Controlling Workplace Hazards

Unit GC2 International

Element 7: Chemical and Biological Health Hazards and Risk Control

Learning Outcomes
• Outline the forms of, the classification of, and health risks from exposure to, hazardous
substances
• Explain the factors to be considered when undertaking an assessment of the health risks
from substances commonly encountered in the workplace
• Explain the use and limitations of occupational exposure limits, including the purpose of
long-term and short-term exposure limits
• Outline control measures that should be used to reduce the risk of ill health from
exposure to hazardous substances
• Outline the hazards, risks and controls associated with specific agents
• Outline the basic requirements related to the safe handling and storage of waste

Unit GC2: Element 7.1

Forms of, classification of and health risks from hazardous substances

Forms of Chemical Agent

• The physical form greatly affects the hazard presented and the route of entry into the
body:
− Dust
− Fume
− Gas
− Mist
− Vapour
− Liquids
−
Biological Agents
• Fungi
e.g. Farmer’s lung
• Bacteria
e.g. legionnaire’s disease, leptospirosis
• Viruses
e.g. HIV, Hepatitis B
Classification of Chemicals
The Globally Harmonised System (GHS)
• Physico-chemical
− e.g. highly flammable, explosive, oxidising
• Toxicological
− e.g. toxic, carcinogenic
• Environmental
− e.g. harmful to aquatic life

Classification of Chemicals Hazardous to Health

Toxic
Harmful (Xn)
Carcinogenic
Respiratory Sensitiser
Irritant (Xi)
Corrosive

Classification of Chemicals Hazardous to Health

Toxic
− Small doses cause death or serious illness
Harmful
− Larger doses cause death or serious illness
Corrosive
− Destroys living tissue
Irritant
− Inflames skin or mucous membranes

Classification of Chemicals Hazardous to Health

Carcinogens
− Cause cancer
Respiratory sensitisers
− Cause asthma, e.g. flour dust, isocyanates
Skin sensitisers
− Cause allergic dermatitis, e.g. epoxy resin
Mutagens
− Causes hereditary genetic mutation
Toxic for reproduction
− Causes sterility, or is harmful to unborn child
Acute and Chronic Health Effects
Acute
− High levels of exposure
− Short exposure time
− Quick effect
e.g. high concentration of chlorine gas
Chronic
− Lower levels of exposure
− Longer exposure time
− Long-term effect
e.g. repeated exposure to solvents

End-of-Section Quiz
1. What are the different physical forms of chemicals?

2. What are the different types of biological agent?

3. What does “toxic” mean in relation to chemicals?

4. What is a “corrosive” chemical?

 Unit GC2: Element 7.2
Assessment of health risks

Group Syndicate Exercise

How can a chemical or biological organism enter the body?
Which is the most harmful route of entry and why?

Routes of Entry
• Inhalation
– inhalable dust
– respirable dust (<7microns)
• Ingestion
• Absorption through the skin
• Injection through the skin
– needlestick
– cuts and grazes
– bites

Defence Mechanisms
The body has two main defence mechanisms to combat attack by biological agents and damage
by chemicals. These are:
• Cellular defence (internal defence), which allows cells to fight bacteria and other toxins
mostly from blood, respiratory and ingestion entry routes
• Superficial defence (external defence), which protects against toxins that enter through
the skin and contaminants in the nose and throat (via collection by the hairs and mucus)

Defence Mechanisms
Respiratory Defences
• Sneezing and coughing
• Nasal hair/mucus
• Ciliary escalator
• Macrophages
• Inflammatory
response

Defence Mechanisms
Skin Defences
• Waterproof barrier comprising:
 − Outer layer of dead cells (epidermis)
− Sebum – biocidal properties
− Inflammatory response

Assessment of Health Risk

• Identify the hazardous substances present and the people who might potentially be
exposed
• Gather information about the substance
• Evaluate the health risk
• Identify any controls needed and implement them
• Record the assessment and action taken
• Review

Factors to Consider When Assessing Health Risk

• Hazardous nature of substance
• Potential ill-health effects
• Physical forms
• Routes of entry
• Quantity
• Concentration
• Number of people
• Frequency of exposure
• Duration of exposure
• Existing control measures

Sources of Information
• Product Labels
• Guidance Documents
• Manufacturers’ Safety Data Sheets

Sources of Information
Product Labels
• Name of substance
• Hazardous components
• Risk phrases indicating danger
• Precautions
• Details of supplier
Sources of Information
Guidance Documents
• In the UK, Workplace Exposure Limits are published by the Health and Safety Executive
(HSE) in Guidance Note EH40
• In the USA, Threshold Limit Values are published by the American Conference of
Government Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH )
• In the EU, Indicative Limit Values are published by the EU

Occupational Exposure Limit Documents

• The maximum concentration of an airborne substance, averaged over a reference
period, to which employees can be exposed by inhalation
• Legal limits differ around the world
− UK has WELs, US has TLVs, EU has OELs

CAS LTEL (8-Hour TWA Reference STEL (15-Minute Reference

Substance Formula
Number Period) Period)

ppm mg/m3 ppm mg/m3

Carbon
CO 630-08-0 30 35 200 232
Monoxide

Group Syndicate Exercise

Manufacturers’ Safety Data Sheets
Outline the type of information you would expect to see on a safety data sheet for a domestic
weedkiller in order to assess the risks

Safety Data Sheet Contents

1. Details of substance and supplier
2. Composition of substance
3. Hazard identification
4. First-aid measures
5. Fire-fighting measures
6. Accidental release measures
7. Handling and storage
8. Exposure controls/PPE
9. Physical/chemical properties
10. Stability and reactivity
 11. Toxicological information
12. Ecological information
13. Disposal requirements
14. Transport information
15. Regulatory information
16. Other information

Limitations of Information
• Information sources provide general information only
• Don’t consider the specific conditions of use
• Individual susceptibility
• Mixed exposures
• Based on current knowledge

Hazardous-Substance Monitoring
When:
• Failure or deterioration of the controls can result in serious health effects
• To ensure an OEL is not exceeded
• To check effectiveness of control measures
• After any change occurs that could affect control

Dust-Monitoring Equipment
• Worn by worker while working
• Indicates personal exposure
• Pre-weighed filter
• Pumped air
• Filter re-weighed
• Gives average value over time

Limitations of Monitoring
• Accuracy of results
• Variations in personal exposure
• Absence of a standard
• Other exposure routes

End-of-Section Quiz
1. What are the four main routes of entry chemicals can take into the body?

2. How is the respiratory system defended?

3. Name 3 different types of monitoring equipment

Unit GC2: Element 7.3

 Occupational exposure limits

Occupational Exposure Limits (OELs)

“The maximum concentration of an airborne substance, averaged over a reference period, to
which employees may be exposed by inhalation.”
Legal status in national law

Time period Combat ill-health effects of:

• Acute effects
Short-term exposure • Very high exposure for a
15 minutes
limits (STEL) short time
• Chronic effects
Long-term exposure • Lower exposure over longer
8 hours
limits (LTEL) period

Significance of Time-Weighted Averages

• A worker can be exposed to different levels of inhalation of a hazardous substance
throughout the working day
• At some times they may be exposed to high levels of contaminant
• At other times the exposure level may be low. In many cases, it will not be practical to
measure an individual’s exposure for all of the working period

Significance of Time-Weighted Averages

• A time-weighted average is equal to the sum of the part of each time period which is
multiplied by the exposure level of the contaminant in that time period
• It is then divided by the hours in the working day (usually eight hours) and the level
indicated as a time-weighted average (as seen above)
• That is, the average of all the total exposures in the working day. This can be significant
where the concentration of the chemical changes through the day, or the time exposure
varies

Limitations of Exposure Limits

Being below a limit does not prove it is safe:
• Only concerned with inhalation
• No account of individual sensitivity or susceptibility
 • Many developed on male physiology
• No account of synergistic or combined effects
• Invalid if normal environmental conditions change

Application of Relevant Limits

• UK
− OELs are known as Workplace Exposure Limits (WELs)
− Published by HSE, full legal status
• USA
− OELs know as Threshold Limit Values (TLVs)
− Published by American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)
− Guidelines, no legal status
• No global standard as yet
− EU Indicative limit values

End-of-Section Quiz
1. What are OELs?

2. What is the difference between:

• An 8-hour TWA
• A 15-minute STEL

Unit GC2: Element 7.4

 Control measures

Prevention of Exposure
• Prevention of exposure is best
• If not possible to prevent exposure, adequately control it
• Ensure OELs are not exceeded

The Principles of Good Practice

1. Minimise emission, release and spread of hazardous substances
2. Account for relevant routes of entry
3. Use control measures proportionate to the risk
4. Ensure effectiveness and reliability of controls
5. Use PPE where control cannot be achieved by other means
6. Regular checks and review of control measures
7. Provide information and training
8. Ensure controls do not increase overall risks

Group Syndicate Exercise

• A gardener is spraying a weed-killer in a domestic garden in windy conditions
• The gardener has no means of washing his hands, etc. and the house-owners have
children and a dog
• The weed-killer is an organophosphate, labelled ‘toxic’
• Using the hierarchy of control, discuss how the risk may be reduced

Implementing the Principles of Good Practice

• Elimination or substitution
• Process change
• Reduce exposure times
• Enclosure or segregation
• Local Exhaust Ventilation
• PPE
• Personal hygiene and protection
• Health surveillance/monitoring

Elimination and Substitution

 • Eliminate process
− e.g. outsource painting
− Change work
− e.g. screw rather than glue
• Dispose of unwanted stock
• Substitute hazardous for non-hazardous
− e.g. irritant to non-hazardous floor cleaner, or corrosive to irritant

Change the Process

• Do the job differently, e.g.

− Applying solvent by brush rather than spraying
− Vacuuming rather than sweeping to keep dust levels down

Reduce Exposure Times

• Job rotation
• Exclude non-essential personnel
• Link to WELs

Enclosure or Segregation
Enclosure
− Totally enclose the substance
− Prevent access to it
Segregation
− Keep people away
− Designated areas

Group Syndicate Exercise

Discuss the reasons why the effectiveness of LEV may be reduced

The Effectiveness of LEV

• Poorly-positioned intake hoods
• Damaged ducts
• Excessive amounts of contamination
• Ineffective fan
• Blocked filters
• Build-up of contaminant in the ducts
 • Sharp bends in ducts
• Unauthorised additions to the system

Inspection of LEV Systems

• Routine visual inspection

− Integrity checks, e.g. filters, contaminant build-up, etc.
• Planned preventive maintenance
− e.g. replacing filters, lubricating fan bearings, etc.
• Periodic testing
− Ensure air velocities are adequate

Dilution Ventilation

• Diluting the contaminant

• Changes the air
• Passive dilution - vents
• Active dilution - powered fans
• Used where:
− WEL is high
− formation of gas or vapour is slow
− operators are not close to contamination
• Important to know whether contaminant is lighter or heavier than air

Limitations of Dilution Ventilation

• Not suitable for highly toxic substances

• Compromised by sudden release of large quantities of contaminant
• Do not work well
– for dust
– where the contaminant is
released at a point of source
• Dead areas may exist

Respiratory Protective Equipment (RPE)

Two types:
• Respirators
− filter contaminated air
• Breathing Apparatus (BA)
− oxygen-depleted atmospheres
− provide clean source of air

Filtering Face-Piece Respirators

Use and benefits Limitations

Cheap Low level of protection
Easy to use Seal not effective
Disposable Uncomfortable

Half Mask or Ori-Nasal Respirator

Use and benefits Limitations

Good level of filtration No built-in eye protection

Good fit Negative pressure inside

face-piece
Easy to use Uncomfortable

Full-Face Respirator

Use and benefits Limitations

Good level of filtration Restricts vision
Good fit Negative pressure inside
face-piece
Protects the eyes Uncomfortable
Powered Respirator
 Use and benefits Limitations
Intermediate level of Heavy to wear
filtration
Air movement cools No tight face seal
wearer
Air stream prevents Limited battery life
inward leak

Fresh-Air Hose BA
Air demanded by user or pumped

Use and benefits Limitations

Air from outside the work
room
Supply not time restricted
Hose must be tethered
Bends or kinks make
breathing difficult
User restricted by limited
hose length

Compressed-Air BA

Air under pressure

Use and benefits Limitations

Supply of air is not time- Hose can be long, but not
restricted endless
Positive pressure inside face-
piece
Wearer not burdened with
cylinder
Self-contained BA
Pressurised cylinder
 Use and benefits Limitations
Complete freedom of Supply is time-restricted
movement
Positive pressure inside face- Equipment bulky and heavy
piece
More technical training
required

Group Discussion Point

Selection of RPE

• What factors do you think should be taken into account when selecting RPE for use by
workers?

The Suitability of RPE

Factors to consider:
• Concentration of the contaminant and
its hazards
• Physical form of the substance
• Level of protection offered by the RPE
• Presence or absence of oxygen
• Duration of time that it must be worn
• Compatibility with other items of PPE
• Shape of the user’s face
• Facial hair
• Physical requirements of the job
• Physical fitness of the wearer

RPE Information, Instruction and Training

Users should understand:
• How to fit the RPE
• How to test it to ensure that it is working effectively
• The limitations of the item
• Any cleaning requirements
• Any maintenance requirements (e.g. how to change filter)
Other PPE
Hand protection
– gloves, gauntlets
Eye protection
– spectacles, goggles, visors
Body protection
– overalls, aprons, whole body protection

Personal Hygiene and Protection

• Hand-washing routines
• Careful removal and disposal of PPE to prevent cross-contamination to normal clothes
• Prohibition of eating, drinking and smoking in work areas
• Washing facilities
• Changing facilities
• Rest areas

Personal Hygiene and Protection

Vaccination
Against biological agents, e.g.
– Hepatitis B
– Tetanus
– Typhoid
Worker consent required
Immunity not always achieved
False sense of security

Health Surveillance
Health monitoring:
– signs of disease
– symptoms of chronic conditions, e.g. flour workers have lung-function tests to
check for asthma
Biological monitoring:
– checks for contaminants within the body, e.g. lead
Pre-employment screening:
– establishes a ‘baseline’
 Group Syndicate Exercise
Consider the types of health surveillance that may be required for the following occupations:
• Call-centre operator
• Chemical-plant worker handling solvents
• Tree surgeon exposed to wood dusts

Control of Carcinogens, Mutagens and Asthmagens

In addition to standard control measures:
• Total enclosure of process or handling systems
• Prohibition of eating, drinking
and smoking
• Regular cleaning
• Warning signs
• Safe storage, handling and disposal

End-of-Section Quiz
1. What is the first step in the hierarchy of control?

2. What are the basic components of an LEV system?

3. Why is PPE the last line of defence in the hierarchy of control?

Unit GC2: Element 7.5

Specific agents
Group Syndicate Exercise
• What is asbestos?
• Why was asbestos used in industry and buildings?
• Where might it be found?

Asbestos
Naturally-occurring mineral fibres used for fire-resistant building and lagging materials
• Blue (crocidolite)
• Brown (amosite)
• White (chrysotile)
• Health risks:
– asbestosis
– lung cancer
– mesothelioma
– diffuse pleural thickening

Asbestos
Use:
• asbestos cement roofs
• ceiling tiles
• fire-break walls
• floor tiles
• down-pipes
• pipe lagging
• gaskets

Work with Asbestos - Controls

In general:
• Work must be notified to the enforcement agency
• Work area sealed
• PPE and RPE
• Negative-pressure ventilation system with efficient filters
• Asbestos waste
– securely double bagged, labelled, disposed as hazardous waste
• Dust levels monitored inside and outside sealed work area
• Worker exposure must not exceed control limit
• Health surveillance provided
 Managing Asbestos in Buildings

• Occupiers/owners must be aware of presence of asbestos

• Need an asbestos management plan
• Maintain asbestos register – identify locations
• Record of regular inspections
• Monitoring condition

Blood-Borne Viruses

• HIV/AIDS
• Hepatitis A
– contracted orally by cross contamination of faecal matter, e.g. sewage workers
• Hepatitis B
– transmitted in body fluids, e.g. blood
– health-care workers, fire-fighters, police
• Symptoms
– jaundice, liver damage

Blood-Borne Viruses

Typical controls:
• PPE: gloves, eye protection
• Disposal of material as clinical waste
• Prevention of needlestick injuries
• Decontamination and disinfection
• Vaccination
• Accident procedures, e.g. needlestick injuries

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

• Colourless, odourless gas

• By-product of combustion, e.g. poorly maintained boilers
• Inhalation hazard
• Prevents red blood cells from absorbing oxygen
• Chemical asphyxiation
– Low levels – worsening headaches
 – High levels – rapid unconsciousness and death

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Typical controls:
• Competent engineers for gas systems
• Maintenance and testing of boilers and flues
• Good ventilation
• LEV for workshop vehicle exhausts
• Siting of equipment containing combustion engines
• CO alarms
• Confined-space entry controls

Cement

Typical controls:
• Eliminating or reducing exposure
• PPE – gloves, dust masks, eye protection
• Removal of contaminated clothing
• Good hygiene and washing skin on contact
Harmful effects:
• Irritation of the eyes, respiratory tract, skin
• Allergic dermatitis and corrosive burns to skin on repeated/prolonged contact

Legionella Bacteria
Legionnaire’s disease
• Water-loving soil bacteria
• Inhalation hazard
• Mists particularly high risk
• Flu-like fever, pneumonia

Legionella Bacteria - Controls

Typical controls
• Enclosing water systems
 • Water treatment, e.g. chlorination
• Hot water >60oC
• Biocides (treatment chemicals)
• Prevention of limescale
• Routine cleaning of cooling towers
• Water sampling and analysis

Leptospira Bacteria4

Leptospirosis
• Infected urine from: rats, mice, cattle and horses
• Contaminated water in contact with cuts, grazes, etc.
• Dairy farmers, sewage workers, water-sports instructors
• Flu-like symptoms, jaundice, liver damage (Weil’s disease)

Leptospira Bacteria

Typical controls
• Preventing rat infestation – good housekeeping, pest control
• Good personal hygiene
• PPE, especially gloves
• Covering cuts and grazes
• Issuing ‘at-risk cards’ to workers

Silica
• Component of rock
• Quarries, pottery and construction industry
• Inhalation hazard
• Causes scar tissue to form in lungs

Silica
Typical controls
• Alternative work methods
• Dust suppression by water
• LEV
• RPE
• Health surveillance
Wood Dust
• Inhalation hazard
• Causes asthma
• Hard woods can cause cancer

Wood Dust
Typical controls
• LEV
• Vacuuming rather than sweeping
• RPE
• Health surveillance

End-of-Section Quiz
1. What diseases are caused by exposure to asbestos?

2. What controls could be implemented to reduce the risk of needlestick injuries in the
health service?

3. Which occupations could be at risk of leptospirosis infections?

Unit GC2: Element 7.6

Safe handling and storage of wastes
Duty of Care
Waste is:
“Something that is discarded or is going to be discarded”
Local legislation will apply:
Duty of care to control waste
Normally applies to all people who:
• generate,
• import,
• transport and
• dispose of waste

Classification of Waste

• Hazardous wastes may include many household products which, although not
immediately hazardous, may cause longer-term problems
• Non-hazardous waste refers to materials which are not covered by the above
description of hazardous waste

Group Syndicate Exercise

Consider the waste produced by your company’s service or process, or by a hospital or factory
• Discuss what are the main things that can go wrong with the handling and storage of
waste
• Suggest suitable control measures

Safe Handling and Storage

Factors to consider – solid wastes:

• The hazardous nature of the waste
• Manual handling risks
• Safe access to skips, bins, etc.
• Don’t store on unmade ground
• Moving parts of compactors
• Vehicle hazards, e.g. skip lorries
• Security of the waste
• Segregation
• Documentation
Safe Handling and Storage
Factors to consider – liquid wastes:
• Containers located in bund, away from walls
• Bunds have 110% capacity of
largest container
• Provision for rainwater
• Transfer points, e.g. pumps bunded
• Protect bund from damage
• Bunds checked and maintained

Spill Containment
Whenever liquid wastes are present
Measures include:
• Spill kits
• Drain covers
• Training
•
End-of-Section Quiz

1. What controls should be implemented to ensure the safe storage of liquid waste?