LECTURE NOTES ON

UNIT-4

SUB: Automation & Robotics (RME078)

7th SEMESTER, B.TECH MECHANICAL ENGINEERING COURSE

Prepared by:

Er. NAVEEN KUMAR

Assistant Professor, MED
M.Tech (Production Engineering-MNNIT)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
UNITED COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & RESEARCH, PRAYAGRAJ
UNIT -IV:

Robot Drives and Power Transmission Systems: Robot drive mechanisms: Hydraulic / Electric /
Pneumatics, servo & stepper motor drives, Mechanical transmission method: Gear transmission, Belt
drives, Rollers, chains, Links, Linear to Rotary motion conversion, Rotary-to-Linear motion
conversion, Rack and Pinion drives, Lead screws, Ball Bearings.
Robot end Effectors: Classification of End effectors – active and passive grippers, Tools as end
effectors, Drive system for grippers. Mechanical, vacuum and magnetic grippers. Gripper force
analysis and gripper design.

Robot Drives and Power Transmission Systems:

Robot drive mechanisms: Hydraulic / Electric / Pneumatics, servo & stepper
motor drives Types of drive systems:-
1. Hydraulic drive
2. Electric drive
3. Pneumatic drive
4. servo motor drives
5. Stepper motor drives

1. Hydraulic drive:-
Hydraulic drive and electric drive arc the two main types of drives used on more sophisticated
robots.
Hydraulic drive is generally associated with larger robots, such as the Unimate 2000 series. The
usual advantages of the hydraulic drive system are that it provides the robot with greater speed
and strength. The disadvantages of the hydraulic drive system are that it typically adds to the
floor space required by the robot, and that a hydraulic system is inclined to leak on which is a
nuisance.
This type of system can also be called as non-air powered cylinders. In this system, oil is used as
a working fluid instead of compressed air. Hydraulic system need pump to generate the required
pressure and flow rate. These systems are quite complex, costly and require maintenance.

2. Electric drive:-
Electric drive systems do not generally provide as much speed or power as hydraulic systems.
However, the accuracy and repeatability of electric drive robots are usually better. Consequently,
electric robots tend to be smaller. Require less floor space, and their applications tend toward
more precise work such as assembly.
In this System, power is developed by an electric current. It required little maintenance and the
operation is noise less.

3. Pneumatic drive:-
Pneumatic drive is generally reserved for smaller robots that possess fewer degrees of freedom
(two- to four-joint motions).
In this system, air is used as a working fluid; hence it is also called air-powered cylinders. Air is
compressedinthecylinderwiththeaidofpumpthecompressedairisusedtogeneratethepower with
required amount of pressure and flow rates.
4. Servomotor drive:-
A servomotor is a rotary actuator or linear actuator that allows for precise control of angular or
linear position, velocity and acceleration. It consists of a suitable motor coupled to a sensor for
position feedback. It also requires a relatively sophisticated controller, often a dedicated module
designed specifically for use with servomotors. Servo motors are not a specific class of motor,
although the term servo motor is often used to refer to a motor suitable for use in a closed-loop
control system.
Servomotors are used in applications such as robotics, CNC machinery or automated
manufacturing.
5. Stepper motor drives:-

A stepper motor is just another digital device, more precisely a digital DC motor. Stepper or
Stepper Motor allows you to select a certain degree of movement. Rather than making a whole
spin it can divide the spin into smaller parts.
The Stepper Motor can be commanded to hold a certain position for as a long as you want or
you can just put a program to control the movements. The Stepper motor is best used in robots
where only a certain degree of movement is required. One main problem with ordinary DC
Motor is that these keep on moving round and round for infinity amount of time unless you stop
feeding them with electricity.
If you want to build a robot that can fetch coffee for you then you can put an ordinary motor in it
for moving around but for spreading his arms, collecting the coffee and delivering it safely can
only be done by using a stepper motor. But if you put an ordinary motor for controlling its arms
then your coffee is probably going to end up on the floor rather than on your table.

Mechanical transmission method

1. Gears: the lighter the gear the better motion, less torque and higher speed. Some of this
model is spur helical, bevel, worm, rack and pinion, and many others.

2. Chains: Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another. It is
often used to convey power to the wheels of a vehicle, particularly bicycles and motorcycles. It
is also used in a wide variety of machines besides vehicles.
3. Timing belts: have some kind of teeth and these teeth go around with some kind of pulley that
drives this belt around it to transfer motion. It is used now days with robot walking machine.

4. Metal belts, cables and pulleys:

A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of direction of
a taut cable or belt, or transfer of power between the shaft and cable or belt. In the case of a pulley
supported by a frame or shell that does not transfer power to a shaft, but is used to guide the cable or
exert a force, the supporting shell is called a block, and the pulley may be called a sheave.

5. Ball screws: are very important to create linear motion backward and forward with low speed.
We can use some kind of nuts, by tightening the nut we control the speed of motion.
 6. Linkages:

A mechanical linkage is an assembly of bodies connected to manage forces and movement. The
movement of a body, or link, is studied using geometry so the link is considered to be rigid. The
connections between links are modeled as providing ideal movement, pure rotation or sliding for
example, and are called joints.

Motion Conversion

Mechanical systems often include mechanisms such as levers, gears, linkages, cams, chains, and
belts. They all serve a common basic function, the transformation of the motion of an input
member into the kinematically related motion of an output member.
The actual system may be simplified in many cases to a fictitious but dynamically equivalent
one. This is accomplished by “referring” all the elements (masses, springs, dampers) and driving
inputs to a single location, which could be the input, the output, or some elected interior point of
the system. A single equation can then be written for this equivalent system, rather than having
to write several equations for the actual system. This process is not necessary, but often speeds
the work and reduces errors.
Link is basic kinematic component. Link is rigid moving part. Linkage is set of links combined
via joints. Joint is movable connection. 2 types of joints:
1. Pivot is based on rotation
2. Slide (piston) is based on translation
Rotary to Linear Motion Conversion
In motion-control systems, it is often necessary to convert rotational motion into translational
motion. For instance, a load may be controlled to move along a straight line through a rotary
motor-and-lead screw assembly, such as that shown in Fig.1. Fig.2 shows a similar situation in
which a rack-and-pinion assembly is used as a mechanical linkage. Another familiar system in
motion control is the control of a mass through a pulley by a rotary motor, as shown in Fig. 3 27.
The systems shown in Figs. 3-25, 3-26, and 3-27 can all be represented by a simple system with
an equivalent inertia connected directly to the drive motor. For instance, the mass in Fig. 3-27
can be regarded as a point mass that moves about the pulley, which has a radius r. By
disregarding the inertia of the pulley, the equivalent inertia that the motor sees is

J = Mr2 = (W/g) r2

If the radius of the pinion in Fig. 3-26 is r, the equivalent inertia that the motor sees is also given
by Eq.above
Now consider the system of Fig. 3-25. The lead of the screw, L, is defined as the linear distance
that the mass travels per revolution of the screw. In principle, the two systems in Fig. 3-26 and
Fig. 3-27 are equivalent. In Fig. 3-26, the distance traveled by the mass per revolution of the
pinion is 27rr. By using Eq. above as the equivalent inertia for the system of Fig. 3-25, we have

J = (W/g) * (L/2pi )2

Figure:1-Rotary-to-linear motion control system (lead screw)

Figure: 2 Rotary-to-linear motion control system (rack and pinion)

Figure: 3- Rotary-to-linear motion control system (belt and pulley)

Rack and Pinion drives

A rack and pinion is a type of linear actuator that comprises a circular gear (the pinion)
engaging a linear gear (the rack), which operate to translate rotational motion into linear motion.
Driving the pinion into rotation causes the rack to be driven linearly. Driving the rack linearly
will cause the pinion to be driven into a rotation.
For example, in a rack railway, the rotation of a pinion mounted on a locomotive or
a railcar engages a rack between the rails and forces a train up a steep slope.
For every pair of conjugate involute profile, there is a basic rack. This basic rack is the profile of
the conjugate gear of infinite pitch radius (i.e. a toothed straight edge).
A generating rack is a rack outline used to indicate tooth details and dimensions for the design
of a generating tool, such as a hob or a gear shaper cutter.

Leadscrews
A leadscrew (or lead screw), also known as a power screw or translation screw, is a screw
used as a linkage in a machine, to translate turning motion into linear motion. Because of the
large area of sliding contact between their male and female members, screw threads have larger
frictional energy losses compared to other linkages. They are not typically used to carry high
power, but more for intermittent use in low power actuator and positioner mechanisms.
Leadscrews are commonly used in linear actuators, machine slides (such as in machine tools),
vises, presses, and jacks. Leadscrews are a key component in electric linear actuators.
Leadscrews are manufactured in the same way as other thread forms (they may be rolled, cut, or
ground).
A lead screw is sometimes used with a split nut also called half nut which allows the nut to be
disengaged from the threads and moved axially, independently of the screw's rotation, when
needed (such as in single-point threading on a manual lathe).
Ball Bearings
A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element bearing that uses balls to maintain the separation
between the bearing races.
The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and support radial and axial loads. It
achieves this by using at least three races to contain the balls and transmit the loads through the
balls. In most applications, one race is stationary and the other is attached to the rotating
assembly (e.g., a hub or shaft). As one of the bearing races rotates it causes the balls to rotate as
well. Because the balls are rolling, they have a much lower coefficient of friction than if two flat
surfaces were sliding against each other.
Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other kinds of rolling-element
bearings due to the smaller contact area between the balls and races. However, they can tolerate
some misalignment of the inner and outer races.

Robot end Effectors:

“In robotics, an end effector is the device at the end of a robotic arm, designed to interact with
the environment.”
ATI Industrial Automation says:
“A robotic end-effector is any object attached to the robot flange (wrist) that serves a function.”
In robotics, an end effector is the device at the end of a robotic arm, designed to interact with the
environment. The exact nature of this device depends on the application of the robot. In the strict
definition, which originates from serial robotic manipulators, the end effector means the last link
(or end) of the robot. At this endpoint the tools are attached.
In a wider sense, an end effector can be seen as the part of a robot that interacts with the work
environment. This does not refer to the wheels of a mobile robot or the feet of a humanoid robot
which are also not end effectors—they are part of the robot's mobility.
End effectors may consist of a gripper or a tool. The gripper can be of two fingers, three fingers
or even five fingers.
The end effectors that can be used as tools serve various purposes. Such as, spot welding in an
assembly, spray painting where uniformity of painting is necessary and for other purposes where
the working conditions are dangerous for human beings. Surgical robots have end effectors that
are specifically manufactured for performing surgeries. This would include robotic grippers,
robotic tool changers, robotic collision sensors, robotic rotary joints, robotic press tooling,
compliance devices, robotic paint guns, robotic deburring tools, robotic arc welding guns,
robotic transguns, etc.
Grippers are active links between the handling equipment and the work piece or in a more
general sense between the grasping organ (normally the gripper fingers) and the object to be
acquired. Their functions depend on specific applications and include:
Temporary maintenance of a definite position and orientation of the work piece relative to the
gripper and the handling equipment.
Retaining of static (weight), dynamic (motion, acceleration or deceleration) or process specific
forces and moments.
Determination and change of position and orientation of the object relative to the handling
equipment by means of wrist axes.
Specific technical operations performed with, or in conjunction with, the gripper.

Tools as end effectors - The end effectors that can be used as tools serve various purposes, such
as spot welding in an assembly, spray painting where uniformity of painting is necessary, and
for other purposes where the working conditions are dangerous for human beings. Surgical
robots have end effectors that are specifically manufactured for the purpose.
Tools are used in applications where the robot must perform some processing operation on the
work part. The robot therefore manipulates the tool relative to a stationary or slowly moving
object (e.g., work part or subassembly). Examples of the tools used as end effectors by robots to
perform processing applications include:
• spot welding gun
• arc welding tool
• spray painting gun
• rotating spindle for drilling, routing. grinding, and so forth
• assembly tool (e.g., automatic screwdriver)
• heating torch
• Water jet cutting tool.

Grippers- are end effectors used to grasp and manipulate objects during the work cycle. The
objects are usually workparts that are moved from one location to another in the cell. Machine
loading and unloading applications fall into this category. Owing to the variety of part shapes,
sizes, and weights, grippers must usually be custom designed.
Types of grippers used in industrial robot applications include the following:

• Mechanical Gripper:-It is an end effectors that uses mechanical fingers actuated by a

mechanism to grasp an object Fingers are also known as jaws. They are the appendages of the
gripper that actually make contact with the object. These are actuated by separate mechanism.
Usually fingers are of detachable type, which allow for wear and interchangeability of fingers.
I.e., different set off fingers can be used with same gripper mechanism to accommodate different
shape and size of work part. The gripper mechanism must be able to open and close the fingers
and to exert sufficient force against the part when closed to hold it securely.
By designing the contacting surfaces of the fingers to be in the approximate shape of the part
geometry ,motion of the part within the fingers can be restricted. In the other method part is held
between fingers due to friction. Hence fingers must apply a force that is sufficient for friction to
retain the part against gravity acceleration, and other forces fingers or pads are generally
fabricated out of polyurethane and other soft material.
• Vacuum grippers, in which suction cups are used to hold flat objects. Vacuum grippers are
used for handling damageable parts. Two dimensional parts such as sheet metal parts are also
handled by vacuum grippers. Using the principle of the venturi nozzle, an air jet builds up a
vacuum in the suction cup that holds the parts. When the air jet is turned off, the parts are
automatically released. Heavy parts such as shafts are lifted not by mechanical grippers but with
electromagnetic grippers. However, secure handling, not exact positioning, is needed when
using these grippers. To handle small and light parts, grippers using alternative physical
principles, such as electrostatic and adherent grippers, are used because they do not exert any
pressure that could cause damage to the part. Fields of application include micro assembly and
electronics production.

• Magnetic grippersare used extensively on ferrous materials. In general, magnetic grippers

offer the following advantages in robotic handling operations
• Variations in part size can be tolerated
• Pickup times are very fast
• They have ability to handle metal parts with holes
• Only one surface is required for gripping
The residual magnetism remaining in the work piece may cause problems. Mother potential
disadvantage is the problem of picking up one sheet at a time from a stack. The magnetic
attraction tends to penetrate beyond the top sheet in the stack, resulting in the possibility that
more than a single sheet will be lifted by the magnet.
Magnetic grippers can use either electromagnets or permanent magnets. Electromagnetic
grippers are easier to control, but require a source of dc power and an appropriate controller.
When the part is to be released, the control unit reverses the polarity at a reduced power level
before switching off the electromagnet. This procedure acts to cancel the residual magnetism in
the work place ensuring a positive release of the part.
Permanent magnets do not require an external power and hence they can be used in hazardous
and explosive environments, because there is no danger of sparks which might cause ignition in
such environments. When the part is to be released at the end of the handling cycle, in case of
permanent magnet grippers, some means of separating the part from the magnet must be
provided.

Gripper force analysis and gripper design

While a slip-proof grasp previously described is preferred for end effectors, in the majority of
cases a frictional grip is all that can be attained. When designed properly, the frictional grip is
very successful.
Friction forces can be visualized on a gripper jaw in Figure 3.66. It is desirable to have the center
of gravity for grasped objects and end effectors coincident in the Z-direction, to not have
moments at the jaw surfaces. To successfully grasp an object the applied gripping frictional force
on each jaw of a two-jaw gripper must be equal to or greater than the half the vertical weight and
acceleration payload. From this the applied gripping normal force is found by dividing the
required friction force by the static coefficient of friction. Typically a factor of safety is applied.
Friction coefficients are a function of materials and surface geometries. Estimates can be found
using standard references. Typically most surfaces will have a static coefficient of friction
greaterthan0.2.For metal to metal contacts, the static coefficient of friction is much higher(e.g.,
aluminum to mild steel has 0.6 and mild steel to hard steel has 0.78). In addition to an object’s
weight, surface texture, rigidity ,and potential damage must also be considered in the selection
or design of an end effectors or the gripper. Pads are used on the jaws of the end effectors to
prevent surface damage to the object. Pads can also be used to increase the coefficient of friction
between the object and the gripper jaws.

FOUR IMPORTANT FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE SELECTION AND

DESIGN OF GRIPPERS.

1. The gripper must have the ability to reach the surface of a workpart.
2. The change in work part size must be accounted for providing accurate positioning.
3. During machining operations, there will be a change in the work part size. As a result, the
gripper must be designed to hold a work part even when the size is varied.
4. The gripper must not create any sort of distort and scratch in the fragile workparts.