NORTHERN LUZON ADVENTIST COLLEGE

The School that Prepares for Life

Artacho, Sison ,Pangasinan

SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

SUBJECT: FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING

TEACHER: Marites P. Salvador

MODULE 8: The Cognitive Learning Theory by Gestalt,Gagne,Ausubel and Bruner

I. INTRODUCTION

In this module, you will be introduced to many of the issues to understanding and applying Cognitive
Learning Theories for instructional design purposes.
II. LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. Articulate the underlying assumptions and worldviews of Gestalt, Gagne, Ausubel, and Bruner.
b. State and give examples of Bruner's ​modes of representation.
c. Analyze and compare the theories of cognitive learning of Gagne,Ausubel,and Gestalt.

III. INTEGRATION OF FAITH

Love is patient and kind; love does not envy or boast; it is not arrogant 1 Corinthians 13:4

IV. TOPICS FOR READING

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

1.Gestalt theory​ emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts. That is, the attributes of the
whole are not deducible from analysis of the parts in isolation. The word ​Gestalt​ is used in modern German to
mean​ the way a thing has been “placed,” or “put together.” There is no exact equivalent in English.​“Form” and
“shape” are the usual translations; in psychology the word is often interpreted as “pattern” or “configuration.”
Gestalt Theory​: Main ​contributions​. ​Gestalt​ psychologists are known for their ​contributions​ to the study of
the learning process and problem-solving. However, their most relevant ​contribution​, which was stated by
Wertheimer, is the elaboration of some basic laws that govern our perception.
The Gestalt Theory (Gestaltism)

According to the ​Gestalt Theory​, which is commonly known as the ​Law of Simplicity​, every stimulus is
perceived by humans in its “​most simple form​”. The main focus of the theory is “​grouping”​ and the entire
theory emphasizes on the fact that the whole of anything is greater than the sum of its parts. Besides, “​gestalt”​
in German means the “​shape of an entity’s complete form​”. Thus, the operational principle of the brain is
holistic and has a self-organizing inclination.

The 4 Laws of Organization

The factors that determine the principle of “​grouping”​ –also known as the “​laws of organization​”- are the
following:

1. Proximity
Elements are typically grouped together based on their immediacy
2. Similarity
Elements similar to one another tend to be grouped together
3. Closure
Elements are typically grouped together if they are a part of an entity
 4. Simplicity
Elements should be organized into simplistic figures, based on their symmetry, smoothness and
regularity

The primary goal of the ​Gestalt Theory​ is to encourage the brain to view not just the whole, but also the
parts that make up that whole. For example, when someone is looking at a tree, is he just staring at this tree, or
does he also see the leaves, the branches, and the trunk? The whole and the sum of its parts are two entirely
different things, and learning can be achieved if learners are able to cognitively process how parts can make up
this whole.

The main principles of the Gestalt Theory

The main principles of the Gestalt Theory in Learning are:

1. Teachers should encourage their students to discover the relationship of the elements that make up a
problem
2. Incongruities, gaps, or disturbances are essential stimuli in the learning process
3. Educational instruction should be based on the Laws of Organization

In a learning environment, the ​Gestalt Theory​ applies to problem solving and perception. However, it
can be used in all aspects of education. A perfect example was provided by Wertheimer himself, when he asked
children to find the area of a parallelogram. He suggested that, as long as parallelograms had a normal shape,
the children could apply the standard procedure in order to determine the area. However, if the parallelogram
had an irregular shape, children could not apply the same logic or principles, but had to solve the problem by
understanding the actual structure of the shape. 

2.Ausubel's Learning Theory

 
 

David Paul Ausubel was an American psychologist whose most significant contribution to the fields of
educational psychology, cognitive science, and science education. Ausubel believed that understanding
concepts, principles, and ideas are achieved through deductive reasoning. Similarly, he believed in the idea of
meaningful learning as opposed to rote memorization. The most important single factor influencing learning is
what the learner already knows. This led Ausubel to develop an interesting theory of meaningful learning and
advance organizers.

Learning Theory

Ausubel believes that​ learning of new knowledge relies on what is already known.​ That is,
construction of knowledge begins with our observation and recognition of events and objects through concepts
we already have. We learn by constructing a network of concepts and adding to them. Ausubel also stresses​ the
importance of reception rather than discovery learning, and meaningful rather than rote learning​. He
declares that his theory applies only to reception learning in school settings. He didn’t say, however, that
discovery learning doesn’t work; but rather that it was not efficient. In other words, Ausubel believed that
understanding concepts, principles, and ideas are achieved through deductive reasoning Ausubel was
influenced by the teachings of Jean Piaget. Similar to Piaget’s ideas of conceptual schemes, Ausubel related
this to his explanation of how people acquire knowledge.

Meaningful learning

Ausebel’s theory also focuses on meaningful learning. According to his theory, to learn meaningfully,
individuals must relate new knowledge to relevant concepts they already know. New knowledge must interact
with the learner’s knowledge structure. Meaningful learning can be contrasted with rote learning. He believed
in the idea of meaningful learning as opposed to rote memorization. The latter can also incorporate new
information into the pre-existing knowledge structure but without interaction. Rote memory is used to recall
sequences of objects, such as phone numbers. However, it is of no use to the learner in understanding the
relationships between the objects. 2 Because meaningful learning involves a recognition of the links between
concepts, it has the privilege of being transferred to long-term memory. The most crucial element in meaningful
learning is how the new information is integrated into the old knowledge structure. Accordingly, Ausubel
believes that knowledge is hierarchically organized; that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can
be related (attached, anchored) to what is already known.

3.Robert M. Gagné
Conditions of Learning​, by Robert M. Gagné, was originally published in 1965 by Holt, Rinehart and
Winston and describes eight kinds of ​learning​ and nine events of instruction. This ​theory​ of ​learning​ involved
two steps. The ​theory​ stipulates that there are several different types or levels of ​learning​.

This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The significance of
these classifications is that each different type requires different types of instruction. Gagne identifies five
major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and
attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for
cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to
learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to
complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of terminology,
discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem solving. The primary significance of the
hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites
are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the
sequencing of instruction.

In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes:

1. Gaining attention (reception)

2. Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
6. Eliciting performance (responding)
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement)
8. Assessing performance (retrieval)
9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).
These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing
instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1992).

Application

While Gagne’s theoretical framework covers all aspects of learning, the focus of the theory is on
intellectual skills. The theory has been applied to the design of instruction in all domains (Gagner & Driscoll,
1988). In its original formulation (Gagne, 1 962), special attention was given to ​military training​ settings.
Gagne (1987) addresses the role of instructional technology in learning.

Example

The following example illustrates a teaching sequence corresponding to the nine instructional events for the
objective, Recognize an equilateral triangle:

1. Gain attention – show variety of computer generated triangles

2. Identify objective – pose question: “What is an equilateral triangle?”
3. Recall prior learning – review definitions of triangles
4. Present stimulus – give definition of equilateral triangle
5. Guide learning- show example of how to create equilateral
6. Elicit performance – ask students to create 5 different examples
7. Provide feedback – check all examples as correct/incorrect
8. Assess performance- provide scores and remediation
9. Enhance retention/transfer – show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilaterals

Gagne (1985, chapter 12) provides examples of events for each category of learning outcomes.

Principles

1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.

2. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning.
3. The specific operations that constitute instructional events are different for each different type of
learning outcome.
4. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of
instruction.
4.Bruner: Modes of representation and instructional implications

The outcome of cognitive development is thinking. The intelligent mind creates from experience
"generic coding systems that permit one to go beyond the data to new and possibly fruitful predictions." Thus,
children as they grow must acquire a way of representing the "recurrent regularities" in their environment. So,
to Bruner, important outcomes of learning include not just the concepts, categories, and problem-solving
procedures invented previously by the culture, but also the ability to "invent" and “discover” these things for
oneself.Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human capabilities and "culturally invented
technologies that serve as amplifiers of these capabilities." These culturally invented technologies include not
just obvious things such as computers and television, but also more abstract notions such as the way a culture
categorizes phenomena, and language itself. Bruner would likely agree with Vygotsky (see below) that
language serves to mediate between environmental stimuli and the individual's response. This is what is labeled
as a semiotic view of ​thinking: individuals do not have access to the environment directly, but do so through signs,
symbols, and indices. Note this is a radical turn from Behaviorist and Cognitivist traditions.
For Bruner, and this is a point unique to his position, the aim of education should be to create autonomous
learners.

Three modes of representation

Jerome S. Bruner hypothesized that the usual course of intellectual development moves through three
stages: ​enactive ,​ ​iconic ​, and ​symbolic .​ However, unlike Piaget's stages, Bruner did not contend that these
stages were necessarily age-dependent, or invariant. Given this assumption, it would appear that instructional
designers will have “more to work with” in Bruner. And indeed, this has been the case as instructional
designers cited Bruner widely during the period when his ideas were most popular (from the mid-60's to the
mid-80's in the U.S. ).

In the ​enactive s​ tage, knowledge is stored primarily in the form of motor responses. And this is not just
limited to children. Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt, operating a lawn
mower) that they would find difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or symbolic (word) form. This works the
other way around as my 6-year old son has to grab the controls away to demonstrate to his inept father that you
have to hold the “dash” key down to make the screen character crouch down and slide.

In the ​iconic s​ tage, knowledge is stored primarily in the form of visual images. This may explain why,
when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany verbal
information.

In the ​symbolic ​stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or in other
symbol systems. According to Bruner's taxonomy, these differ from icons in that symbols are "arbitrary." For
example, the word "beauty" is an arbitrary designation for the idea of beauty in that the word itself is no more
inherently beautiful than any other word.

Assertions/implications for instruction

The following statement probably endeared more educators and instructional designers to Bruner's ideas
than any other:

Any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of
development.

No, he probably would not contend that a one-year old could be taught astrophysics. But he might contend that
kindergartners could be taught some principles of physics (e.g., force, mass, momentum, friction) in an enactive
form. Later, these same principles could be repeated in iconic, then symbolic form. This “spiral” approach to
instruction and learning, again, demonstrates the accessibility of Bruner's ideas to instructional design.

The subject matter must be made "ready" for the child. Piaget and, to an extent, Ausubel, contended that
the child must be ready, or made ready, for the subject matter. But Bruner contends ​just the opposite .​
According to his theory, the fundamental principles of any subject can be taught at any age, provided the
material is converted to a form (and stage) appropriate to the child.

The instructional challenge is to provide problems that both fit the manner of the child's thinking and
tempt her into more powerful modes of thinking. This is similar to Vygotsky's notion (explored more deeply
next) that learning should lead development.

The notion of engaging learners in a spiral manner through enactive, iconic, and symbolic stages may
also be applicable to adults learning unfamiliar material. Here is another difference between Piaget and Bruner.
Whereas Piaget's principles apply only to children, Bruner's can be adapted for adults. This should give trainers
in corporate, military, and government settings something to think about.

Modes of representation (enactive, iconic, symbolic) imply the ideal sequence for instruction, but when
learners have well-developed symbolic systems, it may not be necessary to go through the entire sequence.
Also, the mode of instruction should match the criteria that will be used for measuring learning outcomes.

Finally, ​discovery ​is not just an instructional technique, but also an important learning outcome in itself.
Educators should help learners develop the ability to find the "recurrent regularities" in their environment. The
teacher's job is to guide the discovery process. In other words, in teaching a particular concept, the teacher
should present the set of instances that will best help learners develop an appropriate model of the concept. The
teacher should also model the inquiry process. Bruner would likely not contend that all learning should be
through discovery. For example, it seems pointless to have children "discover" the names of the U.S.
Presidents, or important dates in history. Of course, educators should keep in mind that members of different
cultures will exhibit different kinds of reasoning and inference and so should adjust strategies appropriately. 

https://www.slideshare.net/crystallulong94/cognitive-learning-theory-34853938

https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/conditions-learning/

https://www.britannica.com/science/Gestalt-psychology

https://www.itma.vt.edu/courses/tel/lesson_5.html

V. ACTIVITIES

VI. ASSESSMENT