Emergence of Psychology

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 Emergence of Psychology 2020

What is Psychological thought in some major

Eastern Systems: Bhagavad Gita, Buddhism,
Sufism and Integral Yoga ?

The Psychological thought in some major Eastern Systems:

Bhagavad Gita, Buddhism, Sufism and Integral Yoga

The Bhagavad Gita is the best philosophical confluence of karma,

bhakti and gyan yoga as Krishna‟s solution to Arjuna‟s problem is
comprehensive, involving the behavioral (karma yoga), the
emotional (bhakti yoga) and the intellectual (gyan yoga).The
religious and philosophical importance of the Gita is well known. It is
not only a well organized form of Indian life but also is considered a
humanistic religion of the world.

Its universal importance is established by its translation in all

recognized languages of the world. Some scholars consider it as
greatest ideal of dharmashastra, some of ethics and of philosophy.
A depth study of the Gita affirms that it embodies all the above
mentioned aspects. Therefore, all these opinions of the scholars are
complementary to each other. The philosophical approach does
establish its importance but it has another approach that is
psychological.

Psychological depiction is not confined to any race, time or space.

It is perennial source of inspiration for all humans in all times. Gita
darshan has been stabilized on the ground of psychology.
Therefore, it is a unique achievement in the field of psychology.

After entering the war field, Arjuna‟s hesitation for performing his
duties in place of showing enthusiasm for war, is obviously a
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 Emergence of Psychology 2020

depiction of psychological situation. All individuals are caught into

social and religious bondages. These bondages become part of life
as these are inborn and cannot be easily broken. It is easily
understood one‟s feeling of violence towards his elders, teachers
and brothers as a momentary excitement but it cannot be given a
definite form of violence.

The driving force in a human being is not his body and senses but
his soul. Similarly, Arjuna could not attain that self confidence with
which he can experience emptiness of his aspirations and desires.
The Bhagavad Gita‟s depiction of how one can control one‟s
impulses emotions, desires and other bodily activities is a pure
psychology. Now, we need to focus on the situation how does
Arjuna, the great warrior embrace cowardice?

Why and how does he adopt renunciation (tyagavriti) of

Brahamana- dharma after deserting kshatriya swabhava? The
psychological answer to this question is given in 27th chapter of
Udhyoga Parva of Mahabharata.

It is a psychological fact the nothing happens without a reason and

its background. Sanjay had already prepared the background of
Arjuna‟s cowardice. Before commencement of war, Sanjay, as a
messenger of Dhritrastra requests Yudhisthra not to wage war.
Arjuna who is present there during the conversation attentively
listens to him. Sanjay Says:

He says that human life is momentary, full of sorrow and fickleness.

Therefore, Yudhisthra should not wage the war; it is not according
to his fame. Here, Sanjay tries to dishearten „Dharmprana‟ Arjuna
making him consider war as sin.

It implies that the desires hindering right conduct (dharmacharna)

draw an individual towards themselves. Therefore, an intelligent
person first destroys these desires and thereafter attains fame and
admiration. Here Sanjay clearly points out that desire for kingdom is

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 Emergence of Psychology 2020

an obstacle to right conduct (dharmacharana). If this desire is

deserted, there will be no war. Moreover, Sanjay‟s next sentence
makes Arjuna feel weak and confused.

It means the one who considers right conduct (dharma) as prime

ideal among all three ideals- dharma, artha, and kama and leads his
life accordingly, he gets fame and shines like sun. But the one who
is devoid of dharma and whose intellect is associated with sin, he,
despite owning the whole earth, suffers continuously. The next
sentence of Sanjay again weakens Arjuna‟s heart as:

In this way, the war appeared before Arjuna as a form of a sin. His
thought like „a desire for kingdom‟, „sacrifice for others‟ and
„Kaurava must kill me‟ etc. are symbols of inferiority caused by
Sanjay‟s statements. Generally, attachment is considered as the
greatest enemy of human being but the psychological perspective
states that the greatest enemy is that power which induces the
feeling of inferiority in the human being.

Here we find Sanjay in a role which weakens Pandavas side and

strengthens Kaurava side with his politics. If we look at Arjuna‟s
character, he was not a coward, due to his inferiority complex, he
started to feel disheartened.

There is a need of a teacher who is superior, restrained and knows

yoga to uplift Arjuna and the need was fulfilled by Sri Krishna. He
came to know the inferiority of Arjuna after listening to his
statements in no time. He tries to convince him as follows:

It is necessary to remind person‟s bravery, duties etc. in order to

erase thoughts of inferiority and steers him to work patiently. He
tells Arjuna that his enemies are afraid of him, they tremble with
fear, they get disheartened after seeing his bravery, they are almost
dead and he is just an instrumental cause. Krishna, also, clarifies
the form of soul as eternal entity- to kill or to be killed.

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 Emergence of Psychology 2020

The attachment to body is not right because it is not eternal. The

eternal soul never dies. Therefore he would not acquire sin of killing
Kauravas and their people. But, if he deserts his Swadharma and
will not involve in war then he will acquire sin. In chapter second, his
preaching about ‘Isthitpragyata’ prepared the background to
stabilize Arjuna‟s state of mind. At this Arjuna says:
चचचचचच चच चचच चच चचच चचचचचचच चचचचचचचचचचच

चचचचचचच चचचचचचच चचचचच चचचचचचच चचचचचचचचचचचच

It is very difficult to subdue mind which is restless, turbulent, and

obstinate even more difficult than controlling the wind. But at the
same time, Sri Krishna elevates. Arjuna‟s spirit after motivating him.
He says:

Buddhiyoga

Buddhi yoga (purpose of the Gita) is another worthy concept to look

into.

Buddhi (intellect) is an ability to learn. A person has three abilities

namely adjustment, learning and abstract thinking which are
complementary to each other.

In the Gita Sri Krishna identifies himself with his intellect and he has
defined an ideal person as 'Isthirbhuddhi'. If it is necessary to have
trained and enlightened reason for spirituality, the loss of reason
and logic causes downfall and the loss of reason lead to destruction
of the person. Sri Krishna imparts Buddhiyoga to Arjuna
enlightening him with the light of his knowledge.

Arjuna gets illumined and accepts humbly that his illusion has now
gone and he has regained memory.

He is now firm and free from doubt and is prepared to act according
to His instructions.

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 Emergence of Psychology MCQs
292. A limitation of selective
breeding studies is that they
cannot:
a. tell us anything about the role
of genes
b. be used to study human
beings
c. provide information relevant
to the nature/nurture debate
d. tell us anything about the
role of the environment
Answer: B
293. Which neo-Freudian challenged
his ideas about penis envy?
a. Adler
b. Fromm
c. Jung
d. Horney
Answer: D
294. Someone who feels as though
they are not living up to
expectations would be
described by Adler as having:
a. low self-realization
b. an Adlerian complex
c. an inferiority complex
d. low actualization
Answer: A
295. According to Freud, the mind’s
three components are:
a. ego, id, superego
b. unconscious, moral, immoral
46
c. oral, anal, phallic
d. primary, secondary, tertiary
Answer: D
296. The idea that you can assess
someone’s personality by
studying their face is called:
a. phrenology
b. physiology
c. somatology
d. physiognomy
Answer: A
297. The ________ complex is to girls
as the ________ complex is to
boys.
a. Electra, Oedipus
b. Oedipus, Electra
c. oral, phallic
d. phallic, oral
Answer: C
298. The discovery that the
heritability of the Big Five
personality traits is around 40%
– 50% suggests that:
a. the environment plays no role
in personality
b. genes play no role in
personality
c. the environment plays an
important role in personality
d. the Big Five traits account for
about half of our personality
 Emergence of Psychology MCQs
Answer: B
299. Humanistic psychologists
embraced the idea of:
a. repression
b. free will
c. unconscious drives
d. the id
Answer: B
300. According to Eysenck, extraverts
seek to ________ their arousal
while introverts seek to
________ their arousal.
a. decrease, increase
b. hide, reveal
c. increase, decrease
d. reveal, hide
Answer: C
301. Allport believed that traits could
be organized into three levels:
a. primary, secondary, tertiary
b. cognitive, emotional,
physiological
c. id, ego, superego
d. cardinal, central, secondary
Answer: D
302. The MMPI is used to measure:
a. unconscious drives
b. the Big Five traits
c. personality and psychological
disorders
d. leadership potential
47
Answer: C
303. Which of the following is NOT
one of the Big Five traits?
a. sense of humour
b. openness to experience
c. conscientiousness
d. extraversion
Answer: A
304. Freud founded the ________
approach to understanding
human behaviour.
a. palliative
b. psychodynamic
c. patronymic
d. psychedelic
Answer: B
305. The influence of parents on the
personality of their children is:
a. non-existent
b. weakest in early childhood
c. strongest in early childhood
d. consistent across the lifespan
Answer: C
306. What is special about
“knockout” mice?
a. they are very attractive
b. their DNA has been modified
c. they are easy to knock out
d. they are unusually aggressive
Answer: B
 Emergence of Psychology MCQs
307. The aim of behavioural genetics
is to learn about:
a. the extent to which
geneticists can modify people’s
behaviour
b. the possibility of eradicating
behavioural problems in
children
c. the genetic and
environmental influences on
human behaviour
d. the ability of animals to learn
language
Answer: C
308. Monozygotic is to ________
twins as dizygotic is to ________
twins.
a. male, female,
b. female, male
c. fraternal, identical
d. identical, fraternal
Answer: D
309. Which of the following
characteristics describe
someone who, according to
Maslow, is self-actualized?
a. creativity
b. confidence
c. spontaneity
d. all of the above
Answer: D
48
310. According to Freud, children
pass through 4 stages of
psychosexual development.
Which of the following shows
the stages in the correct
developmental order?
a. oral, anal, phallic, latency
b. latency, oral, anal, phallic
c. phallic, anal, oral, latency
d. oral, phallic, latency, anal
Answer: A
311. Projective tests claim to reveal
information about:
a. career aptitude
b. intellectual attainment
c. unconscious processes
d. parenting style
Answer: C
312. Traits are defined as:
a. physical characteristics that
distinguish us from other people
b. relatively enduring
characteristics that influence
our behaviour across many
situations
c. unconscious tendencies to act
in different ways according to
the situation
d. permanent personality
tendencies that determine our
behaviour in any situation
 Emergence of Psychology MCQs

Answer: B
313. Sheldon’s theory that people
with different body types have
different personalities has been:
a. supported by research
b. discredited
c. shown to be accurate for thin
people but not overweight
people
d. shown to be accurate for
women but not for men
Answer: B
314. Which of the following is not a
defence mechanism?
a. projection
b. regression
c. ingratiation
d. sublimation
Answer: C
315. Rohan is self-disciplined,
focused on achievement and
keen to do his duty. He would
be
expected to score highly on:
a. neuroticism
b. agreeableness
c. extraversion
d. conscientiousness
Answer: D
a. fortune-telling
b. astrology
c. horoscopes
d. all the above
Answer: D
317. ________ are the basic
biological units that transmit
characteristics from one
generation to the next:
a. genes
b. neurons
c. glia
d. instincts
Answer: A
318. Which of the following would
NOT be useful to a behavioural
geneticist?
a. family studies
b. case studies
c. adoption studies
d. twin studies
Answer: B
319. According to Freud, the id is to
the ________ principle as the
ego is to the ________ principle.
a. aggressive, sexual
b. sexual, aggressive
c. pleasure, reality
d. reality, pleasure

316. The Barnum effect helps to Answer: C

explain people’s belief in:

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 Emergence of Psychology MCQs

320. Lana is friendly, always willing

to help others and
compassionate. We
would expect Lana to score
highly on:
a. extraversion
b. agreeableness
c. neuroticism
d. openness to experience

Answer: B

ANSWERS

1. b

50
Research Methodology and
Statistics

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 Research Methodology and Statistics 2020

What is Research: Meaning, Purpose, and

Dimensions, Research problems, Variables and
Operational Definitions, Hypothesis, Sampling,
Ethics in conducting and reporting research?

Research: Meaning, Purpose, and Dimensions, Research

problems, Variables and Operational Definitions, Hypothesis,
Sampling ,Ethics in conducting and reporting research
The Research Meaning of Psychology

Psychologists try to answer these questions, develop the principles

to explain them, and use those principles to solve various problems.
The range of application of psychology is very wide. A cognitive
psychologist may like to know the causes of
forgetting. An organisational psychologist may try to find out nature
of resistance among the employees to introduction of new
performance appraisal system. A health psychologist may like to
examine the relationship between smoking behaviour and coronary
heart disease.
While evaluating major areas of psychological researches, a
psychologist uses the principles and practices of scientific methods.
This unit attempts to acquaint you with nature and relevance of
psychological research. This is followed by the process of
psychological research within the context of discovery and context
of justification as well as distinctive goal of psychological
researches.
OBJECTIVES

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 Research Methodology and Statistics 2020

After reading this unit, you will be able to: Describe the research
process in terms of how to conduct sound research and

 how to evaluate critically the research of others; Understand why

people behave as they do;

 Discuss how to maintain objectivity and minimize the research

bias in psychology

 research; Tell others the role of theory, hypothesis and paradigm

in psychological research;

 Discuss the primary objectives and goals of psychological

research;

 Identify some of the problems one encounters in trying to do

reliable and valid
NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Importance and relevance of psychological research is well recogni
sed almost in every sphere of human life. Notable progress has
been reported in the field of organisational behaviour, applied
aspects of human being, medical sciences and education, through
application of psychological research findings. Empirical and
theoretical researches in psychology are taking place in various
fields, such as learning, motivation, perception, concept learning
and memory and so on.
In the quest of psychological facts, laws and theories, psychologists
have found research studies very helpful in gauging human and
animal behaviour. Psychological research attempts to understand
why people and animals behave as they do. Psychologists usually
define behaviour as overt activities, such as eating, recalling stories,
and so on. What about covert psychological processes, such as
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 Research Methodology and Statistics 2020

thinking and feeling? Although thoughts and feelings are not directly
observable, they influence such aspects of behaviour as reaction
time and blood pressure, which are often used to measure these
covert processes.
Practical gains of psychological research are many, yet include
discoveries such as improved methods of treating psychologically
disordered people, better designs of vehicles to make them easier
and safe to use, and new ways of enhancing the performance and
happiness of workers. Before we examine what researchers have
found in the major areas of psychology, we need to identify the
ways psychologists gather data about behaviour and mental
processes.
You may be a daily consumer of mass media reports on research
findings. Some of these are valuable, some are worthless, and
others are confusing and misleading. You will become a wiser
consumer of research-based conclusions as you develop your
understanding of how psychological research is conducted and why
the scientific view of knowledge dictates such methods. Let us turn
now how psychologists know what they know.
Recall that psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and
mental functioning of individuals. It is scientific because it uses the
principles and practices of the scientific method.
Role of Theories, Hypotheses and Paradigms in Psychological
Research
Psychological research focuses on four sets of concerns:
i) the stimulus events that cause a particular response to start,
stop, or change in quality of quantity;

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 Research Methodology and Statistics 2020

ii) the structure of behaviour that links certain actions in predictable,

orderly ways to other actions;
iii) the relationships between internal psychological processes or
psychological mechanisms and observable behaviour patterns; and
iv) the consequences that behaviour has on the individual’s social
and physical environment. Researchers begin with the assumption
of determinism, the idea that all events (physical, mental and
behavioural) result from specific causal factors.
Researchers also assume that behaviour and mental processes
follow set patterns of relationships that can be discovered and
revealed through research. Psychological theories, in general,
attempt to understand how brain, mind, behaviour, and environment
function and how they may be related.
Any particular theory focuses on a more specific aspect of this
broad conception, using a body of interrelated principles to explain
or predict some psychological phenomenon. The value of a theory
is often measured in terms of the new ideas, or hypotheses, that
can be derived from it and tested.
A hypothesis is a tentative and testable explanation of the
relationship between two or more events or variables. A variable is
any factor that changes, or varies, in size or quality. To illustrate this
mood may be a variable, since people’s moods may vary from one
situation to another. Test performance is another variable, since a
person’s score may vary from one test to the next.
A hypothesis is a testable explanation of the relationship between
variables, it is a tentative proposition based on observations, or it
could be a hunch about how ideas go together. An instructor, for
example, may have a hypothesis about how varying teaching

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 Research Methodology and Statistics MCQs 2020
variance and error variance.
Each has the same number of
degrees of freedom.
d. In one-way ANOVA the total
sum of squares comprises
three main sources of
variance: within-groups
variance, between-groups
variance and information
variance. Each has the same
number of degrees of
freedom.
e. In one-way ANOVA the total
sum of squares comprises
three main sources of
variance: within-groups
variance, between-groups
variance and information
variance. Each has its own
number of degrees of
freedom.
Answer: B
308. What is the point of calculating
the value of η2 in relation to
particular F- and p-values? [TY10.2]
a. η2 is a hypothesis-testing
measure that can tell us
whether a particular F-value is
significant.
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b. η2 is the square of α and can
tell us whether a particular p-
value is significant.
c. η2 is a measure of effect size
that can tell us whether a
particular F-value is
significant.
d. η2 is a measure of effect size
that can tell us whether a
particular p-value is
significant.
e. η2 is a measure of effect size
that can tell us how much
variance a particular effect
accounts for.
Answer: E
309. A researcher, Isobel, conducts
one-way analysis of variance in
which she compares the final marks
of students who have studied
psychology at one of five different
institutions, A, B, C, D and E. The
study looks at the marks of 100
students, 20 from each institution.
On the basis of a given theory, the
researcher plans to make four
comparisons: between A and B, A
and C, C and D, and C and E. Three
other researchers make the
following observations:
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 Research Methodology and Statistics MCQs 2020
X: ‘If Isobel used an experimentwise
alpha level of .01, a Bonferroni
adjustment would mean that each of
these tests had an alpha level of
.0025.’
Y: ‘If Isobel used an experimentwise
alpha level of .05, a Bonferroni
adjustment would mean that each of
these tests had an alpha level
of.0025.’
Z: ‘If Isobel used an experimentwise
alpha level of .05, a Bonferroni
adjustment would mean that each of
these tests had an alpha level of
.0125.’
Who is correct? [TY10.4]
a. Only X.
b. Only Y.
c. Only Z.
d. X and Y.
e. X and Z.
Answer: E
310. An experimental psychologist
conducts a study examining whether
the speed with which two shapes
can be identified as similar or
different depends on whether the
stimuli are (a) of equal or unequal
size and (b) symmetrical or
asymmetrical. The mean reaction
times for the four cells of the design
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are as follows: equal symmetrical
(M = 132 ms), unequal symmetrical
(M = 148 ms), unequal asymmetrical
(M = 142 ms), unequal asymmetrical
(M = 182 ms). Which of the following
is true? [TY10.5]
a. A line graph in which these
data are plotted suggests that
there might only be a main
effect for size.
b. A line graph in which these
data are plotted suggests that
there might only be a main
effect for symmetry.
c. A line graph in which these
data are plotted suggests that
there might only be a main
effect for size and an
interaction between size and
symmetry.
d. A line graph in which these
data are plotted suggests that
there might only be a main
effect for symmetry and an
interaction between size and
symmetry.
e. A line graph in which these
data are plotted suggests that
there might be main effects
for size and symmetry and an
interaction between size and
symmetry.
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 Research Methodology and Statistics MCQs 2020
Answer: E
311. Which of the following
statements is false? [TY10.6]
a. One difference between
ANOVA and t-tests is that
ANOVA allows researchers to
compare responses of more
than two groups.
b. One difference between
ANOVA and t-tests is that
ANOVA does not make
assumptions about
homogeneity, normality and
independence.
c. One difference between
ANOVA and t-tests is that
ANOVA can be used to
examine simultaneously the
impact of more than one
variable.
d. One difference between
ANOVA and t-tests is that
ANOVA is based on analysis of
the ratios of variances.
e. One difference between
ANOVA and t-tests is that
ANOVA uses two separate
degrees of freedom (one for
between-cells variance, one
for within-cells variance).
Answer: B
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312. A researcher conducts a study
examining the impact of social
support on depression in which he
studies how four independent
groups that each receive a different
type of social support (financial,
emotional, intellectual, none) react
to a stressful experience. There are
20 people in each group. Which of
the following statements is true?
[TY10.7]
a. There are 4 degrees of
freedom for the between-cells
variance.
b. There are 78 degrees of
freedom for the within-cells
variance.
c. If ANOVA yielded a between-
groups F-value of −2.18 this
would be significant with
alpha set at .05.
d. If ANOVA yielded a between-
groups F-value of 0.98 this
would be significant with
alpha set at .01.
e. None of the above statements
is true.
Answer: E
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 Research Methodology and Statistics MCQs 2020
313. Which of the following
statements about the F-distribution
is false? [TY10.8]
a. The distribution is
asymmetrical.
b. The distribution is one-tailed.
c. Higher values of F are
associated with a higher
probability value.
d. The distribution is positively
skewed.
e. If the amount of between-cells
variance is equal to the
amount of within-subjects
variance, the value of F will be
1.00.
Answer: C
314. The SPSS ANOVA output below
is from a study in which participants
were randomly assigned to one of
four conditions in which they were
given different instructions to
encourage them to continue. Which
of the following statements is true?
There is no possibility at all that the
results are due to chance.
a. It would be useful to
supplement the p-value with a
measure of effect size.
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b. With an alpha level of .01,
ANOVA reveals a significant
effect for Instruction.
c. As groups are randomly
assigned, we need to compute
a z-score in order to gauge the
size of these effects relative to
chance.
d. Both (a) and (b).
Answer: B
315. The SPSS ANOVA output below
is from a study in which participants
were randomly assigned to one of
four conditions in which they were
given different instructions to
encourage them to continue. Which
of the following statements is true?
a. ANOVA shows that there was
no effect for Instruction.
b. With an alpha level of .05,
ANOVA reveals a significant
effect for the Instruction.
c. With an alpha level of .01,
ANOVA reveals a significant
effect for Instruction.
d. With an alpha level of .05,
ANOVA reveals a significant
effect for Intercept.
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 Research Methodology and Statistics MCQs 2020

e. With an alpha level of .01,

ANOVA reveals a significant
effect for Intercept.
Answer: B

316. “A hypothetical model in which

mean responses differ across the
conditions of an experimental
design. This represents an
alternative to the null hypothesis
that the mean response is the same
in all conditions.” What is this a
glossary definition of?
a. Hypothetical model.
b. Hypothetical difference
model.
c. Difference model.
d. Effects model.
e. Experimental model.
Answer: D

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UNIT-3 Psychological testing

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 UNIT-3 Psychological testing 2020

What is Types of tests Test construction: Item

writing, item analysis?
Types of tests Test construction: Item writing, item analysis

TesPsychological testing — also called psychological assessment

— is the foundation of how psychologists better understand a
person and their behavior. It is a process of problem solving for
many professionals — to try and determine the core components of
a person’s psychological or mental health problems, personality, IQ,
or some other component. It is also a process that helps identifies
not just weaknesses of a person, but also their strengths.
Psychological testing measures an individual’s performance at a
specific point in time — right now. Psychologists talk about a
person’s “present functioning” in terms of their test data. Therefore
psychological tests can’t predict future or innate potential.
Psychological testing is not a single test or even a single type of
test. It encompasses a whole body of dozens of research-backed
tests and procedures of assessing specific aspects of a person’s
psychological makeup. Some tests are used to determine IQ, others
are used for personality, and still others for something else. Since
so many different tests are available, it’s important to note that not
all of them share the same research evidence for their use — some
tests have a strong evidence base while others do not.
Psychological assessment is something that’s typically done in a
formal manner only by a licensed psychologist (the actual testing
may sometimes be administered by a psychology intern or trainee
studying to become a psychologist). Depending upon what kind of
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 UNIT-3 Psychological testing 2020

testing is being done, it can last anywhere from 1 1/2 hours to a full
day. Testing is usually done in a psychologist’s office and consists
largely of paper-and-pencil tests (nowadays often administered on a
computer for ease-of-use).
Psychological testing is divided into four primary types:
 Clinical Interview
 Assessment of Intellectual Functioning (IQ)
 Personality Assessment
 Behavioral Assessment
In addition to these primary types of psychological assessment,
other kinds of psychological tests are available for specific areas,
such as aptitude or achievement in school, career or work
counseling, management skills, and career planning.
Within the field of test development, the tasks and/or questions that
are used to construct tests and examinations are referred to as
‘items’, and the range techniques involved in preparing those items
are collectively referred to as ‘item writing’. Is item writing an art or a
science?
The best item development techniques combine elements of both
these intellectual activities. On the one hand, there is a fair amount
of experimental method, which we might recognize as scientific,
incorporated within the whole set of procedures for developing a
good item, or the sets of such things we call ‘tests’. However, as this
document will make clear, writing a good item is also a highly
creative act. By the end of the process something new, powerful,
and useful has emerged – a test instrument which has used words,
symbols or other materials from a curriculum or a syllabus in a new

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way, often to serve a variety of educational purposes. In doing so,

the item developer needs imagination and ingenuity as well as
knowledge: form, structure and balance become important, as they
are to a sculptor or a musician. Why are these building-blocks of
tests called ‘items’, anyway? Is it merely educational jargon? Why
not call them ‘questions’?
The choice of the word ‘item’, in preference to ‘question’, draws
attention to two matters. One is that items are often not in question
format – the test-taker is required to perform a specific task, or
reveal specific knowledge, which is implied in the words given on
the testpaper, rather than explicitly offered as a direct question.
The other matter concerns the independence of items in a test. Like
the items on a shopping list, they are discrete, or they should be. If
you can’t get one right, that should not stop you from having a fair
chance of obtaining success on all of the others. The term ‘item
writing’, used in the title of this document, draws attention to this
essential independence – the separate skills, abilities or pieces of
knowledge which make up human learning are considered
individually in the test. This is the prime focus.
However the discussion (and the test development process) begins
and ends with consideration of a second focus. It considers what
happens when these items achieve additional significance or
importance by having been grouped or combined with other items to
form a test instrument. We must continually remember that our
building blocks are part of a larger whole. Several times in the
paragraphs above, the word ‘development’ has been used. This is
not mere jargon either.
It draws attention to the fact that items do not spring to life ready-
made in an item writer’s brain. A thorough developmental process,

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often in a defined and specialised sequence, occurs. Like the

student knowledge to be tested, it occurs gradually – sometimes
with false starts, and often with much wastage on the way, as the
test writers clarify their initial ideas, add to them, try them out, and
finally decide what will serve their purposes best. Note also the use
of the plural ‘writers’. Item writing is best done using a team
approach at various stages of the exercise.
learning difficulties, and so on. However, the real objectives for any
test come directly from considering two things in conjunction. The
first is the actual educational context in which the results of the
testing will be used. The second is the knowledge and
understanding the test-taker will be expected (or able) to bring into
the test-room.
The objectives which are determined will therefore be local and
specific, and determining what they are is the starting point for
determining what the test and its items ought to look like. Much of
the material in this paper concerns one particular branch of item
writing which is perhaps the most difficult to master – the
development of multiple-choice items and tests. However this
emphasis should not obscure the fact that all items, from simple
short-answer formats to extended response essays, need the same
careful and methodical processes during their development if the
final tests are to be reliable and valid measures of learning
outcomes.
The suggestions made as to process can (and should) be applied
whether the user is a teacher in a school preparing a semester test
or an administrator setting up a large national assessment program.
One more element remains to be added to the matrix used in this
example – the formats which have been chosen for the test items

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 UNIT-3 Psychological testing MCQs 2020
d. All of the above
Answer:
d. All of the above
291. In non-Western countries, and
excluding Australia and Japan, there
is a vacuum of evidence for IQ
predicting job performance. What
does this suggest?
a. Non-Western countries do not
measure job performance
b. IQ is an idea of the Western
world
c. Researchers do not study non-
Western countries
d. Job performance can only be
measured through career
advancement
Answer:
b. IQ is an idea of the Western world
292. In terms of occupational types,
high IQ scores are often found …
a. among persons with physical
jobs such as labourers
b. equally across all job types
c. among persons whose jobs
requiring abstract thinking
skills
d. among army recruits
Answer:
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c. among persons whose jobs
requiring abstract thinking skills
293. A possible reason for why
intelligence is predictive of job
performance is that…
a. intelligence relates to the
ability to handle complex
information and learn
b. intelligence provide the
person with a sense of
confidence
c. intelligent individuals get
along well with their
supervisor who rates them
favourably
d. all of the above
Answer:
a. intelligence relates to the ability
to handle complex information and
learn
294. Which of the following
statement is true of a study of US
military personnel reported by
Gottfredson (1997)?
a. There were many more high
cognitive ability scorers who
have trouble completing their
military training compared to
low scorers
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 UNIT-3 Psychological testing MCQs 2020
b. There were as many high
cognitive ability scorers as low
scorers who have trouble
completing their military
training
c. Most of the high cognitive
ability scorers completed their
military training compared to
the low scorers
d. Most high cognitive ability
scorers completed their
military training without
complaining
Answer:
c. Most of the high cognitive ability
scorers completed their military
training compared to the low scorers
295. The reason for why IQ would be
related to income is …
a. high intelligence leads the
individual to seek further
postgraduate training which in
turn leads to highly valued and
higher paid job.
b. knowledge equals to money
c. highly intelligent people are
more likely to make
themselves appear successful
d. employers are more likely to
employ highly respected
people
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Answer:
a. high intelligence leads the
individual to seek further
postgraduate training which in turn
leads to highly valued and higher
paid job.
296. Which of the following are
explanations offered for why
childhood IQs are negatively
correlated with the risk of adult
coronary heart disease?
a. Disease prevention
mechanism is in operation
such that higher intelligence is
associated with healthier
lifestyle
b. Disease management
mechanism is in operation
such that intelligent
individuals can self-administer
medication better
c. Intelligence leads individuals
to avoid unhealthy
environment and hazardous
jobs which may damage
health
d. All of the above
Answer:
d. All of the above
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297. Whilst cross-sectional studies
may hint that obesity leads to low
IQ, longitudinal studies where
childhood IQ was measured before
health indicators were measured
later in adulthood showed that …
a. obesity risks are not real
b. higher IQ increases the risk of
obesity
c. lower IQ increases the risk of
obesity
d. IQ and obesity are not related
Answer:
c. lower IQ increases the risk of
obesity
298. The child’s increasing skill at
using his muscles is due chiefly to:
A Maturation
B Learning
C Pushing by parents
D An opportunity to exercise
Answer: Option [B]
299. In three-factor models of
personality a ‘Constraint’ factor is
sometimes proposed. In Big Five
terms, ‘Constraint’ is best
understood as a combination of …
a. low Extraversion and high
Agreeableness
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b. low Extraversion and low
Agreeableness
c. high Conscientiousness and
high Agreeableness
d. high Conscientiousness and
low Agreeableness
Answer:
c. high Conscientiousness and high
Agreeableness
300. What combination of Big Five
personality characteristics is
associated with authoritarian
tendencies?
a. Low Agreeableness and high
Conscientiousness
b. Low Openness and high
Conscientiousness
c. High Neuroticism and low
Agreeableness
d. Low Openness and high
Neuroticism
Answer:
b. Low Openness and high
Conscientiousness
301. Which attachment style is
associated with showing anger and
upset during a discussion of a
relationship problem with one’s
partner and reduced love and
commitment toward them after it?
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 UNIT-3 Psychological testing MCQs 2020
a. Secure
b. Insecure
c. Avoidant
d. Anxious/ambivalent
Answer:
d. Anxious/ambivalent
302. Which of the following
statements best describes the
‘indigenous approach’ to examining
cultural variations in personality
structure?
a. It employs indigenous people
as research assistants
b. It translates Western
personality measures into
indigenous languages
c. It starts with the personality
concepts and trait terms of the
culture of interest
d. It addresses the personality
structure of colonized peoples
Answer:
c. It starts with the personality
concepts and trait terms of the
culture of interest
303. Which of the following
statements best describes the
current state of research on
personality types?
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a. Categorical personality types
are very rare
b. Type A personality is an
either-or personality type
c. Research shows that the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
identifies true personality
types
d. Most personality variation
between people is not well
described by continuous
dimensions
Answer:
a. Categorical personality types are
very rare
304. Conditioned response may be
eliminated by withdrawing
reinforcement. This is known as:
A Extinction
B Discrimination
C Spontaneous recovery
D Stimulus generalization
Answer: Option [A]
305. Any stimulus that follows a
behavior and increases the
likelihood that the behavior will be
repeated is called a:
A Cue
B Punisher
C reinforcer
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D Situational stimulus
Answer: Option [C]

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