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Power transformer loading studies considering overexcitation

Conference Paper · December 2004

DOI: 10.1109/TDC.2004.1432456 · Source: IEEE Xplore

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 2004 IEEElPES Transmission 8 Distribution Conference i3 Exposition: Latin America
Power Transformer Loading Studies
Considering Overexcitation
Carlos R. T. Castro, SCrgio R. Barbosa, Helder L. Ferreira, Luis E. Samico, Ivan J. S . Lopes, SelCnio R. Silva
Toshiba do Brad Companhia Energktica de Minas Gerais
Abstract - The paper addresses the problem of transformer
loading calculations considering overexcited transformer
operation. General aspects of the current loading guides are
presented and discussed on the light of the transformer design
characteristics. Overercitation and its impact on the loading
conditions are discussed. A loading calculation method is
proposed, and a database consisting of around 50 power
transformers real test data is used to analyze the overexcitation
problem and its impact on the insulation transformer life
expectancy.
I n d a Terms-Power transformer, loading, overvoltage,
performance characteristics, life expectancy.
I. INTRODUCT~ON
The search for a constant increase and a better and safer use
of power system facilities and apparatus has been challenging
engineers in many different aspects worldwide. In this game,
the safe operation of power transformers is critical as they
provide the only path for the energy from the sources to an
increasing number of final consumers. Because of the high
costs and financial limitations, the demand upon power
transformers presently installed is continuously increasing and
it is common their operation under overloading conditions,
sometimes superimposed to permanent overvoltages on their
terminals.
The combination of overload with long-term overvoltage
leads to the reduction of the transfonner insulation life
expectancy [1,7,10-13]. To warranty safe operational
conditions, a safe operation curve in which the effects of
temperature rise beyond nameplate together with overloading
should be considered.
This paper presents a systematic investigation of the
transfomer-loading problem. The present loading guides used
to find a safe transformer operation are discussed. Different
C. R.T. Castro is with Toshiba Brazil - Power Transformers Division
(carlos.castro@tbb.toshiba.com.br).
S. R. Barbosa (srb@cemig.com.br)and H. I,. Ferreira
(hlara@cemig.com.br)ate with Companhia EnergCtica de Minas Gerais -
CEMlG -Power Systems and Apparatus Performance Studies Division.
L. E. Samico (1eduardosamivo~uol.combr), I. J. S. Lopes
(ivanin@cpdecufmghr) and S. R. Silva (selenios~'cpdl.e.ufing.br)are with
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - UFMG - Electrical Engineering
Department.
0-7803-8775-9/04/$20.00 02004 IEEE
I
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais
qualitative aspects of transformer specification and design and
their effects on the temperature rise and insulation life
expectancy are studied from a statistical point of view using a
database consisting of actual test data from more than 50
power transformers. A loading calculation methodology,
based on the present loading guidelines, considering not only
overloading but also overvoltage conditions, is then proposed
and a case study is presented and the results are discussed.
11. TRANSFORMER
LOADING GUiDES
The subject of loss of transformer insulation life has had a
rich but controversial history of development. There are many
studies on this issue trying to put some light on the ageing
problem [ 11,121. It is well known that insulation deterioration
is a function of temperature, moisture and oxygen content,
Today, with modern oil preservation systems, the moisture
and oxygen content can be minimized, leaving the temperature
as the controlfing parameter.
Operation and maintenance teams are generally concerned
about the transformer insulation life, and frequently ask
themselves what could be done to extend the transformer life
expectancy. Trying to help the users, general loading
guidelines are available [Z-5,8,9].The rationale behind the
existing guides is the fact that the transfonner insulation has a
life expectancy that can be drastically reduced if some basic
rules are ignored and the transformer operates beyond the
temperature limits. They suggest that the transformer life
expectancy, considering the operation at rated load with a few
eventual temporary overloading should be around 22 years.
However, power transformers are working under varied
loading conditions and temperature cycles, and most of them
have been there for 50 years or more working perfectly well.
Therefore, despite the controversy on the ageing problem and
its consequences, there is an agreement that the present
loading guides are quite conservative.
To illustrate the general limitations imposed by the loading
guides, some of their key features are listed below [3,5,9,11]:
Ambient temperature: at the worst condition within a day,
for each l0C decrease, it is possible to increase in 1% the
transformer loading without any loss of life, and vice-
versa;
Loading conditions (65% class transformers):
For normal lQSS of life: the maximum average hottest
65 I
 spot temperature should be 110°C over a 24-hour
period, without ever exceeding 120°C. There is no
loading limit for this situation if the condition is true.
Beyond nameplate: the maximum average daily
hottest spot temperature should be 110°C without ever
exceeding 130°C with some limited loss of life. The
ageing factor doubles at each 6 to 8’C rise in the
hottest spot temperature.
Emergency loading of long durabion: such loading
conditions may last for weeks or even months. In this
cases, the hottest spot temperature should never
exceed 140°C. A substantial loss of life is expected.
Temporary overloading: lasts less than 30 minutes and
the hottest spot temperature should not exceed 180°C
with severe loss of life.
Some of the basic rules set by different loading guides [2-
5, 8, 91 from different organizations which are important for
the purpose of the present work are listed bellow and will be
discussed later.
According to ANSIlIEEE [2], “the transformer should be
able to operate continuously above and below the rated
frequency, at rated power and in any tap position, without
exceeding its temperature limits following all of the following
conditions: (i) secondary voltage Volts per Hertz ratio not
exceeding 105% of the nominal values; (ii) power factor 0.8
or greater; (iii) frequency at least 0.95 of the rated value; and
above rated voltage or beiow rated frequency in any tap
position, without exceeding its temperature limits when
neither the voltage nor the Volts per Hertz ratio exceeds 110%
of the rated values.”
According to IEC [3], “the transformer should be able to
operate continuously without any damage when the Volts-per-
Hertz ratio does not exceed 105%.
According to ABNT [4, 51 currently under review, ‘the
transformer should be able to operate continuously in the main
tap position, at any voltage and frequency in the following
conditions: (i) with the primary excitation not exceeding
105% of the rated value and at rated secondary current; (ii)
with the primary excitation above rated value, the frequency
below rated value, and at rated secondary current, if the
excitation and the Volts per Herb ratio does not exceed 110%
and the frequency is not below 95% of rated values; (iii) with
the primary excitation above 105% and below 110% under
rated frequency. For this excitation range the voltage and the
current should follow the following formula: U% = (1 10 - k2)
(Fig. 1) , where k is the factor multiplying the rated current;
(iv) at no load, with primary excitation of 110% and at rated
frequency, without exceeding the transformer temperature
limits; (v) at no load, with primary excitation above and
frequency below rated value, without exceeding the
transformer temperature limits, when neither the voltage, nor
the Volts per Hertz ratio exceeds 1 10% of the rated values.”
In summary, the common aspects behind the highlighted
points of the present guides are the concerns about
transformer safe operation on one side and its most efficient
use on the other side, considering the occasionally adverse
652
operational conditions.
111
110
109
108
3
3 107
106
105
104
0 0.t 0 . 2 0.3 0.4 0 . 5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
k
Fig. 1 -Admissible transformer loading as a function of the
primary excitation [5].
111. OVER-EXCITATION
Power transformer over-excitation should be carehlly
studied as it can permanently damage the transformer coil and
core due to the heat caused by the high excitation current that
flows when the voltage is slightly increased to a saturation
level, In order to minimize the risky costs of this situation and
its consequences, it is extremely important that if the
transformer is brought to operate at any loading condition
beyond those considered in the loading guides, a careful
analysis should be carried out. In the following, some of the
causes and consequences of the over-excitation are discussed.
A power transformer is brought to an overexcited condition
when the system voltage is changed, when the load magnitude
andor power factor is changed, or when there is a
combination of both system voltage and load conditions. The
consequences of such conditions are [l]:
Impedance and regulation changes;
b Losses change;
Noise level change;
Increase of the short-circuit forces due to the impedance
change;
Shift on the tap-changer regulation band;
Temperature change due to the losses change.
Top oil temperature rise;
+ Hot-spot temperature rise.
The maximum excitation of a transformer is a manufacturer
issue which the designer has in mind, as there may be
specifications leading to the construction of a transformer with
low magnetic flux density for example. In such cases, the
transformer will have a safe operation beyond the guideline
conditions. This and other relevant aspects of the power
transformer characteristics are discussed in the following
section.
Iv. DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS
A transformer capacity of operating overloaded and
overexcited simultaneously is affected by different
specifications and design characteristics. The loading limits
depend on sound level, magnetization current, cooling type,
and other design specifications.
 ~

When buying a power transformer, the user may sometimes

specify transient limits for the maximum allowed excitation at
no load that, by its turn, takes the designer to a corresponding
induction level (approx. 1.55T). Since this value is generally
smaller than the used for a regular design, the transformer will
I
-'Tzp-oi -
winding

certainly operate beyond nameplate limits without saturation Average

and therefore, without core saturation. , Wwindlng
During the last few years, environmental restrictions are
strongly influencing systems and apparatus designs in many
different ways. As far as power transformers are concerned, Bottom of 30ttom I
I
the sound level has become one of the greatest constraints winding Oit

mainly for urban substation designs. Power utilities are Ambiant

TEMPERATURE
pushing designers to supply equipment with the lowest sound Fig. 2 Transformerthermal diagram [ 121.
~

level. The ABNT NBR 535611 993 requires 80 dB for an OA

coaling type,and 82 dB for OF coaling type transFomers. If The hottest spot temperature calculation methodology may
the user specification sets a maximum sound level lower than be summarized at the calculation of the oil temperature above
what is set by the standard, the designer has two options: (i) ambient, and the winding temperature rise above oil.
design the transformer according to the standard and then
install it inside a shielded room; (ii) effectively lower the
induction besides adopting additional construction details to
follow the sound restriction. This option would result in a
transformer able to operate overexcited without considerable e,, = .K 2m
o,,
additional temperature rise. The sound level would increase where:
around O.8dB for each 2.5 increase in the excitation. - 8,f and eonare the oil temperature rise above ambient for
In some cases, designen are invited to consider some overload (K) and nominal loading respectively;
limitations in the excitation current. In most of them, the - 0,f and Om are the winding temperature rise above top oil for
constraint is the ratio between the excitation current at 1 10% overload (K) and nominal loading respectively;
voltage and the current at 100% which should be smaller than - R is the winding per core losses ratio (WJWi);
2 . This is also another example of design restriction which - n e m are defined in the standards.
may result in lower induction.
It is a common practice to have spare units for the The main transformer internal heat sources are the winding
transformer cooling system. Such units allow the transformer losses, the hysteresis and Foucault core losses, and the stray
operation beyond the standard value, without any temperature tank and metallic structure losses. In expressions (1) and (Z),
rise. In other cases, there are parameters and specific design only the winding losses are taken into account as the
conditions that lead to either a low induction or an oversized temperatures are computed considehg the loading factor (K)
cooling system. Examples of such specific situations are and the losses ratio. On the other side, the core losses which
requirements upon the coil current density, magnetic depend on the magnetic induction are traditionally evaluated
induction, transformer tank temperature, etc. by the following relation:

METHODOLOGY
V. CALCULATION = [khBQ
f + k# f2 (3 1
Transformer temperatures are generally specified as oil and where:
winding temperature rises above ambient. The relation - B is the magnetic induction;
between them is better understood with the thermal diagram - f is the frequency;
shown in Fig. I [12]. Such a diagram is built considering a - tis the core sheet thickness;
linear behavior for the oil temperature between the bottom and - k h and kf are losses constants (hysteresis and Foucault
the top of the winding and also considering the average currents);
temperature rise to be the same to all the windings at a same - Vol is the core volume;
arm. - a is the Steinmetz exponent.
There may be large differences between the temperatures at This is the proposed expression for losses calculation
the bottom and the top of oil depending on the cooling type considering overexcitation and at relatively low magnetic
and winding construction. The difference between the induction.
temperature rise at the bottom and the top of oil for a DFAO Generally, during testing the core losses are measured at
coofing system is generally just a few degrees. Meanwhile, 30%, 100Y0e 1100/0excitation levels at no load. The relation
such a difference for OA and FA cooling systems is much between core losses and the excitation at this level can be
bigger. better estimated considering a constant frequency using the
The transfotmer insulation ageing is a function of time and following expression [I]:
temperature. Since temperature distribution in most of the Y=kP (4)
transformers is not uniform, a common practice for ageing
where:
studies is to consider the hottest spot temperature.

653
- q is approximately 3.7 and will be defined in this work as the
modified Steinmetz exponent.

The calculation method for the top oil temperature rise

proposed in this work, as also suggested by Ebert in {I],
includes the effect of the excitation, and therefore the voltage,
on the core losses (Eq. (5)).

where: 120 130 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.80

- V is the primary voltage @.U). MagneUc Induction (Tesla)

Fig. 3 - Correlation between the magnetic induction and the parametars

It should be noticed that the effect of the transformer R and q.
voltage regulation is not taken into account and, therefore, the
power factor is not considered.

VI. IMPACT OF THE OVEREXCITATION ON THE LOADING

CONDITIONS
The influence of the overexcitation on the top oil
temperature rise of a power transformer as proposed in Eq. (5)
depends on the losses ratio (R) and on the core losses, as they
vary with the excitation (the modified Steinmetz exponent).
To investigate this influence, a database of 50 power
transformers from different manufacturers, with rated power I I I I I I
I I I I I I
between 15 and 75 MVA, primary voltage between 69 and 0.W
230kV, and secondary voltage between 13.8 and 138 kV, was 0.00 2,W 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12,OO 14,OO
Lossea Ratio (R)
analyzed in terms of their winding and core losses and their
specific design characteristics. Fourteen of these transformers, Fig. 4 Correlation between R e q values and the 5% “threshold” error
~

had special design characteristics: 5 were designed for low in the conventional calculation.
sound level and 9 had some excitation limits.
The analysis of the whole set indicates that the losses ratio VII. CASESTUDY
(R)varies between 2.12 and 13.10, with an average value of To illustrate the application of the proposed methodology,
5.44. The corresponding modified Steinmetz exponent (q) two different sets of simulations were performed, In the first
varies between 1.50 and 5.32, with 3.74 as the average value. part, the top oil temperature rise and the admissible loads were
The observed results validate the suggestion given by Ebert in calculated for a constant excitation (1 .Opu and 1 -1pu) and a
111. fixed load profile. The influence of the transformer losses
Fig. 3 illustrates the correlation between the modified ratio (R)on the top oil temperature rise and the admissible
Steinmetz exponent (4, and losses ratio (R) and also its load was investigated. Figs 5 to 8 show the obtained results.
correlation with the magnetic induction. As seen, there is a
larger number of transformers with magnetic induction around
1.7 Tesla, modified Steinmetz exponent around 4.0 and losses
ratio R around 6,
Fig. 4 shows the correlation between the losses ratio (R) and
the modified Steinmetz exponent (9) for the 50 transformers
database. Superimposed to this curve, a line was drawn to
show the range of values that would represent a 5% error in
estimating the temperature rise for 1 10% excitation and 110%
load. In other words, for those transformers whose (R,q) pair
is above the curve (around 30% percent of the database), the I
6 12 1% 24
calculations of temperature rise, absolute oil temperature, Time (h)
hottest spot temperature and loss of life expectancy will have Fig. 5 -Top oil temperature rise for rated voltage and overexcited operation
errors greater than 5% if one ignores the overexcitation (R = 13.01 - q = 2.42).
effects.

654
 5

levels. Fig.s 9 to 14 show the results obtained with the

simulations.
Fig.s 9 and 10 show the top oil temperature rise and the
admissible load for the transformer operating at rated
excitation (-1 .OOpu). Fig.s 1 1 and 12 show the same curves
for an overexcited operation (* 1.1@U).
1.61 I

I
1.4 I n I
I v01tagrr
8 12 18 24
Time [h)
Fig. 6 - Top oil temperature rise for rated voltage and overexcited operation
(R = 2.12 - q = 3.83). r
P
When comparing Figs. 5 and 6 , it is seen that for the same Consldcrsd Load

load profile, when a transformer with a low loss ratio (R) - d

and consequently high modified Steinmetz exponent (q) - is 6 12
Time (h)
16 24

overexcited, the resulting top oil temperature rise becomes -

Fig. 9 - Admissible load profile (V f .OO pu).
larger. 65
When the admissible load is considered (Figs. 7 and 8) the
same trend is observed: a low R - and high q - implies a
lower admissible load for an overexcited transformer. In both
cases, the effect of the higher core losses for a low R explains
the results.
c Admctslbla Load

I . e.
1.-

1.4-
30

25a

Voltage
6 12
Conaldered ioad

Time (h)
Fig. 10 -Top oil temperature rise (V
18

- 1.Npu).
24
1

d, 0.6- Mmisslbla LDad

m:
jq
Considered Load
1- 0.4-
L.
O.aO 6 12 18 24
Time (h)
Fig. 11 Admissible load profile (V- 1.10 pu).
~

65,

0.4 6 12
Time (h)
18 24
I

Fig. 8 -Admissible load profile for rated voltage and overexcited operation
(R=2.12-q=3.83).

The second part of the simulations was performed using

both voltage and load profile data recorded at a substation.
The differences between the resulting top oil temperature rises
,"
2 5 ~
6 12
Time (h)
18 24

and the allowed loads were investigated for a SOMVA, Fig. 12 -Top oil temperature rise (V- 1 , l O pu).
145/13.2kV power transformer with a loss ratio (R=2.12) and
a modified Steinmetz exponent (q=3.83) at different excitation As seen, the overexcitation results in a lower admissible
load (Figs. 9 and 11). The resulting top oil temperature rise

655

(Figs. 10 and 12) are higher for both the entered and the
admissible loads when the transformer is overexcited.
Fig. 13 shows the top oil temperature rise for the same load
and the transformer operating at three different excitation
levels. As seen, the overexcited transformer will experience
higher temperature rises to supply the same toad. Therefore, to
avoid temperature rise beyond limits, the safe operation for
this transformer implies a load reduction with respect to
nominal excitation. Fig. 14 shows the reduction in the
admissible load with respect to the nominal excitation for the
transformer overexcited at 5% and 10%.
7
40
6 . 12 18
Time (h)
Fig. 13 -Top oil temperature rise for V=l.OOpu, V=l.O5pu and V=l.lOpu.
8.0,
6.0
6 12 18
Time (h)
Fig. 14 - Reduction in the admissible load profile for the transformer
overexcited at 5% and 10%.
VIII. CONCLUSION
The problem of power transformer loading considering
overexcited operation has been addressed. A loading
calculation methodology has been proposed on the light of the
present loading guides. Real power transformer test data, load
and voltage profiles were used to investigate the effects of the
transformer parameters on the temperature rise and admissible
loads for the overexcited operation. The results show that if
the loss ratio and the modified Steinmetz exponent are known,
it is possible to predict the reduction in the admissible load for
a safe transformer operation.
At present, the authors are working towards the validation
of the proposed methodology which requires experimental
work on transformer monitoring. The results of this second
stage of this project will be reported in the near future.
IX. REFERENCES
[I] J. A. Ebert; “Power Transfomr Operation at Over and Under
Excitation, Benefits and Consequences”, IEEE Trans. on Power
Delivev, vol. 15, pp. 192-196, Jan. 2000.
View publication stats
6
ANSIiIEEE Standard General Requirements for Liquid-lmmersed
Distribuition, Power and Reguluting Transformers, ANSIAEEE
Standard C.27.12.00-1993.
IEC Publication 600354-1991
ABNT NBR 5356 - Tronsfonnadores de Potencia - Espec$capio,
ABNT 1993.
ABNT hBR if416 - Aplicacdo de Cargas em Tramformadores de
Potenciu - Especificacrio, ABNT 1997.
L.W. Pierce, “An Investigation of the Thermal Performance Of An Oil
Filled Transformer Winding”, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 7,
pp. 1347-1358, Jul. 1992.
R. Batruni, R.C.Degeneff, M.A. Lebow , “Determining The Effect Of
Thermal Loading On The Remaining useful Life Of A Power
Transformer From Its Impedance Versus Frequency Characteristic”,
IEEE Truns. on PowerDelivery, vol. 11, pp. 1385-1390, Jul. 1996.
IEC Loading Guide for OiZ-Immersed Power Transformers, IEC
Publication 354 -1991.
IEEE Guide For Loading Mineral Oil Immersed Transformers, IEEE
Standard C57.91-1995,
D. Peterchuck, “Sensitivity of Transformer’s Hottest-Spot and
Equivalent Aging to Selected Parameters, IEEE Trans. on Power
Delivery,vol. 17,pp. 996-1001,Oct. 2002.
S.B. Pandey , C. Lin, “Estimation for a Life Model of Transformer
I Insulation Under Combined EIectrical & Thermal Stress”, IEEE Truns.
24 on Reliubility, vol. 41, pp. 466468, Sep. 1992.
P.K. Sen, S. Pansuwan, “Overloading and Loss of Life Assessment
Guidelines of Oil-Cooled Transformers”, pp. B4-1 - B4-8.
I J. O’Grady, “Overloading Power Transformers - a User’s Views”,
Power Engineering Journal, pp. 87-93, Mar, 1990.
X. BIOGRAPHIES
Carlos R T. Castro graduated in Electrical Engineering from Federal
University of Minas Gerais (UFMG) in 1997, and received the Specialist
Degree in Power Quality from UFMG in 2004. In 1997, he joined Toshiba
Brazil - Power Transformers Division, Belo Horizonie, and has hen working
as a Power Transformer Elecirical Designer so far. His interests include power
transformer applications, high voltage engineering and its applications, and
electromagnetic compatibility.
I
24
Sergio R. Barbosa graduated in Electrical Engineering fiom Pontificia
Universidade Cat6fica de Minas Gerais (PUC-MG) in 1995. He has been with
Companhia EnergPica de Minas Gerais (CEMIG) since 1986. At present, he
is working towards his MSc. Degree at UFMG, and his interests include
power systems, power transformers, and high voltage engineering.
Helder L. Ferreira received the B.Sc. in Electrical Engineering from Federal
University of Minas Gerais (WMG) in 1984. He has been with Cemig since
1989. His interests include high voltage engineering, power transformers, and
electromagnetic compatibility,
Luis E. Samico is an undergraduate student of the Electrical Engineering
Program at Federal University of Minas Gerais. His interests include power
systems and transformers, power quality, and electromagneticcompatibility.
Ivan J. S. Lopes is an Associate Professor at the Electrical Engineering
Department of Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte,
Brazil, since 1992. He received the B.Sc. and M A . in Electrical Engineering
from UFMG, in 1987 and 1990 respectively, and the Ph.D. in Electrical and
Computer Engineering from University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada, in
2001. His interests include high voltage engineering and its applications,
dielectrics and electrical insulation, and electromagnetic compatibility.
Selenio R. Silva is a Professor at the Electrical Engineering Department of
Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil. He
received the BSc. and M.Sc. in Electrical Engineering from UFMG in 1980
and 1984 respectively, and the Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Federal
University of Paraiba (UFPB) in 1988. His interests include electrical
machines, drives, renewable energy sources, and power quality.
656