Solid Mechanics Lab

To Perform Tension Test On Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bars

Apparatus

 500 kN Shimardzu Universal Testing Machine

 Extensometer (L.C 1/20,000”)
 Spring Divider
 Vernier Caliper (L.C 0.05 mm)
 Weighing Balance
 Steel Tape
 Hot Rolled Steel Bar

Objectives

There are three objectives:

 To study stress strain behaviour of the specimen

 To check the adequacy of the specimen according to the standards
 To determine different mechanical properties of steel

Related Theory

Steel

For a material to be classified as steel there should be no free graphite in its composition.

Classification of steel

On the basis of carbon content, carbon is classified as follow:

• Low Carbon Steel

• Medium Carbon Steel
• High Carbon Steel
• Mild Carbon Steel

1. Low Carbon Steel

It is also called Dead Mild Steel. If carbon content is less than 0.2% than this type of carbon is
known as Low Carbon Steel.

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2. Medium Carbon Steel

If carbon content ranges from 0.2% - 0.6% then it is called Medium Carbon Steel.

3. High Carbon Steel

If carbon content ranges from 0.6% - 1.0% then it is called High Carbon Steel.

4. Mild Carbon Steel

If carbon content ranges from 0.15% - 0.3% then it is called Mild Carbon Steel.

Chemical Composition Of Mild Steel

 Carbon C 0.25%
 Sulphur S 0.06%
 Phosphorous P 0.06%

Stress ~ Strain Diagram / Curve

Stress and strain is calculated on the basis of tension test data

plotted on a graph with a ordinate representing stress and
abscissa representing the strain is called Stress ~ Strain Diagram.

Stress is an internal resistance. %

Proportional Limit

Maximum stress that may be developed during a simple tension

test such that the stress is the linear function of strain is called
Proportional Limit.

(No proportional limit exists for brittle materials; it exits only for
ductile materials because brittle materials don’t undergo appreciable
deformation before failure and suddenly breaks.)

Elastic Limit

Maximum stress that may be developed during a simple tension test such that there is no
permanent or residual deformation when load is entirely removed is called Elastic Limit.

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Hook’s law is not valid after elastic limit and the numerical values of proportional limit and
elastic limit are usually identical.

Yield Point

A point on Stress ~ Strain Curve after which there is increase in strain with no significant
increase in stress is called yield point. The phenomenon is called Yielding. The stress
corresponding to yielding point is known as Yield Strength of the material which if
represented in KSi gives the grade of steel.

The stress may actually decrease momentarily resulting in upper and lower yield points.

Grade 40 and 60 are most commonly used.

Stress ~ Strain Diagram

Strain Hardening Zone

If a ductile material can be stressed considerably beyond the yield point without failure, the
material is said to be strain hardened. It is a zone after yielding when the particles of material
re-arrange themselves and start taking load again, so stress starts increasing.

Ultimate Strength / Tensile Strength

Maximum or highest stress on Stress ~ Strain Diagram is also called Ultimate Strength.

It is the maximum strength of the material.

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Necking

Localized decreased in cross sectional area of sample ager the ultimate strength is called
Necking. Necking continuous up to the failure of the material. Due to necking (cup and cone
formation) the cross sectional area is reduced.

Actual Rupture Strength (ARS)

Actual Rupture Strength can be obtained by dividing the rupture load with actual rupture area.
So the point of actual rupture strength will obviously be higher than the nominal rupture
strength.

Nominal Rupture Strength (NRS)

It is the failure stress calculated on the basis of nominal area. For ductile materials, NRS is
always less than ARS.

Modulus Of Elasticity

It is called Young’s Modulus. It is the ratio of stress to strain upto proportional limit. It is
determined as slope of straight line from 0 to proportional limit of stress ~ strain diagram.

Hook’s law

Stress ∝ strain

E=

Modulus of elasticity for steel is 200,000 MPa or 29 106 PSi

Resilience

The ability of material to absorb energy in a elastic range (i.e. without permanent deformation)
is called Resilience.

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Modulus Of Resilience

It is the amount of work done on a unit volume of material as a simple tensile force is increased
from 0 to proportional limit.

It is calculated as the area under stress ~ strain diagram fro 0 to proportional limit. Its unit is
MPa or Psi.

Toughness

The ability of material to absorb energy in plastic range (i.e. with permanent deformation) is
called Toughness.

Modulus Of Toughness

It is the amount of work done (energy absorbed) on a unit volume of material as simple tensile
force is increased from 0 to failure of specimen. It is calculated as total area under stress ~
strain diagram. Its unit is MPa or Psi.

Gauge Length

It is the length between two marks on the bar.

For commercial purposes, we take gauge length as 8” and for academic purpose; we take 2” or
50mm.

Various Methods For Determination Of Yielding

There are three methods for determination of yielding.

1. Halting of machine
2. Offset method
3. Specific strain method
4. Luder line method

1. Halting Of Machine Method

It is also called Drop Of Beam Method. The stress may actually decrease momentarily
resulting in upper and lower yield points. The yield point during a simple tension test can
be observed by Halting of machine.

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2. Offset Method

For the materials that do not give well defined yield point, yield strength is determined by
offset method. This consists of drawing a line parallel to the initial tangent of the stress
strain diagram at 0.2% strain.

3. Luder Line Method

When the specimen yields, a pattern of fine lines appears on the polished surface.

4. Specific Strain Method

In this method simply 0.5% of the total strain is marked to determine the corresponding
stress, which is yielding stress.

Procedure

Note the shape and size of specimen, measure the length of specimen and weight it to find
the cross sectional area of specimen. Mark the gauge length on the specimen throughout
the length of the specimen for determination of % elongation after fracture, i.e. Ductility.
Fix the Extensometer to measure the elongation up to its region and grip the specimen in
machine jaws. Apply the load in desire increment and take readings of extensometer.
Remove the extensometer at its limit and record the elongation with a spring divider and.
Join the two broken pieces together and measure the approximate diameter at failure
zones for determination of final cross sectional area. Measure the change in lengths for
gauge lengths marked throughout the lengths of specimen for estimation of effect of gauge
length on % age elongation.

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Observations And Calculations
Least count of extensometer = 0.001 mm/ div

Original diameter of the bar = d = 12.51 mm

Density of steel = steel = 7850 kgm-3

Gauge length = 50 mm

Load Elongation %strain stress

Extensometer ∆
Sr. No. P ∆l % Remarks
reading
(kN) (mm) 100 (MPa)
1 0 500 0 0.000 0.00
2 2 503 0.003 0.006 15.50
3 4 507 0.007 0.014 31.01
4 6 511 0.011 0.022 46.51
5 8 515 0.015 0.030 62.02
6 10 518 0.018 0.036 77.52
7 12 522 0.022 0.044 93.02
8 14 526 0.026 0.052 108.53
9 16 530 0.03 0.060 124.03
10 18 533 0.033 0.066 139.53
11 20 537 0.037 0.074 155.04
12 22 540 0.04 0.080 170.54
13 24 545 0.045 0.090 186.05
14 26 548 0.048 0.096 201.55
15 28 552 0.052 0.104 217.05
16 30 556 0.056 0.112 232.56
17 32 559 0.059 0.118 248.06
18 34 563 0.063 0.126 263.57
19 36 566 0.066 0.132 279.07
20 38 569 0.069 0.138 294.57
21 40 572 0.072 0.144 310.08
22 42 576 0.076 0.152 325.58
23 44 585 0.085 0.170 341.09
24 46 590 0.09 0.180 356.59
25 47.9 594 0.094 0.188 371.32

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26 48 603 0.103 0.206 372.09
27 48.1 650 0.15 0.300 372.87
28 48.1 700 0.2 0.400 372.87
29 48.1 750 0.25 0.500 372.87
30 48.1 800 0.3 0.600 372.87
31 48.1 850 0.35 0.700 372.87
32 48.1 900 0.4 0.800 372.87
33 48.1 950 0.45 0.900 372.87
34 48.1 1000 0.5 1.000 372.87
35 48.1 1050 0.55 1.100 372.87
36 48.1 1100 0.6 1.200 372.87 Yield point
37 48.1 1150 0.65 1.300 372.87
38 48.1 1200 0.7 1.400 372.87
39 48.1 1250 0.75 1.500 372.87
40 48.1 1300 0.8 1.600 372.87
41 48.1 1350 0.85 1.700 372.87
42 48.1 1400 0.9 1.800 372.87
43 48.1 1450 0.95 1.900 372.87
44 48.1 1500 1 2.000 372.87
45 48.1 1550 1.05 2.100 372.87
46 48.1 1600 1.1 2.200 372.87
47 48.1 1650 1.15 2.300 372.87
48 50 1678 1.178 2.356 387.60
49 50.5 1688 1.188 2.376 391.47
50 51 1710 1.21 2.420 395.35
51 51.5 1736 1.236 2.472 399.22
52 52 1768 1.268 2.536 403.10
53 52.5 1805 1.305 2.610 406.98
54 53 1835 1.335 2.670 410.85
55 53.5 1870 1.37 2.740 414.73
56 54 1911 1.411 2.822 418.60
57 54.5 1960 1.46 2.920 422.48
58 55 2010 1.51 3.020 426.36
59 55.5 2055 1.555 3.110 430.23
60 56 2100 1.6 3.200 434.11
61 56.5 2150 1.65 3.300 437.98
62 57 2188 1.688 3.376 441.86
63 57.5 2234 1.734 3.468 445.74

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64 58 2281 1.781 3.562 449.61
65 58.5 2328 1.828 3.656 453.49
66 58.8 2500 2 4 455.81
67 59 52 2 4 457.36
68 60 53 3 6 465.12
69 61 54 4 8 472.87
70 62 55 5 10 480.62
71 63 56 6 12 488.37
72 64 56.5 6.5 13 496.12
73 65 57 7 14 503.88
74 66 58 8 16 511.63
75 68 58 8 16 527.13
76 70 59 9 18 542.64
77 72 59 9 18 558.14
78 74 60 10 20 573.64
Point of
79 74.95 62 12 24 581.01
failure

Comparison Of The Properties

Properties Calculated value Standard value

Diameter 12.51 mm 12.7 mm
Nominal dimensions Area 122.915 mm2 129 mm2
perimeter 39.30 mm 39.9 mm
Yield strength 372.87 MPa
Ultimate strength 581.01 MPa
Modulus of toughness 11.94 GPa
Modulus of elasticity 79.718 MPa
Modulus of resilience 36.48 MPa
Yield Strain 0.21 %
Ultimate Strain 24%
Grade 57.04 40

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