Vinay and Darbelnet

Direct Translation Procedures include Borrowing, Literal Translation and Calque:

Borrowing: It is when a word is borrowed from another language without translating it. It is a procedure
that involves using the same word in the ST (source text) and TT (target text).

Literal Translation: It is a word for word translation. It is also called degree zero of translation. A ST is
translated into a TT with no changes, other that obligatory grammatical adjustments.

Calque: It is when the translator uses a neologism in the target language by adopting the structure of the
source language. It is also called loan translation. It is a word or a phrase borrowed from another language
by literal word for word translation. An expression from the ST in transferred literally into the TT. A literal
translation so to create a new lexeme in the TT.

Oblique Translation Procedures include: Adaptation, Transposition, Modulation and Equivalence.

Adaptation: It is the so-called Cultural Substitution or Cultural Equivalent. It is a cultural element which
replaces the original text with one that suits better the cultural context of the target language.

Equivalence: It is a way of translating in which the translation expresses the same situation using an
expression which is totally different (such as Idioms, Proverbs). It produces an equivalent text in the target
language by using completely different stylistic and structural methods.

Transposition: It involves moving from one grammatical category to another without altering the meaning
of the text. This technique introduces a change in grammatical structure.

Modulation: It is a technique that involves changing the text by using different words with the same
meaning. It refers to rendering the TT from a different point of view to that of the ST. It may take place
between an abstract and a concrete term, a part and a whole, cause and effect, affirmation and negation of
the contrary, time and space, active and passive.