2. Explain in detail the process of photosynthesis.

From the entrance of water and carbon

dioxide to the creation of sugar. (15pts)

Photosynthesis is a means for plants (or any living organism with chloroplasts) to make its own

food, so that it may grow.

The light dependent reaction happens within the thylakoid membranes

Within the thylakoid, H2O(water) is separated into O2(Oxygen) and H+(Hydrogen Ions)

The Oxygen is released through the stomata because it is not needed for the following processes.

The accumulation of H+ increases the concentration gradient. The e- (electrons) from the

hydrogen are sent to the photosystem 2. The e- waits in the reaction center.

Sunlight shines onto the pigments chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids. Select light

waves are absorbed by the pigments, while some, primarily green, are reflected. This accounts

for the green appearance of plants. The absorbed light waves are used as energy in the reaction

center.

The energy is passed on to the electrons which become excited and jump to the primary electron

receptor.

The excited e- travels through the electron transport chain 2 releasing its energy in the form of

ATP because it goes from a higher energy level to a lower one.

The e- then reaches the reaction center of photosystem 1.

Sunlight filters through the pigments of photosystem 1 exciting the e- waiting in the reaction

center, bringing it back to a high energy state.

The e- then jumps to the electron receptor of photosystem 1 and travels through the ETC 1 where

it then waits for an electron carrier.

NADP+ is an electron carrier that comes and picks up the e- along with an H+ becoming
NADPH.

The NADPH then floats off into the cytoplasm where the Calvin cycle takes place.

The H+ is pumped into the thylakoid space against the concentration gradient, powering

chemiosmosis. The H+ is pumped as the electrons move through photosystems I and II. The

diffusion of H+ from the thylakoid space into the stroma powers the ATP synthase.

The Calvin Cycle takes place in the Stroma, which is the space in the chloroplast.

The Calvin Cycle starts with 3 molecules of CO2 , which enter one at a time.

The enzyme rubisco fixates the 3 CO2 with three RuBP. The 3 RuBP and CO2 are converted

into 6 PGA (a total of 18 carbon atoms). Energy from 6 ATP and 6 NADPH are used to convert

the 6 PGA to 6 G3P. The final product of Calvin cycle 1 G3P which may be combined with

another to form glucose. The other 5 G3P are converted back into 3 RuBP (a 5 carbon structure)

using 3 ATP. The RuBP is used for the Calvin cycle again

3. Explain in detail the process of cellular respiration. From the entrance of food to the

production of ATP. (15pts)

Cellular respiration is broken down into 2 parts: glycolysis and the krebs cycle. Cellular

respiration only occurs if oxygen is present. If there is no oxygen, anaerobic respiration occurs.

Glycolysis is broken down into 2 parts: glucose activation and energy harvesting. In glucose

activation, glucose is converted into fructose biphosphate through phosphorylation. The two

phosphates needed for this phosphorylation comes from 2 ATP’s. Fructose biphosphate is an

unstable molecule, and thus, breaks apart into 2 G3Ps (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate). The next

phase of glycolysis is energy harvesting. The 2 G3Ps lose the high energy phosphates, releasing

2 ATPs each (4 total). The final product is 2 molecules of pyruvate (which enters the
mitochondria) and a net gain of 2 ATP.

The Krebs Cycle (Citric acid cycle) is the next stage in cellular respiration. In the first stage of

the Krebs cycle, pyruvate is split to form CO2 and an acetyl group. The acetyl group attaches to

CoA (Co-Enzyme A) to make acetyl CoA. Acetyl CoA enters the Mitochondria along with the

NADH that was produced from glycolysis.

In the second stage, Acetyl CoA donates its acetyl group to the four carbon molecule

oxaloacetate, forming citrate. Then, the CoA is released from the cycle and waits to be reused in

the cycle again. H2O donates a Hydrogen to the CoA molecule and oxygen to the citrate. Then,

citrate is rearranged to form isocitrate which will then become Alpha-ketoglutarate when it

releases its CO2. Then, two electrons and a H+ are captured by NAD+ to make NADH.

Alpha-Ketoglutarate forms succinate by releasing CO2. Then, two new energetic electrons and a

H+ are captured by another NAD+ to make another NADH, and additional energy is captured in

an ATP. At this point all three carbons from the pyruvate have been released as CO2. Succinate

is converted to malate, which contains two additional hydrogens and one additional oxygen from

H2O, and then malate is converted to oxaloacetate. Two more energetic electrons and a H+ are

captured by NAD+ to make another NADH.

At the end of this whole process, a total of 10 NADH and 2 FADH2 have been created. These

electron carriers are the main source of ATP. The NADH and FADH2 are going to transport H+

through the mitochondrial matrix so they can create a H+ concentration gradient. Through the

process of chemiosmosis the H+ are going to push through the ATP synthase generating the

majority of ATP.
What is biological growth? Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis. Be sure to include in

your discussion chromosome numbers and pairs. (15pts)

Biological growth is an increase of cells. The process of replicating cells is mitosis, which

happens for all somatic cells. Meiosis is the process of creating gametes. Mitosis has 4 main

stages: Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During prophase, the chromatin

condenses into the characteristic X shape chromosome. The nucleoli disappears and the mitotic

spindle begins to form. Then, in metaphase, the chromosomes are attached to the spindle and line

up in the middle at the metaphase plate. The 46 pairs of sister chromatids will separate during

anaphase. Finally, in telophase the nucleus divides into two and in cytokinesis the cytoplasm

separates into two cells. Unlike mitosis, meiosis is broken up into two parts, Meiosis I and

Meiosis II. The phases are similar to mitosis, but the end product is 4 gametes. Thus, a diploid

cell must turn into a haploid. During Anaphase I, the 23 pairs of

homologous chromosomes separate. This type of division is called reductional division because

the number of chromosome pairs in each cell is halved. Then, during Anaphase II, the 23 sister

chromatids separate. Also, since the purpose of meiosis is to create gametes of genetic diversity,

crossing over occurs in prophase I. The homologs exchange genetic information at the

chiasmata.