using a cold-air-standard analysis,
determine:
a. the compression ratio
b. the maximum temperature in the cycle
d. the cutoff ratio.
Approach:
Direct application of definitions and the conservation
of energy are used to determine the quantities sought.
Assumptions:
Solution:
a) The compression ratio is defined as: rV = V1 V2 . To evaluate this from the given information, use the
following expression for an isentropic process of an ideal gas with constant specific heat:
k −1 1 ( k −1)
T2 ⎛ V1 ⎞ ⎛T ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ → rV = ⎜ 2 ⎟
T1 ⎝ V2 ⎠ ⎝ T1 ⎠
For air at room temperature c p = 1.005 kJ kg K , and k = 1.40
1 (1.4 −1)
⎛ 1000 K ⎞
Therefore, rV = ⎜ ⎟ = 20.29 Answer
⎝ 300 K ⎠
b) The maximum temperature T3 can be obtained from qin . Applying the closed system energy balance to
process 2-3, neglecting potential and kinetic energy effects:
qin = q23 = h3 − h2 = cP (T3 − T2 )
qin ( 947 kJ kg )
T3 = + T2 = + 1000 K = 1942 K Answer
cp (1.005 kJ kg K )
c) The cycle thermal efficiency is
w 617 kJ kg
ηcycle = in = = 0.651 Answer
qin 947 kJ kg
d) The cut off ratio is
V
rC = 3
V2
For the constant pressure process ( P2 = P3 ) , using the ideal gas equation
P2V2 M PV M T3 V3
m= = 3 3 → = = rC
R T2 R T3 T2 V2
T3 1942 K
rC = = = 1.942 Answer
T2 1000 K
Comments:
Note that for the cold-air-standard analysis, we can use ηcycle = 1 −
(r
C
k
− 1)
= 0.651
kr
V
k −1
( rC − 1)
8-102
8-80 Air at 102 kPa, 7 ºC enters a six-cylinder, four-stroke Diesel engine whose total displacement is 5.0 L,
compression ratio is 20, and cutoff ratio is 2. The engine runs at 2000 RPM. Using an air standard
analysis, determine:
a. the power produced (in kW and hp)
Approach:
The approach used in Examples 8-15 and 16 can be
followed.
Assumptions:
Solution:
a) From Example 8-15, we have
W nN
Wnet = net
X
where n is the number of cylinders, N is the rotational speed, X = 2 rev/powerstroke , and Wnet is for one
cylinder. To get net work
Wnet = Qnet = Qin - Qout = Q23 − Q41
Applying the energy equations to these processes, 2-3 and 4-1, assuming negligible potential and kinetic energy
effects, and noting that W23 = W41 = 0 we obtain
Q23 = m ( h3 − h2 ) and Q41 = m ( u4 − u1 )
Evaluating the mass in one cylinder with the ideal gas equation
PV M (102 kN m ) ( 5.0 6 L ) (10 m 1L ) ( 28.97 kg kg mol )
2 −3 3
m= 1 1 = = 0.00106 kg
R T1 (8.314 kJ kmol K )( 280 K )
From the ideal gas table in Appendix A-9:
u1 = ( 280 K ) = 199.75 kJ kg vr1 = 738.0
⎛ V2 ⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
υ r 2 = υ r1 ⎜⎟ = υr1 ⎜ ⎟ = 738 ⎜ ⎟ = 36.9 by interpolation h2 = 908.0 kJ kg and T2 = 877.7 K
⎝ V1 ⎠ ⎝ rV ⎠ ⎝ 20 ⎠
For state 3, using the constant pressure process for an ideal gas
P V M PV M ⎛V ⎞
m= 2 2 = 3 3 → T3 = T2 ⎜ 3 ⎟ = T2 rC = ( 877.7 K )( 2 ) = 1755.4 K
R T2 R T3 ⎝ V2 ⎠
By interpolation h3 = 1948.2 kJ kg vr 3 = 4.287
⎛V ⎞ ⎛V ⎞ ⎛V V ⎞ ⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 20 ⎞
vr 4 = vr 3 ⎜ 4 ⎟ = vr 3 ⎜ 1 ⎟ = vr 3 ⎜ 1 2 ⎟ = vr 3 ⎜ V ⎟ = 4.287 ⎜ ⎟ = 42.87 → u4 = 619.4 kJ kg
⎝ V3 ⎠ ⎝ V3 ⎠ ⎝ V2 V3 ⎠ ⎝ rC ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Therefore,
Q23 = ( 0.00106 kg )(1948.2 − 908.0 ) kJ kg = 1.10 kJ Answer
Q41 = 0.00106 ( 619.4 − 199.75 ) = 0.445 kJ Answer
Wnet = 1.10 − 0.445 = 0.655 kJ Answer
⎛ 0.655 kJ ⎞ ⎛ rev ⎞ ⎛ 1min ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ( 6 cylinders ) ⎜ 2000 ⎟⎜ ⎟
cylinder-powerstroke ⎝ min ⎠ ⎝ 60s ⎠
Wnet = ⎝ ⎠ = 65.5 kW = 87.9 hp Answer
rev
2
powerstroke
b) The cycle thermal efficiency is
W W 0.655 kJ
Qin Q23 1.10 kJ
8-103
8-81 Rework Problem P 8-80 with cutoff ratios of 1.5 and 2.5, and discuss the results.
Approach:
The approach used in Examples 8-15 and 16 can be
followed.
Assumptions:
Solution:
For the engine given in Problem P 8-80, the cutoff ratio, rC , is varied. The analysis is the same. States 1 and 2 do
not change; states 3 and 4 do change. From the solution to Problem P 8-80:
Q23 = m ( h3 − h2 )
Q41 = m ( u4 − u1 )
Wnet = Q23 − Q41
Wnet n N
Wnet =
X
Wnet
ηcycle =
Q23
m = 0.00106 kg
u1 = 199.75 kJ kg h2 = 908.0 kJ kg T2 = 877.7 K
T3 = T2 rC
⎛r ⎞
We need to evaluate h3 and Vr 3 . Using vr 4 = vr 3 ⎜ V ⎟ , we can evaluate u4 by interpolation.
⎝ rC ⎠
Answers
⎛ kJ ⎞ ⎛ kJ ⎞
rC T3 ( K ) h3 ⎜ ⎟ vr 3 vr 4 u4 ⎜ ⎟ Q23 ( kJ ) Q41 ( kJ ) Wnet ( kW ) ηcycle
⎝ kg ⎠ ⎝ kg ⎠
1.5 1316.6 1415.7 10.84 144.5 384.2 0.538 0.196 34.3 0.636
2.0 1755.4 1948.2 4.287 42.87 619.4 1.103 0.445 65.5 0.595
2.5 2194.3 2496.0 2.031 16.25 894.3 1.683 0.736 94.7 0.563
Comments:
The effect of an increasing cutoff ratio is to decrease the cycle thermal efficiency and to increase the power
output. Nothing the P-V diagram, with increased cutoff ratio, the area enclosed by the curve (net work) increases;
with fixed engine speed, this results in more power.
8-104
8-82 Air at 14.7 psia, 40 ºF enters an ideal four-stroke Diesel cycle that has a compression ratio of 20 and a
displacement of 300 in3. It runs at 2100 RPM, and the maximum temperature is 3300 ºF. The fuel has an
energy content of 19,360 Btu/lbm. Determine:
a. the power output of the engine (in hp and kW)
c. the fuel consumption rate (in lbm/hr).
Approach:
The approach used in Examples 8-15 and 16 is used.
Assumptions:
Solution:
Wnet n N
a) From Example 8-15 we have Wnet = where n = 1 (the number of cylinders).
X
To obtain net work Wnet = Qnet = Qin − Qout = Q23 − Q41
Applying the energy equation to these processes 2-3 and 4-1, neglecting potential and kinetic energy effects, and
noting that there is no work in process 4-1, we obtain Q23 = m ( h3 − h2 ) and Q41 = m ( u4 − u1 )
Evaluating the mass in the total volume with the ideal gas equation
PV M (14.7 lbf in. )( 300in. ) ( 28.97 lbm lbmol )(1ft 12in.)
2 3
m= 1 1 = = 0.0138 lbm
Evaluating the properties using the ideal gas table, Appendix B-9:
u1 ( 500 R ) = 85.20 Btu lbm vr1 = 174.90
vr 2 = vr1 (V2 V1 ) = 174.90 (1 20 ) = 8.745 by interpolation h2 = 387.5 Btu lbm and T2 = 1569R
h3 ( 3760 R ) = 1016.1Btu lbm vr 3 = 0.5572
⎛ V4
⎞ ⎛ V1 ⎞ ⎛ V1 V2 ⎞ ⎛ rV ⎞ V3
υr 4 = υr 3 ⎜
⎟ = υr 3 ⎜ ⎟ = υr 3 ⎜ ⎟ = υr 3 ⎜ ⎟ where rC =
⎝ V3
⎠ V
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ V2 V3 ⎠ ⎝ rC ⎠ V2
For the constant pressure process, P2 = P3
P2V2 M PV M V3 T3 3760 R
m= = 3 3 → = = rC rC = = 2.396
R T2 R T3 V2 T2 1569 R
so that vr 4 = 0.5572 ( 20 2.396 ) = 4.651 → u4 = 355.7 Btu lbm
Q23 = ( 0.0138lbm )(1016.1 − 387.5 ) Btu lbm = 8.67 Btu
Q41 = ( 0.0138 )( 355.7 − 85.20 ) = 3.73Btu
Wnet = 8.67 − 3.73 = 4.94 Btu
⎛ Btu ⎞⎛ rev ⎞⎛ 60 min ⎞⎛ 1hp hr ⎞
⎜ 4.94 ⎟ ⎜ 2100 ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
powerstroke ⎝ min ⎠⎝ 1 hr ⎠⎝ 2545Btu ⎠
Wnet = ⎝ ⎠ = 122.3hp = 91kW Answer
rev
2
powerstroke
W W 4.94 Btu
b) The cycle thermal efficiency ηcycle = net = net = = 0.57 Answer
Qin Q23 8.67 Btu
Wnet (122.3hp ) ⎛ 2545Btu ⎞ Btu
c) Fuel consumption is Qin = = ⎜ ⎟ = 546, 270
ηcycle 0.57 ⎝ 1hp hr ⎠ hr
The fuel energy content is 19,360 Btu lbm . Therefore,
546, 270 Btu hr lbm
m fuel = = 28.2 Answer
19,360 Btu lbm hr
8-105
8-83 For an ideal Diesel cycle, assuming the compression and cutoff ratios are known, use a cold-air-standard
analysis to develop the Diesel cycle thermal efficiency expression (Eq. 8-61).
Approach:
Begin with the definition of cycle thermal efficiency,
and apply the energy equation to the heat addition and
rejection processes. Use the definitions of
compression and cutoff ratio along with the isentropic
ideal gas relations to simplify the efficiency
expression.
Assumptions:
Solution:
The Diesel cycle thermal efficiency is ηcycle = Wnet Qin = 1 − Qout Qin = 1 − qout qin = 1 − q41 q23 (1)
Applying the closed system energy equation to process 2-3, and ignoring potential and kinetic energy effects:
Q23 − W23 = ∆U = m ( u2 − u1 ) OR q23 − w23 = u3 − u2 → q23 = ( u3 − u2 ) + w23
For a reversible process of a closed system w = ∫ Pdv .
Pressure is constant from 2 to 3, so w23 = P ( v3 − v2 ) = P3 v3 − P2 v2 . Substituting this into the energy equation, we
obtain q23 = ( u3 − u2 ) + ( P3 v3 − P2 v2 ) = ( u3 + Pv3 ) − ( u2 + P2 v2 ) = h3 − h2
(2)
For an ideal gas with constant specific heat ∆h = cP ∆T , so that q23 = cP (T3 − T2 )
A similar approach is used for process 4-1, q41 − w41 = u4 − u1 → q41 = ( u4 − u1 ) + w41 (3)
Note, however, because V4 = V1 , w41 = 0 , so that q41 = u4 − u1
For an ideal gas with constant specific heat ∆u = cV ∆T , so that q41 = cV (T4 − T1 )
cv (T4 − T1 )
Combining these three relations (Eqs. 1, 2, and 3), we obtain ηcycle = 1 −
cP (T3 − T2 )
T1 (T4 T1 − 1)
but c p cv = k . Rearranging the equation, we get ηcycle = 1 −
k T2 (T3 T2 − 1)
We define rV = V1 V2 and rC = V3 V2 . For the constant pressure process ( P2 = P3 ) , using the ideal gas
equation
P2V2 M PV M T3 V3
m= = 3 3 ⇒ = = rC
R T2 R T3 T2 V2
k −1
T1 ⎛ V2 ⎞ 1
For an isentropic process of an ideal gas with constant specific heat =⎜ ⎟ = k −1
T2 ⎝ V1 ⎠ rV
For the constant volume process (V4 = V1 )

k −1 k −1 k −1 k −1 k −1
T4 T4 T3 T2 ⎛ V3 ⎞ ⎛V ⎞ ⎛V V V ⎞ ⎛V ⎞ ⎛ V2 ⎞
= =⎜ ⎟
T1 T3 T2 T1 ⎝ V4 ⎠
( rC ) ( r
V
k −1
) = ⎜ V3 VV2 ⎟ r r
C V
k −1
=⎜ 3 2 1 ⎟ r r
C V
k −1
=⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (1) rC rVk −1
⎝ 2 4⎠ ⎝ V2 V1 V4 ⎠ ⎝ V2 ⎠ ⎝ V1 ⎠
k −1
⎛1⎞
= r ⎜ ⎟ rC rVk −1 = rCk
C
k −1
⎝ rV ⎠
Incorporating these expression into the efficiency expression
ηcycle = 1 − k −1
( rCk − 1) Answer
k rV ( rC − 1)
8-106
8-84 The Stirling cycle is similar to the Otto and Diesel cycles in that it has a sequence of processes occurring in
a reciprocating piston-cylinder assembly. However, unlike the Otto or Diesel cycles, the Stirling cycle is
an external combustion engine. The four processes are shown on the P-v and T-s diagrams below. There is
an isothermal compression from 1-2, constant volume heat addition from 2-3, isothermal expansion from 3-
4, and constant volume heat rejection from 4-1. The heat transfer from process 4-1 is used for the heat
transfer required by process 2-3, so that all the cycle heat addition occurs in process 3-4, and all the cycle
heat rejection occurs in process 1-2. If all processes are reversible, show that the cycle thermal efficiency
is given by
ηStirling = 1 − T1 T3
and compare this expression to the Carnot cycle thermal efficiency.
Approach:
Begin with the definition of cycle thermal efficiency,
and apply the energy equation to the heat addition
and rejection processes. Use the definitions of
compression and cutoff ratio along with the
isentropic ideal gas relations to simplify the
efficiency expression.
Assumptions:
Solution:
Wnet mwnet wnet
The cycle thermal efficiency is ηcycle = = =
Qin mqin qin
Applying the energy equation to processes 1-2 and 3-4 on a per unit mass basis, and neglecting potential and
kinetic energy effects: q12 − w12 = u2 − u1 and q34 − w34 = u4 − u3
Assuming an ideal gas with a constant specific heat evaluated at room temperature, so that ∆u = cv ∆T
Hence, q12 − w12 = cV (T2 − T1 ) and q34 − w34 = cV (T4 − T3 )
But T2 = T1 and T4 = T3 , so q12 = w12 and q34 = w34
R T1 dv R T1 ⎛ v2 ⎞
For a closed reversible system w = ∫ P dv . Using the ideal gas equation w12 = ∫ = ln ⎜ ⎟
M v M ⎝ v1 ⎠
R T3 ⎛ v4 ⎞
Similarly, w34 = ln ⎜ ⎟
M ⎝ v3 ⎠
For processes 2-3 and 4-1 w23 = w41 = 0 because the volumes are constant. Hence,
v4 v1 RT1 ⎛ v2 ⎞ RT3 ⎛ v4 ⎞ R ⎛ v4 ⎞
Also = Therefore, wnet = w12 + w34 = ln ⎜ ⎟+ ln ⎜ ⎟ = ln ⎜ ⎟ (T3 − T1 )
v3 v2 M ⎝ v1 ⎠ M ⎝ v3 ⎠ M ⎝ v3 ⎠
R T3 ⎛ v4 ⎞
The heat addition is only in process 3-4 so qin = ln ⎜ ⎟
M ⎝ v3 ⎠
So that cycle thermal efficiency is
R ⎛ v4 ⎞
ln ⎜ ⎟ (T3 − T1 )
M ⎝ v3 ⎠ T
ηcycle = = 1− 1 Answer
R T3 ⎛ v4 ⎞ T3
ln ⎜ ⎟
M v
⎝ 3⎠
which is identical to the Carnot cycle.
8-107

ch08 41 85

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ch08 41 85

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

8-41 The compressor and turbine of a simple Brayton cycle each have an isentropic efficiency of 82%.

( 0.245 )(1155.1 − 535)

Assumptions: 3. Air, an ideal gas, has a constant specific heat.

Using above equations with cP = 1.005 kJ / kg K

T7 = 854.2 − ( 817.0 − 482.2 ) = 519.4 K Answer

Pr ,6′ = Pr ,3 ( P6 P3 ) = 330.9 (100 1600 ) = 20.68 → h6′ = 649.6 kJ kg

e) The regenerator effectiveness is determined with its definition

W ⎡ ⎛ P ⎞( k −1) k ⎛ P ⎞( k −1) k ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ P ⎞( k −1) k ⎛ P ⎞( k −1) k ⎤

c) The cycle thermal efficiency is:

( k −1) k ⎡ rP( k −1) k − 1⎤

mw = 0.14 ( 2066 ) = 289 kg s Answer

c) The net heat input occurs all in the Brayton cycle

b) Cycle thermal efficiency is

From the air table, Appendix B-9, at T2 = 1160 R vr 2 = 20.29

= 3.26 × 10−4 lbm

Evaluating the mass with the ideal gas equation

b) The cycle thermal efficiency is

For the constant volume process (V4 = V1 )

and compare this expression to the Carnot cycle thermal efficiency.

which is identical to the Carnot cycle.

You might also like