Meteorology JAA ATPL Training C23 irnrons ene Tange LN JEPPESEN.‘These materials are to be used only for the purpose of individual, private study and may not be reproduced in any form or medium, copied, stored in a retrieval system, lent, hired, rented, transmitted, or adapted in whole or in part without the prior written consent of Jeppesen. Copyright in all materials bound within these covers or attached hereto, excluding that material which is used with the permission of third parties and acknowledged as such, belongs exclusively to Jeppesen. Certain copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the International Civil Aviation ‘Organisation, the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority, and the Joint Aviation Authorities AA), This book has been written and published to assist students enrolled in an approved JAA Air Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL) course in preparation for the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations. Nothing in the content of this book is to be interpreted as constituting instruction or advice relating to practical flying ‘Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information contained within this book, neither Jeppesen nor Atlantic Flight Training gives any warranty as to its accuracy or ‘otherwise. Students preparing for the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations should not regard this book as a substitute for the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge training syllabus published in the current ecition of ‘JAR-FCL 1 Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes)" (the Syllabus). ‘The Syllabus constitutes the sole authoritative definition of the subject matter to be studied in a JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge training programme. No student should prepare for. or is entitled to enter himself/herself for, the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations without first being enrolled in a training school which has been granted approval by a JAA-authorised national aviation authority to deliver JAA ATPL training, Contact Details: Sales and Service Department Jeppesen GmbH Frankfurter Strasse 233 63263 Neu-lsenburg Germany Tel: +449 (0)6102 5070 E-mail: fra-services@jeppesen.com For further information on products and services from Jeppesen, visit our web site at: ‘woww.jeppesen.com (© Jeppesen Sanderson Inc, 2004 ‘All Rights Reserved 4JA310101-000 ISBN 0-88487-350-1 Printed in GermanyPREFACE AAs the world moves toward @ single standard for international pilot licensing, many nations have adopted the syllabi and regulations of the “Joint Aviation Requirements-Flight Crew Licensing” (WAR-FCL), the licensing agency of the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA). ‘Though training and licensing requirements of individual national aviation authorities are similar in content and scope to the JAA curriculum, individuals who wish to train for JAA licences need ‘access to study materials which have been specifically designed to meet the requirements of the JAA licensing system, The volumes in this series aim to cover the subject matter tested in the JAA ATPL ground examinations as set forth in the ATPL training syllabus, contained in the JAA publication, “JAR-FCL 1 (Aeroplanes)’. The JAA regulations specify that all those who wish to obtain a JAA ATPL must study with a flying training organisation (FTO) which has been granted approval by a JAA-authorised national aviation authority to deliver JAA ATPL training. While the formal responsibility to prepare you for both the skill tests and the ground examinations lies with the FTO, these Jeppesen manuals will provide a comprehensive and necessary background for your formal training. Jeppesen is acknowledged as the world's leading supplier of flight information services, and provides a full range of print and electronic flight information services, including navigation data, computerised flight planning, aviation software products, aviation weather services, maintenance information, and pilot training systems and supplies. Jeppesen counts among its customer base all US airlines and the majority of international airlines worldwide. It also serves the large general and business aviation markets. These manuals enable you to draw on Jeppesen's vast experience as an acknowledged expert in the development and publication of pilot training materials. We at Jeppesen wish you success in your flying and training, and we are confident that your study of these manuals will be of great value in preparing for the JAA ATPL ground examinations. The next three pages contain a list and content description of all the volumes in the ATPL series.Table of Contents CHAPTER 1 ‘The Atmosphere Introduction 44 Definition of the Atmosphere... 14 Properties of the Atmosphere at omposton ofthe atmosphere. 44 Water (H20). 13 The Water Cycle: 13 Particles and Dust 43 Carbon Dioxide (C02) 14 Structure of the Aimosehere 14 Troposphere.... : ‘Tropopause 18 Stratosphere 47 Stratopause. 17 Mesosphere. 17 Mesopause 17 Thermosphere... AT Intemational Standard Atmosphere (ISA) 1-8 ISA deviation. 18 Jet Standard Atmosphere (JSA) 19 ‘Answers to ISA deviation questions.. 4-10 CHAPTER 2 Prossure and Pressure Systems Introduction a ‘3 24 ‘Atmospheric Pressure, 24 ‘Measuring Atmospheric Pressure ..nsnsnmnsnumnnnsnennsnmnaninnnnnnnnnananannieanenn de® Mercury Barometer... 22 Aneroid Barometer... 23 Units of Measurement. 23 Pressure Variation 24 Horizontally gear % estiaahereaoaeatnia Diurnally. 24 Vertically. 24 ‘The Relationshio between Pressure and Temperature nonn.n. cacao ee Pressure/Height Calculations, 26 Pressure Values... as 28 QFE. - 28 NH 28 OFF... 28 The Standard Pressure Soting 28 ‘Synoptic Charts. 28 Pressure Systems: 29 Doprossions. 29 Depression Weather za een eter tect 2-40 Ce = 2-40 THOUDHS ne omen 212 ‘Trough Weather. BAZ Ridges... oa se . 213 Ridge Weather 243 Cols. 243 Col Weather... 244 Movement of Pressure Systems 214 Meteorology viiai SS ee Table of Contents CHAPTER 3 Altimetry Introduction. ot Pressure Celculations. 34 Converting between Height and Altitude... tel is 2 Converting between Altitude and Pressure AltitudeiFlight Level... a4 Pressure Change wren 35 Correcting for Temperature nnn maaan 38 Converting between QNH and GFF 38 ‘Mountain Flying... 3-10 Altimeter Settings. 340 Caleulation of Minimum Usable Flight Level. ant CHAPTER 4 Temperature Introduation Temperature Scales. Fahrenhelt Celsius Kelvin... Conversion Factors. ‘Measuremant of Temperature. Heating of the Atmosphere Solar Radiation ron Terrestrial Radiation... Conduction x Convection Latent Heat of Condensation ‘Advection Diumal Variation of Temperature ‘The Greenhouse Effect. CHAPTER 5 Water in the Atmosphere Introduction Water States and Latent Heat. Evaporation Melting ‘Sublimation Condensation. Freezing Saturation... Humidity. Absolute Humidity. ‘Saturation Content. Relative Humility Humidity Mixing Ratio Super-saturation. ‘Saturation and Dewpoint Condensation Level. Diumal Variation of Humidity... Water Vapour Pressure. ‘Saturation Vapour Pressure Curve... Meagurement of Humiy Psychrometer... Humidity Method Answers to Exercises: = 5 5. 5 5S 5. 54 5 5. 5. “5 5 5 ge 38S gee vii MeteorologyTable of Contents CHAPTER 6 Density Introduction 64 The Ideal Gas Laws 4 Boyle's Law... 62 Charles's Law nsonnnnnnn Soot ci eB ‘The Gas Equation... oo snus 62 Effect of Wator Vapour on Air Density 8 5 63 Variation of Surface Air Density with Latitude 63 Variation of Air Density with Height. 63 Variation of Air Density with Latitude and Height. 64 Diurnal Variation of Density en 65 Density Altitude... 65 Calculating Density Altitude . sais 288 Effect of Density on Aircraft Performance «... 3 7 Answers fo Exercises, . a 68 CHAPTER 7 ‘Stability Introduction Adiabatic Processes ‘The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate ‘The Saturated Lapse Rate. ‘The Environmental Lapse Rat ‘Summary of Aciabatics Stabilty ofthe Air. Absolute Stability Absolute Instability Conditional Instability ‘Summary of Stabity. Neutral Stability Convective or Potent instbity Inversions. Cloud Formation ‘The Dry Thermal Formation of a Cloud . Calculating Cloud Base... Forecasting Cloud Formation. CHAPTERS Clouds ‘Acknowledgements, cal Introduction at Cloud Terms "et Cloud Classification a2 Layer Clouds... B2 Clouds of Great Vertical Extension .. B2 Low Clouds 83 Stratus, ST... 83 Stratocumuius, SC 4 Medium Clouds. Bt Altostratus, AS. 84 ‘Altocumulus Castelianus, ACC : er arse Altocumulus Lenticularis, ACL... aan cin 385 Meteorology ixTable of Contents CHAPTER 8 (Continued) High ClOUdS won : 85 Girrus, Cl it we 5 Girro-Stratus, CS... i aS A eee Girro-Cumulus, CC... 86 Glos wth Great Vertical Development. er CUMS nr ron ae see a7 Cumulonimbus. Lien TERT ‘3 a8 Cloud Amounts... ao Cloud Base... a9 Cloud Cetting . aes 8-10 Measuring Cloud Base. ae 840 AIREPS. 7 i 810 Human Observations 8410 Balloons. 810 Ceilometer. 810 Alidade..... 8410 Vertical Visibility a ‘ oes 7 ‘Summary of Cloud Type and Characteristics... ett CHAPTER 9 Cloud Formation Introduction Turbulence... Conditions Mechanisr Cloud Types. Convection | Conditions ‘Mechanism. Adveetion Cloud Types: (Orographiic Upii. Conditions 96 Mechanism. o7 Cloud Types. 10 Frontal Uplift. “eto Conditions 0. 210 Co ae 10 ‘The Warm Front. 9-10 ‘The Cold Front. “ett Cloud TYPES wenn 12 Convergence. 913 Conditions 9413 Mechanism, 913 Cloud Types. S913 CHAPTER 10 Precipitation Introduction 404 Precipitation Processes. 10-4 Bergeron Theory (The lee Crystal Effect... 40-1 Coalescence Theary (Capture Effect) 10-2 Intensity of Precipitation 102 Continuity of Precipitation 102 recitation Type aa Siecle 10-3 Hall... m 10-4 x MeteorologyTable of Contents CHAPTER 11 ‘Thunderstorms Introduction re Conditions.. 114 Trigger Act 4 ‘Thunderstorm Giassification... 14 HeatiAirmass Thunderstorms .. 44-2 Convection... 44-2 ‘Orograohic Uplift. 14-2 Advection, 442 ‘Convergence. 14-2 Frontal Thunderstorms. 14-2 Identification of Thunderstorms. 143 Siages of Developmen. 14-3 Growth Stages 143 Mature Stage .. 113 Dissipating Stage 114 ‘Supercell Thunderstorms. 11-5 Movement of Thunderstorms, 11-5 ‘Squall Lines 115 Hazards... 11-5 ‘Turbulence and Windshear 11-5 Gust Front. 11-6 Microbursts “A468 Hell nn 44-7 Icing Ate Lightning 148 Static. 8 Water ingestion: 14-8 Tornadoes. 119 Pressure Variation 11-9 Weather Radar... 11-9 Avoidance Criteria... 41-40 CHAPTER 12, Visibility Introduction Types of Visibility Reduction Types of Visibility a Meteorological Viibiity.. Runway Visual Range. Oblique Visibility Measurement of Visibility... ‘Measurement of Runway Visual Range. RVR Reporting. Visibility While Flying ‘Types of Fog Radiation Fog. Advection Fog ‘Steaming Fog (Artic Sea Smo). Frontal Fog. Hill FOg.n Other Reducers of Visibility ‘Smoke Fog (Smog)... Dust and Sand Meteorology xiTable of Comers CHAPTER 12 (Continued) Precipitation... H all mat 12.40 Visual ilusions 1241 Shallow Fog 12411 Rain Showers. 1244 Layer Clous.. 4244 Rain Effects. 4241 CHAPTER 13 Icing Introduction... _— se ane 7 fs 134 Conditions = ne . “ s et Effects of Icing... - eon - - AH ling Definitions... a a _ 13.2 ‘Supercooled Water Droplets... 13.3 ‘Size of Supercooled Water Droplets. 13:3 Freezing Process . 13:3 ‘Types of Icing, 13.4 Clear toe 19-4 Rime Ice... 134 Med Ice... 13:5 Rain 100 oer * en 1S Hoar Frost... z oo mei 13-5 Ecos fect he Svery of ig. 136 Engine Icing 137 Piston Engine Icing . 187 Jet Engine Icing, 13-8 le Protection 13.9 CHAPTER 14 Wind Introduction .. i 44 Terms Associated with Wind we ed Forces Acting upon the Air. 142 ‘The Pressure Gradiont Force. 14.3 ‘The Geostrophic Force 7 . ean 143 ‘The Geostrophic Wind .. — Tr — ve 145 ‘The Geostrophic Wind Scale 147 The Gradient Wind.. 147 Winds Near the Equator, 014-9 ‘The Surface Wind... 14.9 Diurnal Variation of the Surface Wind 44-10 osaurement of Surface Wind, 1414 Isallobaric Effect. 1412 xii MeteorologyTable of Contents CHAPTER 15 Local Winds Introduction en 15-4 Land and Sea Breezes . 15-4 Sea Breeze. elt Land Breeze... ot oa aeenaccnteoenl OD (Operational Impiications of the Land and Sea Breezes . Seton OR Katabatic and Anabatic Winds ieee 153 Katabatic Wind. . 153 Anabatic Wind. are Foehn WindiEtfect 155 ValleyiRavine Wind.. O58 Headland Effect 187 Low-Level Jet 18-7 Noctumal Jet.. 187 Valley Inversion. 187 Coastal Jet ee nen renee AB Low Level Jet in Front of an Extra-Tropical Cold Front. an 15-8 CHAPTER 16 Air Masses Introduction . 16-1 Origin and Classification .. AG Modification of Air Masses 16-2 A Masses Afecting Europe... 163 Arctic 16-3 Polar 16-3 Tropical Air Mass Summary... CHAPTER 17 Fronts and Occlusions Introduction “Typos of Front. Warm Front. Cold Front... Quasi-Stationary Front. Pressure Situation at a Front. an ‘Semi-Permanent Fronts of the World Acti Front. Polar Front... Mediterranean Front. Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (I Characteristics of Fronts War Front. Cold Front... 1 Polar Front epressions . - Weather Associated with the Polar Front Depression... Occlusions: se Meteorology xiiia a a a Table of Contents CHAPTER 18 Upper Winds Introduction. 184 ‘Thermal Wind Component 184 Calculating the Thermal Wind Component 182 Upper Wind = 183 Giobal Upper Winds. 185, Jet Streams ae as nan 185 Common Jet Streams peste 185 Sub Tropical Jet Stream... -vsnsnsnsnnnnnnrnnannnnnnannnnna 188 Polar Front Jet Stream... : 188 Winds Around @ Polar Front Depression... -_ 18-8 Clear Air Turbulence 189 Identification of Jet Streams... 18:40 Contour Charts. 1840 Thickness Charts... 1841 CHAPTER 19 Windshear and Turbulence Windshear.... 194 Definitions and the Meteorological Background ae 194 Definition 5 nats on BH Low Attitude Windshear 194 Meteorological Features. 192 ‘Thunderstorms 192 192 193 Turbulent Boundary Layer 193 “Topographical Windshears 193 The Effects of Windshear on an Aircraft in Flight... ee 194 Techniques to Counter the Effects of Windshear......... 198 ICAO Defritions.... z sna 19-10 Nature of Turbulence il Pee 1941 Turbulence, Meteorological Factors. — jo4 Thermal Turbulence 1941 Mechanical Frictional Turbulence. 1941 Mountain Waves... 18:12 Flight Over and in the Vicinity of High Ground 1842 Conditions 19-42 Visual Detection of Mountain Waves. 1943 Turbulence: 19:14 Turbulence at Low and Medium Levels... 1914 Turbuionce inthe Rotor ZON@ ween oo 1914 Turbulence in Waves 194 Turbulence at High Levels (rea and above the tropopause) -~ nna 19615 Turbulence Near the Jet Stream. 19-15 Turbulence in the Stratosphere. A915 Downdraughts Sais 1915 Icing nS = 19415 Flying Aspects. 19-45 Low Altitude Flight. 19-45 High Altitude Flight. 19-46 Inversions. 19-46 Marked Temperature inversion a inna 116 Reporting Turbulence... oa 19.17 xiv MeteorologyTable of Contents CHAPTER 20 Non-Frontal Pressure Systems Introduction tome = 20-4 Low, Cylons or Depression, and Trough. asa nn OA Low Pressure Types: ' senensBO2 Secondary Depression... 20-2 leelandic Low. 20-3 ‘The Origin Of Low Prossures And Weather.. 20-5 COrogrephic or Lee Side Lows or Troughs .. 20-5 Thermal Depressions... 206 Instability Lows. 20-7 Mediterranean Low. 20-7 Polar Lows Baltic Sea Cyclones... Celis of Cold Air Alot (Cold Pools) 208 Anticyclone or High, and Ridge or Wedge 20-9 [Nature of a High 20-9 High Pressure Systems . 20-10 ‘Subtropical Highs (Warm Anticyciones). ‘20-10 Continental Highs (Gold Anticyclones).. sen BO-10 High Pressures And High Pressure Ridges (Or Wedges) in Series Of Traveling Depressions sc... 20-11 CHAPTER 21 Meteorological Observations and Meteorological Services Types of Service 24 Pre-Flight Briefing. 214 . mir . sn BAA Broadcast Text Meteorological information... ove h2 Special Aerodrome Meteorological Reports (SPECI)... 212 ‘Terminal Aerodromes Forecast (TAF) 242 Spocial Forecasts and Specialized Iforation 21-3 SIGMET Service 23 Aircraft Report. odd Routine Aircraft Observations 214 ‘Special Aircraft Observations... 214 Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)... 21-5 Airframe Icing... “28 ‘Aerodrome Closure. 21-8 Inclight Procedures. 21-8 ‘Accuracy of Meteorological Measurement or Observation 217 ‘Marked Temperature Inversion : mat? ‘Aerodrome Warnings 2V7 Special Facilities “218 Windshear Alertin: 218 \Windshear Reporting Criteria... 218 ‘Observing Systems and Operating Procedures... 21-9 Cloud Height nnenron 219 Temperature . 21-9 Horizontal Surface Visibil 219 Runway Visual Range (RVR). 21-40 Meteorology wvTable of Contents CHAPTER 22 Meteorological Messages Introduction si ect minennemnibaics 2A Aerodrome Meteorological Report... 224 Special Aerodrome Meteorological Reports 224 ‘Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts, — 24 Actual Weather Codes 224 Identifier 222 Surface Wind Velocity. 22-2 Horizontal Visibilty.. an nt . 222 Runway Visual Range (RVR). rasa 223 Weather i 22-4 Significant Present and Forecast Weather Codes. 22-4 Cloud, 225 cavoK 22-5 Air Temperature and Dewpoint. 225 ‘Sea Level Pressure (QNH) ws.innsnnesnonnon Fee cst 228 ‘Supplementary Information zi 26 Recent Weather (RE) c ot nmi aan Windshear (WS). 226 Trend. ot iahcaat sina 228 Runway State Group... eee 226 Runway Designator (First Two Digits). coon mL 2B7 Runway Deposits (Thitd Digit).rnennonesnssonsonsnran a 227 Extent of Runway Contamination (Fourth Digit) 227 Depth of Deposit (Fifth and Sixth Digits) * : on B27 [aon Coeicient r Braking Acton (Seventh end Eighth Dig) wn vn 28 “Auto' and "Rk. 228 Missing information 228 Examples of METAS... 228 ‘Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) Codes. - i 22.9 ‘TAF Contents and Format, oo i 229 Significant Changes. 22.9 Other Groups. 22-10, VOLMET Broadcasts . 22-11 CHAPTER 23 The Synoptic Chart Introduction B34 ‘The Station Circle Decode 233 Pressure (1 0'C100K) nn 233 Pressure Tendency (3 o'clock). 233 Past Weather (6 o'clock)... 23-4 ‘Additional Past Weather Symbols... 234 Low Cloud or Vertical Visity (© och i 23.5 Vertical Visibility - anna 28 Dewpoint (7 o'clock) 235 Visibility (9 o'clock Outer Position) ae 23.5 Present Weather 2 o'clock Inner Position) =a 236 Weather in the Past Hour But Not atthe Time of Observation. Desi 23.7 Surface Ar Temperature o Dry Bulb Temperate (11 2004 nn nn 238 Medium Level Cloud (12 o'clock Lower Position)... ea . 238 High Level Cloud (12 o'clock Upper Position) a ans 23-8 Total Cloud Cover (Shown in the Centre of the Circle)... "23-10 Surface Wind... 23-10 xvi MeteorologyTable of Contents CHAPTER 24 Upper Air Charts Introduction Bb ‘Symbols for Significant Weather. . 241 Fronts and Convergence Zones and Other SyMbOIS...n.eurueuenen : 242 Cloud Abbreviations. ai - 246-2 Cloud Amount Soeiaat eae Clouds Excerpt, 24-2 ‘Cumulonimbus Oniy ao Weather Abbreviations... 243 Lines and Symbols on the Chart. 24-3 Significant Weather Chart. 24-4 Upper Wind and Temperature Charts. cg penta 246 ‘Averaging Wind Velocities He eae a 248 CHAPTER 25 Climatology - The World Climate Introduction ron 2541 Ideal Global Circulator ere Rotation of the Earth, 25-2 Idealised Pressure Zones 25-3 ‘The Earth's Tit. 95-3 Pressure Zones, 254 Equatorial Low 25-4 Sub-Tropical Highs . 25-4 Temperate Low. 25-4 Polar High 25-4 Prevailing Surface Winds. 25.4 Westerly Winds. 25-4 Easterly Winds 255 Climatic Zones. 255 Equatorial Climate (0° to 10” Latitude). 25.5 ‘Tropical Transition Climate (10° to 20° Latitude) . 255 ‘Arid Sub-Tropical (20° to 35° Latitude)... Mediterranean Climate (35° to 40° Latitude). 7 Disturbed Temperate (40° to 65° Latitude) 25.6 Polar Climate (65° to 90° Latitude), i. 25-7 Modifications to the Idealised Circulation 257 Global Temperature Distribution 257 Mean Sea Level Temperatures - January 26-7 Mean Sea Level Temperature ~ July 258 ‘Seasonal Variations in Temperature. 258 Upper Air Temperature Distribution 259 World Pressure Distribution... 25.9 Mean Sea Level Pressure — January 25.9 Mean Sea Level Pressure — July 25-10 | Upper Winds. 25-41 Mean Upper Wind ~ January 25-14 Mean Upper Wind — July. 25-12 Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITZ). 25-12 ITCZ = January. 25-13 ez — Juy. 25-13 ‘Stabilty and Moisture Content of the ITCZ. 25-14 ITCZ Weather. . 25-14 Inter Tropical Front (ITFIFIT)... 25-14 Low Level Winds. 25-15 Low Level Winds ~ January... 25-15 Low Level Winds July 25-16 Climatic Summary. 25-17 Meteorology xviiALAA Po a Table of Comtents CHAPTER 26 Climatology ~ Provailing Winds and Ocean Currents. Introduction : soe 864 Europe and the Mediterranean, 28-4 Africa 26.7 S18 rrnsncnn nes 26.9 The indian Monsoon... 26-11 The Far East Monsoon. vo 28-13 North America.. 26-15 South America, 26-15 Australia 26-16 (Ocean Currents, sn 267 Gold Water Coast. 26-18 Warm Water Coast. 26-18 ‘Summary of the Local Winds of the World 26-18 CHAPTER 27 Climatology ~ Tropical Revolving Storms and Tornadoes ‘Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS).. 27a Characteristics 22 Visual Indications of the Advance of the TRS 218 Tornado. oy 276 Tropical Revolving Storm Areas. 278 CHAPTER 28 Climatology - Regional Climatology Europe Mediterranean North Atlantic And North America Arica, sais ABB run ‘Australia and the Pacific... ‘South America and the Car xvii MeteorologyINTRODUCTION Meteorology is the study of the Earth's atmosphere and the physical processes that occur within, it, The study of Meteorology is important for the pilot because the atmosphere is the medium through which the aircraft moves. It is essential to know what conditions are present along a route, and knowledge of the processes in which weather forms is useful for predicting what ‘conditions may occur during fight. DEFINITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE The term atmosphere refers to the gaseous envelope that surrounds the Earth. It is held to the Earth by the force of gravity. This gaseous envelope moves with the rotation of the Earth and ‘extends from the surface of the planet up to the boundary of space. PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE ‘The atmosphere acts as a fluid, is a poor conductor of heat, and only supports life in the lower levels. Due to the extent of the volume of air, variations are found both horizontally and vertically in the following properties: Pressure Temperature Density Humidity vyvy Later chapters cover each of these properties in detail COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE ‘The density of the atmosphere decreases with altitude. This does not affect the composition up to an altitude of at least 60 km. Ozone and some trace elements are affected by the chemical reactions in the upper reaches towards 60 km. Meteorology ItChapter 1 The Atmosphere Above 70 km the lower force of gravity causes the atmospheric composition to vary with height. The following percentages show the composition of dry air in the lower levels: Nitrogei 78.09% Oxygen: 20.95% Argon: 0.93% Carbon Dioxide: 0.03% ‘The graph below represents this composition: Argon 0.93% ‘Carbon dioxide 0.03% Oxygen 20.95% Nitrogen 78.09% Other trace elements include: Neon Helium Krypton Xenon Hydrogen Methane logine Nitrous Oxide Ozone Sulphur Dioxide Nitrogen Dioxide Ammonia Carbon Monoxide vVvVVVVVVVVVYY The above list is background information and needn't be memorised. ‘The composition of dry clean air shown above does not allow for the effects of water in the atmosphere (up to 4% in volume), dust and smoke, or carbon dioxide. 12 MeteorologyThe Atmosphere Chapter 1 WATER (H20) Water can assume all three physical states in the atmosphere, the solid state (ice), the liquid state (water), and the gaseous state (water vapour). ‘Water is unique in that it can readily change from one state to another and can co-exist in all three states. ‘THE WATER CYCLE ‘The water cycle starts when solar radiation strikes moist ground or a water surface. The water then becomes vapour in the air. The concentration of water vapour is greatest in the lower parts of the atmosphere. ‘When conditions are correct, water vapour forms clouds and then condenses, becomes droplets, and falls as precipitation. ‘These clouds and the precipitation they produce make up part of what is known as weather. PARTICLES AND DUST ‘The solid particles in the atmosphere consist mainly of dust and sand from the ground and salt particles from the oceans. In addition, man has added all sorts of soot and dust. These solid particles can restrict visibility, for example, with haze or during sand storms. The amount of solid particles in the air varies, but the existence of these particles is of fundamental importance to processes such as condensation and the formation of ice. The condensation process occurs in the lower parts of the atmosphere. Without condensation ‘nuclei, it would be difficult for water vapour to convert into precipitation and for the formation of ice. Meteorology 13Chapter 1 The Atmosphere CARBON DIOXIDE (CO) Carbon dioxide is to be found both naturally in the atmosphere and as a waste product from burning fossil fuels (carbon compounds). A large part of the carbon dioxide, which is released into the air, is returned to nature's own circulation via the oceans. Carbon dioxide plays a large role in the heating of the atmosphere. STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE There are five layers in the atmosphere. From the surface upwards these are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, ionosphere, and exosphere. 100 TEMPERATURE (°C) Note: In the diagram above, the ionosphere and the exosphere combine to form the thermosphere. TROPOSPHERE ‘The troposphere extends from the surface up to an average height of 11 km. Within the layer, temperatures generally decrease as alitude increases. Itis an area of relatively low stability where the over-turning of air is frequent. It holds virtually all the water vapour in the atmosphere and is the layer where most flying ocours. ‘The troposphere contains over 75% of the mass of the total atmosphere, 14 MeteorologyThe Atmosphere Chapter 1 TROPOPAUSE ‘The upper boundary of the troposphere is known as the tropopause. It separates the troposphere from the stratosphere. The temperature ceases to decrease with height at the boundary of the ‘tropopause. ‘The height of the tropopause varies with latitude, season of the year, and the weather conditions, “The tropopause is lowest over the poles (approximately 26 000 ft or 8 km) and highest over the ‘equator (approximately 52 000 ft or 16 km). Its average height is 36 090 ft (17 km) at about 45° latitude Since the thickness of the troposphere is determined by the amount of solar energy and the vertical mixing, the tropopause is lower over areas where the air is cold than where it is warm. The left-hand picture below shows that the tropical tropopause height is greater than the polar tropopause height. The right hand picture shows that, for a given region such as the poles, the ‘summer tropopause is higher than the winter tropopause. As the temperature decreases with height, so the temperature at the tropopause over the poles will be higher than over the equator because the tropopause is closer to the ground here. This is the opposite situation to the surface temperature. Typically, the tropopause temperature is -50°C over the poles and -80°C aver the equator. Another feature of the tropopause is that, rather than show a gradual change in height between the equator and the poles, there are breaks in the tropopause where large temperature differentials occur. Meteorology 1-5Chapter 1 The Atmosphere The first of these breaks occurs at about 40” latitude, where warm air circulating from the equator meets colder air from higher latitudes. The second break is at 55° latitude, where tropical air meets polar air, The third break is between 60° and 70° latitude, where polar air meets arctic air. This break is more common in the Northem Hemisphere. The diagram below shows the breaks: 55° at o0"-70" lat eae Soe The presence of these breaks can cause strong winds called jet streams. These will be discussed in detail in a later chapter. The table below shows the approximate height of the tropopause at various latitudes in winter and summer: [tattude TT wieter TP sunener 56.000 ft 55 000 55.000 ft 52.000 52.000 ft 51 000 45.000 ft 47 000 | 38.000 43 000 35.000 ft 38 000 ft 33.000 ft 35 000 ft 29 000 ft 31.000 ft 80° 25 000 ft 29 000 ft 16 MeteorologyThe Atmosphere Chapter 1 STRATOSPHERE ‘The stratosphere extends from the tropopause to approximately 50 km above the surface of the Earth. ‘Some flying occurs in the lower parts of the stratosphere, so the combination of the troposphere and lower parts of the stratosphere is therefore often referred to as the aviation atmosphere. ‘The stratosphere is relatively stable. Initially, the temperature remains constant and then starts to increase so that it is around 0°C at the top of the layer. This is due to the absorption of ultra-violet radiation by ozone in the lower layers of the stratosphere and the retransmission of this radiation as infra-red heat. ‘The concentration of ozone varies with the latitude, being greater over the poles than the equator. ‘Therefore, the stratosphere is warmer at higher latitudes. The region is not an area of still conditions but one of slow vertical movement and strong horizontal winds. ‘STRATOPAUSE This Is the boundary that separates the stratosphere from the mesosphere, MESOSPHERE In the mesosphere, temperature again decreases with h approximately -90°C occurs between 80 and 90 km. i. The lowest temperature of MESOPAUSE This is the upper boundary of the mesosphere, THERMOSPHERE This is the outermost layer of the atmosphere that holds the exosphere in its upper regions (at heights greater than 700 km) and the ionosphere in its lower regions. ‘The ionosphere is a region where the air becomes ionised by solar radiation. It consists of several sub-layers. These layers, named the D, E, F1, and F2 layers are important in the transmission of certain radio waves and will be covered in more depth in Radio Navigation. ‘The thermosphere is characterised by an increase in temperature with height. At 200 km, the temperature is generally 600°C. At times of sunspot activity, it can be up to 2000°C. Meteorology 17Chapter 1 The Atmosphere INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA) The conditions of the atmosphere are constantly changing. This causes problems for aviation, especially wit the calibration of pressure instruments. For this reason, the International Standard ‘Atmosphere (|SA) was devised. Itis @ purely hypothetical atmosphere that represents an average picture of the actual atmosphere. ISA has been in use since 1964 and is the most widely used hypothetical atmosphere. It possesses the characteristics laid out below: Temperature 15°C Pressure: 1013.25 hPa Density _ 1225 g/m? Temperature decreases at 1.98°C per 1000 ft (6.5°C per km) ‘Temperature constant at -56.5°C Temperature rises with height at 0.3°C per 1000 ft (1°C per km) The chart shows that the ISA temperature is constant above 36 090 ft in the aviation atmosphere. ISA DEVIATION In aviation, it is important to know how the atmosphere differs from ISA at any particular time. ‘Such information is used in performance calculations and in correcting for instrument errors. ISA deviation is the difference between the ISA temperature and the actual temperature. It can be a positive or a negative deviation. Example 1: You are flying at 30 000 ft. The outside air temperature is -50°C. What is the ISA deviation? Answer 1: The ISA temperature would be 15 - (1.98 x 30) = -44.4°C. The difference between this and the actual temperature is 5.6°C. The actual temperature is the lower figure, so the deviation is negative (-5.6°C). Example 2: You are flying at 22 000 ft. The ISA deviation is +10°C. What is the outside air temperature? Answer 2: The ISA temperature would be 15 ~ (1.98 x 22) = -28.56°C. ISA deviation is +10°C, so the ambient temperature must be higher than this: 28.56 + 10 = -18.56°C 18 MeteorologyThe Atmosphere Chapter 1 ‘The following table is given for you to practice doing ISA calculations. Answers can be found at the end of this chapter: Note: For the JAR exams, it is sufficient to round the lapse rate up and use 2°C/1000 ft for ISA calculations, JET STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (JSA) : The Jet Standard Atmosphere (JSA) is often used by engine manufacturers. It assumes @ mean sea level temperature of +18°C. The temperature then lapses at 2°C per 1000 ft to infinity. There is no tropopause in the JSA. So an aircraft at 40 000 ft with an outside air temperature of 65°C would have: > AnISA temperature deviation of -8.5°C > ASA temperature deviation of 0°C Meteorology 1Chapter 1 The Atmosphere ANSWERS TO ISA DEVIATION QUESTIONS 1-10 MeteorologyINTRODUCTION Chapter 1 introduced the concept of the atmosphere as a fluid. The chapter also discussed the fact that certain properties of the atmosphere vary both horizontally and vertically. The fluidity of the air means that it tends to flow from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure. It is these pressure differences and the consequent movement of air that are the main cause of weather. ‘An understanding of pressure and pressure systems is vital for pilots, ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Air is made up of particles that, small as they are, are nevertheless under the force of gravity. A ‘surface must support the weight of the air directly above it. Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted by the molecules of air over a specific surface. Consider the column of air below: ‘The height of the column above s2 (h2) is less than that above s1 (h1). There is a larger weight of air above s1, hence a larger pressure. The cross-sectional area of both surfaces is the same. Meteorology 2Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems MEASURING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE MERCURY BAROMETER Vacuum Mercury Scale rt ‘The simplest means of measuring atmospheric pressure is the Mercury Barometer. A1 metre tube of mercury is uptumed in a reservoir of mercury. Atmospheric pressure is exerted cn the surface of the mercury in the reservoir. The mercury in the tube then sinks to about 760 mm above the reservoir at mean sea level. ‘The atmospheric pressure is therefore said to be 760 millimetres of mercury (760 mmHg). As the atmospheric pressure varies, so does the height of the mercury. 22 MeteorologyPressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 ANEROID BAROMETER ~~ Fr ‘Another way of measuring pressure is by using the aneroid barometer. This consists of a partially evacuated capsule that expands and contracts as the air pressure outside the capsule changes. A scale indicates these changes by using a system of linkages. The diagram shows the basic ideas behind the system, UNITS OF MEASUREMENT (One method of expressing atmospheric pressure was introduced above, that is, mmHg. ‘The SI unit for force is the Newton. The SI unit of pressure then becomes the Nim’, as pressure 's force per unit area. The Nim’ is also known as the Pascal (Pa). 100 000 N/m? is known as the Bar. Within one bar is 1000 millibars. This is the unit most widely used in aviation. The millibar may also be known as the hectoPascal. To further complicate the issue, some countries use inches of mercury—the United States for ‘example. Use the following conversion when moving between units: 1000 mb (000 hPa = 29.53 ing 100 000 Nim? = 750.1 mmHg The ISA values at mean sea level are: 1013.25 mb = 1013.25hPa = 29.92 inHg = 101 325 Nim? = 760 mmHg Meteorology 23Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems PRESSURE VARIATION Pressure varies horizontally, diumally, and vertically HORIZONTALLY Pressure varies from place to place and also changes over time. Horizontal pressure differences lead to movement of air and hence, weather. DIURNALLY Pressure also has a twelve-hour oscillation period. In one day there are two peak pressure values, which occur at around 1000 and 2200 hours. There are two lows, one at around 1600 and another at 0400 hours. The difference between the high and lovr values is very small in temperate latitudes (only about 1 hPa), but is much more significant in tropical and sub-tropical latitudes (about 3 hPa), Although the diurnal pressure change in temperate latitudes is often masked by other events, absence of the expected change in lower latitudes is often a waming of impending severe weather, such as a tropical revolving storm. 10:00 2200 ‘Tropical'sub- tropical lattudes typically 3 hPa Temperate latitudes — ‘typically 1 Pa VERTICALLY Pressure always decreases with increase of height. In the ISA we assume thet the surface pressure is 1013.25 hPa. From this we can calculate the pressure for any height. 24 MeteorologyPressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 5.000 amsi 40.000 ams! 48 000 ams! 24.000 amst 30 000 ams! 40 000 amst 53.000 ams! 68 000 ams! Beeeeg 100 50 Be sure to leam the figures in the above table. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE The diagram above shows three columns of air: one at ISA, one slightly warmer than ISA, and one slightly colder than ISA. The pressure at the base of all columns is the same. Cold air is denser than warm air and tends to sink. Therefore, the same pressure is found at a lower height in the cold column. The pressure decreases more quickly with height than in the ISA column, Conversely, warm air is less dense and rises. The same pressure is found at a higher height than the colder columns. The pressure decreases less quickly with height than in the ISA column, For @ given height interval the decrease in pressure depends on the mean temperature of the ‘column of ar. For the same height interval the pressure change will be greater in a cold column of air than in @ warm column of air. Meteorology 25Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems Note: This results in a difference in height of 120 ft per degree Celsius. This is addressed in more detail in later chapters This phenomenon is important to understand because the altimeter is calibrated to ISA. While fiying in an environment that is colder than ISA, the altimeter detects the same pressure at a lower height, so you are actually fying at a lower height than you think you are, which is obviously a potentially dangerous situation. Thus the phra: "Warm to cold — don't be bold! PRESSURE/HEIGHT CALCULATIONS It is unlikely that you will have to make pressure/height calculations in the JAR exams, but the formulae are included here nonetheless. For calculations involving small intervals of less than 50 hPa, the following formula can be used to calculate the height change per hectoPascal change in pressure: H=96T/P. Where: H height in feet T mean temperature in K P pressure in hectoPascals Example: Using the values for ISA MSL. T = 15 + 273 = 288; H = (96 x 288) / 1013.25 = 27.3 ft Therefore, at mean sea level, the height change is 27.3 ft per hPa, However, as you go higher the rate of pressure fall lessens because the temperature is also falling. The changes at various heights are laid out below: 2000 ft amst 20 000 amst 40 000 amst For JAR-FCL examinations, use 1 hPa change as equivelent to 27 ft near the surface. 26 MeteorologyPressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 Use the following formula to calculate an unknown height from knowledge of its pressure: H2=H1+221.17(Los P1-LoG P2) Where: H2 height required Hi known height 1 the mean temperature of the column of air in K P1 pressure at ht P2 pressure at h2 Example: A MSL the pressure is 1016 hPa, 12°C. At 700 hPa the temperature is 2°C. ‘What height is the 700 hPa level: ‘The mean temperature of the column is 7°C h2=ht +221.1T(log Pt — log P2) ha = 0 + (221.1 x 280) x (log 1016 — log700) h2= 61 908 x 0.1618 h2= 10017 feet This is the height of the 700 hPa level Meteorology 27Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems PRESSURE VALUES The following are the most likely pressure values that pilots will encounter: QFE QFE is the pressure at the datum level of an aerodrome (usually the highest useable point on the aerodrome). Since it is generally not possible to place a measuring device at this point it is usually measured elsewhere with corrections applied for the height difference between the measuring point and the aerodrome datum. These corrections take into account prevailing temperature. When you have QFE set, the altimeter reads zero when you are sitting at the datum level of the aerodrome. When flying on QFE, the reading on your altimeter is the height above aerodrome level and is often just referred to as height. QNH QNH is the QFE reduced to mean sea level using ISA conditions. With QNH set, the altimeter reads aerodrome elevation when you are sitting at the datum level of the aerodrome. ‘When flying on QNH, the altimeter reading is your height above mean sea level and is generally referred to as your altitude. FF FF is the GFE recuced to mean sea level using actual ouside air temperature, Itis an important term for meteorology but must never be used in altimetry. Never fly on QFF. THE STANDARD PRESSURE SETTING ‘The standard pressure setting of 1013 hPa is often used. The resulting figure is usually divided by 100 and referred to as a Flight Level. SYNOPTIC CHARTS A synoptic chart depicts the pressure situation at a particular time. The chart features lines called isobers. These lines connect places of equal pressure. They are normally drawn for every even whole millibar. Note that the pressure represented is the QFF. Another type of line found on some pressure charts is the isallobar, which connects places of the same pressure tendency and is annotated in milibars per hour. This may be a decrease or an increase. Isallobars are useful in predicting the movement of pressure systems, 28 MeteorologyI : } Pressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 PRESSURE SYSTEMS When looking at a synoptic chart, you can see certain patterns. These are called "pressure systems” and understanding the properties of these systems can help us forecast the weather. DEPRESSIONS ‘A depression is a region of low pressure. It can also be referred to as a low or a cyclone. ‘The size of depressions can vary quite considerably, for example: Temperate low up to 1500 km in diameter Tropical Revolving Storms approximately 300 km in diameter Tornado tens of metres in diameter It appears on a synoptic chart as a series of concentric, roughly circular isobars with the lowest pressure in the centre. ‘The low pressure in the centre causes air to flow into the low. This is called convergence. This then causes air in the centre to rise, producing a relatively high pressure at height. ‘The result is a circulation of air as shown in the diagram below: 30-35 000 ASCENDING The surface wind blows counter clockwise around a low in the Northern Hemisphere and ‘clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. In both cases, wind also blows in toward the centre. The mechanisms of this are discussed in a later chapter. Meteorology 29Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems ‘The diagram below represents this: 1002 1000 298 996 There are many different kinds of depressions. These will be described in later chapters, DEPRESSION WEATHER Due to the lifting at the centre of the low, cloud will form and there will be associated precipitation, ‘The mechanisms of this are described in later chapters. Typical weather is described in the table below: Full cover from near the surface to the tropopause. Generally continuous light or moderate. Heavy showers and thunderstorms possible because of the unstable nature of the air. ‘Good out of precipitation but poor in precipitation Depends on the pressure gradient of the isobars but normally strong. ANTICYCLONES This is @ region of relatively high pressure, appearing as roughly circular, concentric isobars on the synoptic chart, with the highest pressure in the centre. It is also referred to as a high. Isobars are generally more widely spaced than in a depression. Air will flow out of the contre of the high pressure toward areas of lower pressure. This is called divergence. To replace the diverging air, air descends. This is called subsidence. This results in a relatively low pressure at height Air circulates clockwise around a high in the Northern Hemisphere and counter clockwise around a high in the Southern Hemisphere, as well as flowing out of the high. 2-10 MeteorologyPressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 a Kp 30-35. 000 DESCENDING ‘There are two main types of anticyclone: the warm anticyclone and the cold anticycione. WARM ANTICYCLONES Warm anticyclones are a result of an excess of air at height. Air descends end is warmed. The ‘main example is the sub-tropical highs caused by the circulation of air known as the Hadley cells. COLD ANTICYCLONES Cold anticyciones are caused by low surface temperatures and are found in high latitudes. The low temperatures cause the density of the air to increase and air to subside. ANTICYCLONIC WEATHER When anticyclonic weather is present, air is descending, which prevents cloud from forming and gives generally good weather. There may be some cloud and precipitation at the edge of the system. Temperature inversions are possible due to the subsidence. Meteorology zlChapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems ‘The table below shows typical weather associated with an anticyclone: None because of the warming effect of subsidence. None. In summer, hazy conditions can occur; in winter, foggy conditions. Depends on the type. Hot in summer, cold in winter. Light. TROUGHS ‘A trough is the extension of isobars out from a depression in the shape of a V, with the pressure getting lower moving out from the centre. Troughs may be frontal or non-frontal In frontal troughs, the front forms the centre line of the trough. The weather depends on the type of front. Frontal weather is discussed in a later chapter. In non-frontal troughs, the convergence of air at the centre line causes lifting and unstable weather. 008 1004 1000 4 os 998, Centre ine TROUGH WEATHER For frontal troughs, the cloud types depend on the type of front. With cold fronts clouds with a large vertical development are expected. With warm fronts, layer clouds are more likely. For non-frontal troughs, CB and CU can be expected. ‘Showers, thunderstorms, hail with either cold frontal or non-frontal systems, Light to moderate rain and drizzle with warm fronts. Good except in precipitation. Moderate with possiblity of gusts and squalls. 212 MeteorologyPressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 RIDGES Ridges are an extension from a high pressure system. They are more rounded than troughs; more like a U shape. Ridges are often found between two polar front depressions (see later chapters). They provide periods of good weather. RIDGE WEATHER Ridge weather is very similar to anticyclone weather. COLS A col is a region of very little pressure variation between two highs and two lows. Winds are therefore very light and the air remains mostly stationary, so it remains in contact with the ground for an extended period of time. 1008 +1000 1008 a COL 1008 1000 ee 1008 OC) (© Meteorology 213Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems COL WEATHER In summer, extended contact with the hot ground can lead to instability cloud and thunderstorms. In winter, extended contact with the cold ground can result in the formation of fog or low stratus. MOVEMENT OF PRESSURE SYSTEMS ‘Anticyclones tend to be long-lasting (up to 6 months) and move quite slowly. Depressions move more quickly and generally only last about 2 weeks. Cols generally get quickly absorbed into other systems, lasting only @ few days, 214 MeteorologyINTRODUCTION Chapter 1 introduced the concept of the atmosphere as a fluid. The chapter also discussed the fact that certain properties of the atmosphere vary both horizontally and vertically. The fluidity of the air means that it tends to flow from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure. It is these pressure differences and the consequent movement of air that are the main cause of weather. ‘An understanding of pressure and pressure systems is vital for pilots, ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Air is made up of particles that, small as they are, are nevertheless under the force of gravity. A ‘surface must support the weight of the air directly above it. Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted by the molecules of air over a specific surface. Consider the column of air below: ‘The height of the column above s2 (h2) is less than that above s1 (h1). There is a larger weight of air above s1, hence a larger pressure. The cross-sectional area of both surfaces is the same. Meteorology 2Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems MEASURING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE MERCURY BAROMETER Vacuum Mercury Scale rt ‘The simplest means of measuring atmospheric pressure is the Mercury Barometer. A1 metre tube of mercury is uptumed in a reservoir of mercury. Atmospheric pressure is exerted cn the surface of the mercury in the reservoir. The mercury in the tube then sinks to about 760 mm above the reservoir at mean sea level. ‘The atmospheric pressure is therefore said to be 760 millimetres of mercury (760 mmHg). As the atmospheric pressure varies, so does the height of the mercury. 22 MeteorologyPressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 ANEROID BAROMETER ~~ Fr ‘Another way of measuring pressure is by using the aneroid barometer. This consists of a partially evacuated capsule that expands and contracts as the air pressure outside the capsule changes. A scale indicates these changes by using a system of linkages. The diagram shows the basic ideas behind the system, UNITS OF MEASUREMENT (One method of expressing atmospheric pressure was introduced above, that is, mmHg. ‘The SI unit for force is the Newton. The SI unit of pressure then becomes the Nim’, as pressure 's force per unit area. The Nim’ is also known as the Pascal (Pa). 100 000 N/m? is known as the Bar. Within one bar is 1000 millibars. This is the unit most widely used in aviation. The millibar may also be known as the hectoPascal. To further complicate the issue, some countries use inches of mercury—the United States for ‘example. Use the following conversion when moving between units: 1000 mb (000 hPa = 29.53 ing 100 000 Nim? = 750.1 mmHg The ISA values at mean sea level are: 1013.25 mb = 1013.25hPa = 29.92 inHg = 101 325 Nim? = 760 mmHg Meteorology 23Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems PRESSURE VARIATION Pressure varies horizontally, diumally, and vertically HORIZONTALLY Pressure varies from place to place and also changes over time. Horizontal pressure differences lead to movement of air and hence, weather. DIURNALLY Pressure also has a twelve-hour oscillation period. In one day there are two peak pressure values, which occur at around 1000 and 2200 hours. There are two lows, one at around 1600 and another at 0400 hours. The difference between the high and lovr values is very small in temperate latitudes (only about 1 hPa), but is much more significant in tropical and sub-tropical latitudes (about 3 hPa), Although the diurnal pressure change in temperate latitudes is often masked by other events, absence of the expected change in lower latitudes is often a waming of impending severe weather, such as a tropical revolving storm. 10:00 2200 ‘Tropical'sub- tropical lattudes typically 3 hPa Temperate latitudes — ‘typically 1 Pa VERTICALLY Pressure always decreases with increase of height. In the ISA we assume thet the surface pressure is 1013.25 hPa. From this we can calculate the pressure for any height. 24 MeteorologyPressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 5.000 amsi 40.000 ams! 48 000 ams! 24.000 amst 30 000 ams! 40 000 amst 53.000 ams! 68 000 ams! Beeeeg 100 50 Be sure to leam the figures in the above table. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE The diagram above shows three columns of air: one at ISA, one slightly warmer than ISA, and one slightly colder than ISA. The pressure at the base of all columns is the same. Cold air is denser than warm air and tends to sink. Therefore, the same pressure is found at a lower height in the cold column. The pressure decreases more quickly with height than in the ISA column, Conversely, warm air is less dense and rises. The same pressure is found at a higher height than the colder columns. The pressure decreases less quickly with height than in the ISA column, For @ given height interval the decrease in pressure depends on the mean temperature of the ‘column of ar. For the same height interval the pressure change will be greater in a cold column of air than in @ warm column of air. Meteorology 25Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems Note: This results in a difference in height of 120 ft per degree Celsius. This is addressed in more detail in later chapters This phenomenon is important to understand because the altimeter is calibrated to ISA. While fiying in an environment that is colder than ISA, the altimeter detects the same pressure at a lower height, so you are actually fying at a lower height than you think you are, which is obviously a potentially dangerous situation. Thus the phra: "Warm to cold — don't be bold! PRESSURE/HEIGHT CALCULATIONS It is unlikely that you will have to make pressure/height calculations in the JAR exams, but the formulae are included here nonetheless. For calculations involving small intervals of less than 50 hPa, the following formula can be used to calculate the height change per hectoPascal change in pressure: H=96T/P. Where: H height in feet T mean temperature in K P pressure in hectoPascals Example: Using the values for ISA MSL. T = 15 + 273 = 288; H = (96 x 288) / 1013.25 = 27.3 ft Therefore, at mean sea level, the height change is 27.3 ft per hPa, However, as you go higher the rate of pressure fall lessens because the temperature is also falling. The changes at various heights are laid out below: 2000 ft amst 20 000 amst 40 000 amst For JAR-FCL examinations, use 1 hPa change as equivelent to 27 ft near the surface. 26 MeteorologyPressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 Use the following formula to calculate an unknown height from knowledge of its pressure: H2=H1+221.17(Los P1-LoG P2) Where: H2 height required Hi known height 1 the mean temperature of the column of air in K P1 pressure at ht P2 pressure at h2 Example: A MSL the pressure is 1016 hPa, 12°C. At 700 hPa the temperature is 2°C. ‘What height is the 700 hPa level: ‘The mean temperature of the column is 7°C h2=ht +221.1T(log Pt — log P2) ha = 0 + (221.1 x 280) x (log 1016 — log700) h2= 61 908 x 0.1618 h2= 10017 feet This is the height of the 700 hPa level Meteorology 27Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems PRESSURE VALUES The following are the most likely pressure values that pilots will encounter: QFE QFE is the pressure at the datum level of an aerodrome (usually the highest useable point on the aerodrome). Since it is generally not possible to place a measuring device at this point it is usually measured elsewhere with corrections applied for the height difference between the measuring point and the aerodrome datum. These corrections take into account prevailing temperature. When you have QFE set, the altimeter reads zero when you are sitting at the datum level of the aerodrome. When flying on QFE, the reading on your altimeter is the height above aerodrome level and is often just referred to as height. QNH QNH is the QFE reduced to mean sea level using ISA conditions. With QNH set, the altimeter reads aerodrome elevation when you are sitting at the datum level of the aerodrome. ‘When flying on QNH, the altimeter reading is your height above mean sea level and is generally referred to as your altitude. FF FF is the GFE recuced to mean sea level using actual ouside air temperature, Itis an important term for meteorology but must never be used in altimetry. Never fly on QFF. THE STANDARD PRESSURE SETTING ‘The standard pressure setting of 1013 hPa is often used. The resulting figure is usually divided by 100 and referred to as a Flight Level. SYNOPTIC CHARTS A synoptic chart depicts the pressure situation at a particular time. The chart features lines called isobers. These lines connect places of equal pressure. They are normally drawn for every even whole millibar. Note that the pressure represented is the QFF. Another type of line found on some pressure charts is the isallobar, which connects places of the same pressure tendency and is annotated in milibars per hour. This may be a decrease or an increase. Isallobars are useful in predicting the movement of pressure systems, 28 MeteorologyI : } Pressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 PRESSURE SYSTEMS When looking at a synoptic chart, you can see certain patterns. These are called "pressure systems” and understanding the properties of these systems can help us forecast the weather. DEPRESSIONS ‘A depression is a region of low pressure. It can also be referred to as a low or a cyclone. ‘The size of depressions can vary quite considerably, for example: Temperate low up to 1500 km in diameter Tropical Revolving Storms approximately 300 km in diameter Tornado tens of metres in diameter It appears on a synoptic chart as a series of concentric, roughly circular isobars with the lowest pressure in the centre. ‘The low pressure in the centre causes air to flow into the low. This is called convergence. This then causes air in the centre to rise, producing a relatively high pressure at height. ‘The result is a circulation of air as shown in the diagram below: 30-35 000 ASCENDING The surface wind blows counter clockwise around a low in the Northern Hemisphere and ‘clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. In both cases, wind also blows in toward the centre. The mechanisms of this are discussed in a later chapter. Meteorology 29Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems ‘The diagram below represents this: 1002 1000 298 996 There are many different kinds of depressions. These will be described in later chapters, DEPRESSION WEATHER Due to the lifting at the centre of the low, cloud will form and there will be associated precipitation, ‘The mechanisms of this are described in later chapters. Typical weather is described in the table below: Full cover from near the surface to the tropopause. Generally continuous light or moderate. Heavy showers and thunderstorms possible because of the unstable nature of the air. ‘Good out of precipitation but poor in precipitation Depends on the pressure gradient of the isobars but normally strong. ANTICYCLONES This is @ region of relatively high pressure, appearing as roughly circular, concentric isobars on the synoptic chart, with the highest pressure in the centre. It is also referred to as a high. Isobars are generally more widely spaced than in a depression. Air will flow out of the contre of the high pressure toward areas of lower pressure. This is called divergence. To replace the diverging air, air descends. This is called subsidence. This results in a relatively low pressure at height Air circulates clockwise around a high in the Northern Hemisphere and counter clockwise around a high in the Southern Hemisphere, as well as flowing out of the high. 2-10 MeteorologyPressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 a Kp 30-35. 000 DESCENDING ‘There are two main types of anticyclone: the warm anticyclone and the cold anticycione. WARM ANTICYCLONES Warm anticyclones are a result of an excess of air at height. Air descends end is warmed. The ‘main example is the sub-tropical highs caused by the circulation of air known as the Hadley cells. COLD ANTICYCLONES Cold anticyciones are caused by low surface temperatures and are found in high latitudes. The low temperatures cause the density of the air to increase and air to subside. ANTICYCLONIC WEATHER When anticyclonic weather is present, air is descending, which prevents cloud from forming and gives generally good weather. There may be some cloud and precipitation at the edge of the system. Temperature inversions are possible due to the subsidence. Meteorology zlChapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems ‘The table below shows typical weather associated with an anticyclone: None because of the warming effect of subsidence. None. In summer, hazy conditions can occur; in winter, foggy conditions. Depends on the type. Hot in summer, cold in winter. Light. TROUGHS ‘A trough is the extension of isobars out from a depression in the shape of a V, with the pressure getting lower moving out from the centre. Troughs may be frontal or non-frontal In frontal troughs, the front forms the centre line of the trough. The weather depends on the type of front. Frontal weather is discussed in a later chapter. In non-frontal troughs, the convergence of air at the centre line causes lifting and unstable weather. 008 1004 1000 4 os 998, Centre ine TROUGH WEATHER For frontal troughs, the cloud types depend on the type of front. With cold fronts clouds with a large vertical development are expected. With warm fronts, layer clouds are more likely. For non-frontal troughs, CB and CU can be expected. ‘Showers, thunderstorms, hail with either cold frontal or non-frontal systems, Light to moderate rain and drizzle with warm fronts. Good except in precipitation. Moderate with possiblity of gusts and squalls. 212 MeteorologyPressure and Pressure Systems Chapter 2 RIDGES Ridges are an extension from a high pressure system. They are more rounded than troughs; more like a U shape. Ridges are often found between two polar front depressions (see later chapters). They provide periods of good weather. RIDGE WEATHER Ridge weather is very similar to anticyclone weather. COLS A col is a region of very little pressure variation between two highs and two lows. Winds are therefore very light and the air remains mostly stationary, so it remains in contact with the ground for an extended period of time. 1008 +1000 1008 a COL 1008 1000 ee 1008 OC) (© Meteorology 213Chapter 2 Pressure and Pressure Systems COL WEATHER In summer, extended contact with the hot ground can lead to instability cloud and thunderstorms. In winter, extended contact with the cold ground can result in the formation of fog or low stratus. MOVEMENT OF PRESSURE SYSTEMS ‘Anticyclones tend to be long-lasting (up to 6 months) and move quite slowly. Depressions move more quickly and generally only last about 2 weeks. Cols generally get quickly absorbed into other systems, lasting only @ few days, 214 MeteorologyChapter. 4 INTRODUCTION ‘Temperature is one of the most important variables that affect the atmosphere. The temperature changes that occur on the Earth's surface initiate both vertical air movement (leading to cloud development) and horizontal air movement (wind). ‘Temperature normally decreases with height. If there is an increase with height, this is called an inversion. I temperature stays the same with change in height, this is called an isothermal layer. TEMPERATURE SCALES There are three scales of measurement for temperature. These are: FAHRENHEIT In the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32°F and the boiling point of water is 212°F. This scale is not used in meteorology. CELSIUS The Celsius scale is widely used. The freezing point of water is 0°C and the boiling point is 100°C, KELVIN The Kelvin scale does not have units, but intervals of the scale are equal to 1°C. The scale relates to absolute zero (273°C) which is defined as OK. The freezing point of water is 273K and the boiling point is 373K. OK is called absolute zero and is the temperature at which all molecules stop moving completely. CONVERSION FACTORS. To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit: *F=(CX 9 +32 5 Meteorology 4Chapter 4 Temperature ‘To convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius: "C= (F=32)X 5 9 To convert from Celsius to Kelvin: K="C+273 To convert from Kelvin to Celsius: °C =K-273 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE ‘Surface temperatures are measured using mercury thermometers housed in a Stevenson screen. This is a louvred wooden box that allows air to circulate around the thermometers but protects them from draughts and direct sunlight. It is held 4 fl above the ground so the temperature won't be adversely affected by the ground temperature. High level temperatures are measured using a Radio Sonde, a radio transmitter that is carried high into the atmosphere (up to 150 000 ft) by a hydrogen balloon and sends back continuous readings of pressure, temperature, and humidity to stations on the ground Temperature is measured to the nearest 0.1°C and reported to the nearest whole number. If the temperature ends in 0.5, itis rounded to the nearest odd whole number. 42 MeteorologyTemperature Chapter 4 HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE ‘The atmosphere is heated by five different processes: 4. Solar radiation Terrestrial radiation Conduction Convection Latent heat of condensation oh eR sixth process, advection, is responsible for the horizontal transfer of heat. ‘We will look at each of these processes in turn, SOLAR RADIATION Radiation from the sun is of the short-wave type. Most of the radiation that reaches the Earth's surface is of wavelengths less than 2 microns. Nearly all the radiation passes through the Earth’s atmosphere without heating it. Ultra-violet radiation is absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere. Stil more is reflected by cloud cover. But on a clear day, about 85% of the sun’s radiation will reach the Earth's surface. ‘The radiation does not heat the atmosphere directly but does heat the surface of the Earth. This process is called insolation. The atmosphere then becomes heated by the other processes described below. ‘The amount of insolation (heating of the surface) depends on the angular elevation of the sun. “This in turn depends on latitude, season, and time of day. Latitude ‘As can be seen from the diagram below, as you move further from the equator, the curvature of the Earth means that the same amount of solar radiation is spread over a larger area of the Earth’s surface. So insolation is less at higher latitudes Rays of solar radiation Meteorology 43Chapter 4 Temperature Season For the same reasons mentioned above, the sun heats the Earth more efficiently if itis directly overhead. Where this ocours depends on the time of year. At the equinoxes, the sun is overhead the equator, at Summer Solstice (24st June) itis overhead the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N); at Winter Solstice (21st December) it is overhead the Tropic of Capricom (23.5°S), Time of day ‘The amount of insolation is greatest at noon when the sun is highest in the sky. TERRESTRIAL RADIATION The Earth’s surface absorbs large amounts of solar radiation at short wavelengths and re- transmits it 2s smaller amounts of long-wave radiation, between 4 and 80 microns. This is the main method by which the atmosphere is heated. Since the atmosphere is heated from below, it gets colder as you move away from the surface of the Earth. This is the reason for the temperature lapse rate. CONDUCTION Conduction occurs when two bodies are touching one another. Heat passes from the warmer body to the colder body. For example, heat passes from a warm ground surface to the air. ‘At night, the ground cools quickly due to lack of insolation from the sun. The air in contact with the ground loses heat by conduction. As air is not a very good conductor, air at a higher level remains ‘warm, which results in a temperature inversion, 44 MeteorologyTemperature Chapter 4 CONVECTION AAs air is heated by conduction or radiation, it becomes less dense and tends to rise. Likewise, cold air is more dense and subsides. This vertical movement of air is called convection. This process helps heat the upper levels of the atmosphere. LATENT HEAT OF CONDENSATION When heat is used to alter temperature it is called sensible heat. Heat used to alter the state of a substance is referred to es latent heat (latent meaning hidden), as no temperature change occurs. For example, when water tus from vapour to droplets in the atmosphere, it is turning from the gaseous state to the liquid state. Heat is released when this occurs. Likewise, when it turns from liquid to gas, it ebsorbs heat to effect the change, but the actual temperature remains constant within the substance, {As air lifted it cools and is no longer able to hold as much water vapour. This condenses out as water droplets and latent heat is released, warming the atmosphere. ADVECTION ‘Advection is the process by which air moves horizontally. The movement is caused by variations in pressure, but the air takes with it ts characteristics, including its temperature. DIURNAL VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE ‘The maximum amount of insolation occurs at noon when the sun is high in the sky. As the earth takes time to heat up, it does not immediately transfer the heat out to the atmosphere — there is a slight lag. This means that the highest air temperature occurs at about 1500 local time. The lowest temperature occurs about a half an hour after sunrise, again due to lag. 16:00 Just ater sunrise Meteorology 4sChapter 4 Temperature ‘THE EFFECT OF CLOUD COVER ON DIURNAL VARIATION During the day, clouds prevent some solar radiation from reaching the Earth, hence reducing the maximum temperature that the air near the surface reaches during the day. ‘At night, clouds trap some of the heat between them and the ground, hence raising the minimum temperature that the air drops to at night. ‘The overall effect is to reduce the diurnal variation. ‘THE EFFECT OF WIND ON DIURNAL VARIATION During the day, wind causes surface air to be mixed with cooler air above. The amount of time that any air is in contact with the warm ground is short, so the maximum temperature the air near the surface reaches is lower compared to calm conditions. During the night, terrestrial radiation leads to a reduction in air temperature close to the ground ‘Any wind causes mixing of the cold surface air with warmer air above. Therefore, the minimum temperature of the air above the surface at night is not as low as it would be in calm concitions. ‘The overall effect is to reduce diurnal variation. ‘THE EFFECT OF SURFACE ON DIURNAL VARIATION How much @ surface heats up when exposed to insolation depends on its specific heat. The specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the surface by 1°C. ‘Some examples of surfaces listed in the order of increasing specific heat follows: Bare rock/stone Concrete Dry soil Wet soil Oceans, oP MROENS ‘Snow surfaces ‘Those surfaces that take a long time to heat up also lose their heat very slowly, so the diurnal variation over the sea is minimal but is much greater over the land. Not only does water have a much higher specific heat than land, but due to the movement of the sea surface, the energy is spread to a depth of several metres, whereas solar radiation only heats the top few inches of the land surface. Topics found later in the course detail why the different properties of land and sea are important. 46 MeteorologyTemperature Chapter 4 ‘SUMMARY In summary, greatest diurnal variation can be found over the land, with clear skies and no wind. Least diurnal variation can be found over the sea and over the ice caps, when skies are cloudy and itis windy. THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT Water vapour and carbon dioxide are transparent to short wavelength radiation, but they are less permeable to long wavelengths. This means they allow solar radiation to reach the surface, but do not allow all of the terresirial radiation to leave the atmosphere and go back into space. This leads to an increase of temperature at ground level, a process called the greenhouse effect, since the glass in a greenhouse works in a similar way. Meteorology 47Cheyierg Water in tie Aunosvuae INTRODUCTION Most water in the atmosphere is in the form of water vapour, which is water in its gaseous state This water cannot be seen. In order for water to become visible in the form of clouds, mist, or fog it must tum into water droplets or ice crystals. WATER STATES AND LATENT HEAT Water can exist in three basic states: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (water vapour). When changing from one state to another, latent heat is either released or absorbed. LATENT HEAT RELEASED. a mies (oePosition fee ae sou LATENT HEAT ‘ABSORBED EVAPORATION This is the change of state from a li heat is “absorbed” during this process. to a gas, Gas is a higher energy state than liquid so latent Evaporation can take place at any temperature above absolute zero, but the rate of evaporation is greater at higher temperatures. MELTING This is the change of state from a solid to a liquid. Liquid is a higher energy state than solid so latent heat is “absorbed” during this process. Meteorology SelChapter 5 Water in the Atmosphere SUBLIMATION Sometimes a substance can turn directly from a solid to a gas or from a ges to @ solid without passing through the intermediate liquid state. The term sublimation can be used to describe this process in both directions. The change from gas to solid, however, can also be referred to as deposition. Latent heat is “absorbed” when a solid turns to @ gas. Latent heat is “released” when a gas tums to a solid. This process is important in the formation of frost, hail, and some airframe icing, CONDENSATION “This is the change of state from a gas to a liquid. Liquid is a lower energy state so latent heat is “released” Condensation nuclei must be present in order for condensation to occur in the atmosphere. Condensation nuclei are tiny particles of hygroscopic (water attracting) material, such as dust and pollution, FREEZING This is the change of state from a liquid to a solid. Solid is a lower energy state so latent heat is “released”. For this to occur, freezing nuclei are required, similar to those for condensation. Without them, the water droplets in the atmosphere become supercooled, which means they remain as a liquid state despite being lower than freezing temperature. ‘Supercooled droplets are a major cause of airframe icing. They are discussed again later in the course. SATURATION ‘As water evaporates into the air, there comes a point in which the air can no longer accept any more water vapour. The amount of vapour that air can hold is dependent on its temperature and pressure. The higher the temperature, the more water vapour the air can hold. When the air contains the maximum amount of water vapour it can hold, it is described as being saturated. ‘The air can become saturated in two ways: extra water vapour can be added, or the air can be cooled, since cooler air holds less water vapour. HUMIDITY Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour in the air. It is often expressed as a percentage and is known as relative humidity.Water in the Atmosphere Chapter 5 ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY Absolute humidity is the actual mass of water ina given volume of air and is generally expressed in gi’. SATURATION CONTENT Saturation content is the mass of water a given volume of air can hold, not that which it is actually holding, again expressed as gim’, Please attempt the following simple RH calculations. The answers can be found at the end of the chapter: Exercise 1: 14 30 HUMIDITY MIXING RATIO Humidity mixing ratio (HMR) is similar to absolute humidity but is the mass of water in a certain mass of air. The unit for this is therefore g/kg rather than gim’. ‘Typically, the HMR is between 5 and 50 g/kg in temperate latitudes. Meteorology 53Chapter 5 Water in the Atmosphere HMR FOR SATURATION CONTENT / SATURATION MIXING RATIO. ‘The saturation mixing ratio (SMR) is the HMR. when the parcel of air is saturated. Hence relative humidity can also be expressed as: RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) = HMR % HMR FOR SATURATION CONTENT SUPER-SATURATION ‘As mentioned earlier, condensation only occurs if there are condensation nuclei present. If no nuolei are present, then the water remains as vapour and the air is described as super-saturated. ‘This means there can conceivably be a relative humidity greater than 100%. SATURATION AND DEWPOINT ‘The graph below shows the HMR for saturation plotted against the temperature in °C. The higher the temperature, the larger the amount of water the air can hold. However, the relationship is not linear, itis logarithmic. 30 25 8 HMR for Saturation in gikg a -30 -20 10 0 10 20 30 ‘Temperature in degrees C Soh MeteorologyWater in the Atmosphere Chapter 5 It follows that if @ parcel of air contains a certain amount of water vapour and is cooled, it will be able to hold less water vapour. If it continues to cool, it eventually reaches a point where the amount of vapour it can hold is equal to the amount it is actually holding. The air is said to be saturated. ‘The temperature at which this occurs is called the dewpoint. A parcel of air at 20°C with a HMR of 7 gikg (as seen on the graph) is not saturated. Air at 20°C can hold up to 14 g/kg. What happens if air is cooled to 10°C? Based on the graph, the HMR for saturation is 7 g/kg ‘Therefore, the air is saturated — the relative humidity is 100%. So the dewpoint for air containing 7 gikg is 10°C. Cooling the air beyond this point results in water vapour condensing to become droplets, which causes clouds, fogimist, or dew. Relative humility also has an effect on the rate of evaporation. Evaporation does not occur if the air is saturated. Warmer air can take more vapour s0 is less likely to be saturated. However, evaporation can still occur if the air above the liquid is cold, especially if there is a breeze to take away the saturated air and replace it with dry air. Note: The term dry air is used to describe any air that is not saturated. So, even air with a RH of 99% is still dry. Completely dry air, that is air with an RH of 0%, does not ‘occur in the atmosphere. Using the graph above answer the following questions: Exercise 2: ‘The HMR is 4 gikg. The temperature is 20°C. What is the RH? Exercise 3: ‘The HMR is 15 g/kg. What is the dewpoint? Exercise 4: ‘The dewpoint is 18°C. The RH is 40%. What is the HMR? CONDENSATION LEVEL When unsaturated air is cooled, it eventually reaches its dewpoint and water vapour condenses out as water droplets, ‘One way in which a pocket of air may cool is if itis lifted. As the air rises it cools. Once it reaches a level where the RH becomes 100%, any further lifting leads to condensation. This level is referred to as the condensation level. As air rises it is said to cool adiabatically. Likewise, as air descends it is seid to warm adiabatically. This process of adiabatics and how it relates to dewpoint and cloud formation is discussed more fully in the chapter on Stability. Meteorology 55Chapter 5 Water in the Atmosphere DIURNAL VARIATION OF HUMIDITY Assuming the absolute humidity of the air remains constant, the relative humicity varies as the temperature varies. Cold air can hold less water, so just after dawn, when temperature is at its lowest, RH is at its highest. This is why mist and fog are most likely to form around dawn. Throughout the day as the temperature increases with increased insolation, the relative humicity decreases, dropping to its lowest value at about 1500 LMT when the air temperature is at its greatest. ‘After this, the temperature starts to drop again, so the RH stars to rise. WATER VAPOUR PRESSURE This is the part of the atmospheric pressure that is exerted by the water vapour present. When the air is saturated, the water vapour pressure is called Saturation Vapour Pressure. The dewpoint depends on the vapour pressure. The lower the vapour pressure, the lower the dewpoint. As air rises, it expands and cools. Its overall pressure goes down so the pressure exerted by the water vapour also goes down. This leads to the dewpoint decreasing as well. The dewpoint decreases by about .5°C per 1000 ft gain in height. ‘Yet another formula for dewpoint arises from the relationship between water vapour pressure and ‘saturation vapour pressure: RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) VAPOUR PRESSURE (hPa) % (CORRESPONDING VAPOUR PRESSURE FOR SATURATION 56 MeteorologyWater inthe Atmosphere Chapter 5 SATURATION VAPOUR PRESSURE CURVE 12 10 ~ \Vapour Pressure in hPa ‘Temperature in degrees C ‘Saturation vapour pressure depends on a number of factors. The graph above shows that the saturation vapour pressure is higher over ice than over water. Other factors affecting saturation vapour pressure are: 1. Higher above a curved surface than a flat surface 2, Higher over clean water than a salt solution, 3. Higher around a supercooled droplet than an ice crystal Meteorology 57Chapter 5 Water in the Atmosphere MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY PSYCHROMETER DRYBULB = WETBULB MUSLIN CLOTH DISTILLED WATER is used, To calculate humidity and dewpoint, a Psychrometer or Wet and Dry Bulb Hygromet ‘This apparatus consists of two mercury thermometers. One, the dry bulb thermometer, is an ordinary thermometer that measures the air temperature. The other, the wet bulb thermometer. has a piece of muslin cloth wrapped around the bulb. The other end of this cloth is dipped in @ container of distilled water. [As the water evaporates from the cloth, latent heat is drawn from the immediate surroundings. This causes the wet bulb temperature to be lower than the dry bulb temperature, The wet bulb temperature is the lowest temperature to which the air can cool by evaporation. Note that if the air is already saturated, no evaporation occurs and the two readings are the same. In this case the temperature displayed will also be the dewpoint. ‘The two figures obtained can be used to look up the dewpoint, RH, and HMR from tables. ‘An approximation of the dewpoint can be made using the following method: 4. Subtract the wet bulb temperature from the dry bulb temperature. 2. Subtract this figure (the wet bulb depression) from the wet bulb temperature, 58 MeteorologyWater in the Atmosphere Chapter 5 Example: Dry Bulb Temperature 20°C Wet Bulb Temperature 15°C Wet Bulb Depression = Dry Bulb Temperature ~ Wet Bulb Temperature = 5°C Dewpoint Temperature = Wet Bulb Temperature — Depression = 15° - 5 orc. Please complete the following dewpoint calculations: Exercise 5: 12 3 HUMIDITY METHOD ‘Another method of approximating the dewpoint is from the RH and air temperature. The formule is: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TEMPERATURE AND DEWPOINT = _(100-RH) 5 Example: The temperature is 23°C and the relative humidity is 80%. What is the dewpoint? Difference = (100-80) + 5 = 4°C 23°C - Dewpoint PC = 19°C ‘Test your understanding of the formula by completing the following table: Exercise 6: Meteorology 50Chapter 5 Water inthe Atmosphere ANSWERS TO EXERCISES Exercise 1: 6 20 30 15.3 34 45 4 46.7 30 Exercise 2: 28.6% Exercise 3: ay Exercise 4: 4.8 gkg Exercise 5: 2 15 8 : Se ewer ees 10 2 ngciyh2s Beth 3 Exercise 6: |= 8 5-10 MeteorologySieyier J Density — INTRODUCTION The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume. Density in the atmosphere is usually expressed as grams per cubic metre (g/m) It may also be expressed as a percentage of the standard surface density. This is called relative density. Example 1: As chapter one detailed, the standard surface density is 1225 gim" Hence if the actual density is 900 g/m’, the relative density would be: 900 x 100 = 73.47% 1225 Example 2: ifthe actual density is 1500 a/m® what is the relative density? 1500 x 100 = 122.45% 1225 way in which density may be expressed is as density altitude. This is described later in fe chapter. THE IDEAL GAS LAWS ‘An ideal gas is one that is incompressible and without viscosity. The atmosphere is assumed to be an ideal gas. There are several gas laws that apply. In the next few formulae, the following key applies: v4<0 Meteorology GlChapter 6 Density BOYLE'S LAW ‘At constant temperature, as the pressure of gas increases, its volume must decrease. Therefore the pressure is inversely proportional to volume: 1 Pa—- v To remove the proportional sign, use: Constent v PV = Constant or: Pi =P2Ve CHARLES’S LAW ‘At constant pressure, if the temperature of a gas increases, the gas expands. In other words, its volume increases. The temperature is proportional to volume: Tov To remove the proportional sign, use: V= Constant xT 0! v —= = Constant = or: MA Ne Ty Th THE GAS EQUATION Combining Boyle's and Charles's laws, the gas equation becomes (where R is the gas constant): PV=RT Meteorology 62Density Chapter 6 Density can also be @ part of the equation. In an ideal gas, as volume increases, density decreases. This is due to the same mass of air being contained in a larger volume. So: ‘Substituting this into the ideal gas equation: P — =RT p Re-arranging to make density the subject of the equation: So, maintaining a constant temperature: if pressure goes up, density goes up. Maintaining @ constant pressure: if temperature goes up, density goes down. EFFECT OF WATER VAPOUR ON AIR DENSITY ‘Water vapour is less dense than air: approximately “/s of the density of dry air. Therefore, all other things being equal, the density is lower in more humid atmospheres. This difference is usually insignificant and can be ignored for aviation purposes. In the tropics, however, where it can be very humid, it can make a large difference. VARIATION OF SURFACE AIR DENSITY WITH LATITUDE {Air density is lowest with low pressure and high temperature. So in the equatorial regions, density at the surface is low. High pressure and low temperature equates to high density. Examples of this can be found at the poles or at the centre ofa large land mass in winter, (e.g. Siberia), So, in general, density increases with increasing latitude. The lowest density can be found at an aerodrome that is not only hot and high, but humid. An example is Nairobi, which is very close to the equator, so experiences high temperatures and humid conditions. Itis also at an elevation of about 5500 f, so has all the attributes that contribute to low density. VARIATION OF AIR DENSITY WITH HEIGHT ‘As height increases, both the temperature and pressure decrease. Based on the gas laws, @ decrease in temperature leads to an increase in density and @ decrease in pressure leads to a decrease in density. Meteorology 63Chapter 6 Density So, with one law trying to increase the density and one trying to decrease it, will it therefore stay constant? ‘The answer is no. Since pressure near the surface decreases by about 10 hPa per 300 ft, this would produce a reduction in density of about 1%. A similar height increase would cause a drop in temperature of less than 1°C. This would lead to an increase in density of about 0.3%. ‘The change in pressure has more of an effect, therefore, density decreases with height, This leads to the following observations: 20000 ft Density is 50% of the surface value. 40 000 ft Density is 25% of the surface value. 60 000 ft Density is 10% of the surface value. VARIATION OF AIR DENSITY WITH LATITUDE AND HEIGHT ‘As already mentioned, the air density at the surface tends to increase with increased latitude and density decreases with increased height. Now it's time to bring those two factors together. Consider two columns of air of equal heights. Both columns have the same pressure at the base, but one column of air is cold and the other warm. Low HIGH PRESSURE PRESSURE 1013 hPa ‘The cold air has a higher density, so as height increases there is a greater reduction in mass and the change in pressure is greater. Conversely, the warm air is less dense, so there is a small reduction of mass above as height increases. The change in pressure is less, so pressure at the top of the cold column is lower than at the top of the warm column. 64 MeteorologyDensity Chapter 6 This is important when considering global pattems in density. At the equator, the air temperature is high, so density at the surface is relatively low, as is pressure. At the Poles, the air temperature is low, 80 density at the surface is relatively high, as is pressure. However, as height increases over the equator, pressure, and therefore density, decreases relatively slowly, lke in the warm column of air described above. As height increases over the Poles, pressure, and therefore density, decreases relatively quickly, like in the cold column of air described above. At the equator there is @ relatively low density at the surface, compared to the Poles, but relatively high density at height, as the density decreases only slowly. At the Poles there is a relatively high density at the surface, but a relatively low density at height, as the density decreases quickly. ‘At approximately 26 000 ft the density is constant at all latitudes. Lom Dens somo 2en08 oexsy Sensi ie DECREASES constant ECREATE f HoH ensiry Desir OECREASES SLomur DIURNAL VARIATION OF DENSITY Density is highest when temperatures are lowest, that is, just after dawn. It is at its lowest at about 1500 LIMT when temperatures are highest. DENSITY ALTITUDE ‘The density altitude at which you are flying is the pressure altitude in the International Standard ‘Atmosphere at which that density would occur. Meteorology 65Chapter 6 Density Logically, if it is warmer than ISA, your density altitude is higher than your pressure altitude and vice versa for colder than ISA conditions. ‘The diagram below shows two columns of air: one is at ISA and the other is warmer than ISA, WARMER ‘sa THANISA 1oo008 of At surface level in ISA the density is 1225 gim®. At 10 000 fi, the density is 1000 gim®. The ‘warmer column of air has been heated such that the air density at the surface has decreased to 1000 g/m’, the same as that at 10 000 ft in ISA conditions. Hence the density altitude at the surface is 10 000 ft. CALCULATING DENSITY ALTITUDE Density altitude differs from pressure altitude by 118.8 ft per 1°C deviation from ISA. In the JAR exams it is sufficient to use 120 ft per 1°C deviation from ISA. Add the difference to the pressure altitude if warmer than ISA, subtract if colder. 66 MeteorologyDensity Chapter 6 20 000 ft. The ISA deviation is 4°C. What is the Example: The pressure altitud densily altitude? Itis warmer than ISA so: Density altitude = Pressure altitude + (120 x ISA deviation) = 20000 + 480 Exercise 1: The pressure altitude is 15 000 ft. The ISA deviation is -5°C. What is the density altitude? Exercise 2: The pressure altitude is 8000 ft. The ambient temperature is 9°C. What is the density altitude (use a lapse rate of 2°C/1000 ft)? Exercise 3: The density altitude is 26 000 ft. The ISA deviation is +8°C. What is the pressure altitude? EFFECT OF DENSITY ON AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE Low density reduces the performance of engines and aerofoils, Engines work by accelerating air backward in order to produce thrust. Less dense air has lower mass. The lower the mass, the less thrust the engine produces. ‘The production of lft by aerofoils such as the wings also depends on the density. The formula for liftis shown below: urT=C.%pv's Where: (C, = COEFFICIENT OF LIFT p= DENSITY v= TRUE AIRSPEED ‘= SURFACE AREA OF AEROFOIL ‘The amount of lift produced is directly proportional to the density. So if density is low the aircraft «will not produce as much lift, all other factors being equal. ‘This is very important on take-off and landing. In order to generate enough lif, the aircraft either has to fly at a lower weight or a higher TAS. Ifa higher speed is chosen, then the aircraft requires a longer take-off and landing run, At an airport such as Nairobi, aircraft often have to operate with reduced weight at the hottest time of the day. Meteorology 67Chapter 6 Density ANSWERS TO EXERCISES Exercise 1: Density altitude = 15 000 - (120 x 5) = 14 400 ft Exercise 2: ISA temp for 8000 ft = 15 — (28) = -1°C. ISA deviation is therefore +10°C. Density altitude = 8000 + (120 x 10) = 9200 ft Exercise 3: Density altitude = Pressure altitude + (ISA deviation x 120) Henoe: Pressure altitude = Density altitude (ISA deviation x 120) = 26 000 — (8 x 120) = 25 040 ft 8 MeteorologyGhapter, 77 SHOE INTRODUCTION The processes leading to cloud formation and precipitation depend greatly on the stability of the atmosphere. In order to understand the concepts of stability and instability, you must understand the concept of adiabatics. ADIABATIC PROCESSES ‘As a bubble of air rises, the pressure in the surrounding atmosphere goes down and the bubble ‘expands. This leads to the temperature within the bubble decreasing. This is called adiabatic, cooling. Conversely, if a bubble of air descends, it compresses and the temperature increases. This is called adiabatic warming. Air is not a very good conductor, so there is very little exchange of heat with the surrounding ‘environment, Hence, an adiabatic process is one in which the temperature changes within the system but there is no exchange of energy with the surroundings. THE DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE ‘When dry air (unsaturated air) is forced to rise, it cools at what is called the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR). This has been found to be 3°C/1000 ft. This is the same regardless of how close to ‘saturation the air is. Itis also independent of pressure and temperature. THE SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE Once the air reaches saturation, water vapour starts to condense if the air is cooled any further. ‘This process of condensation releases latent heat, as discussed in earlier chapters. ‘This means that the temperature does not decrease as much as if it were dry, due to this extra heat being added into the system. The rate is referred to as the Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR). ‘The actual amount of heat released as latent heat depends on the amount of condensation that, ‘occurs. In cold temperatures, even when the air is saturated, the actual amount of water vapour present is low, 50 very litle latent heat is released. In this situation, the SALR is nearly as high as the DALR. Meteorology THChapter 7 Stability In hot temperatures, saturated air contains a large amount of water vapour and condensation teleases large amounts of latent heat. The SALR, therefore, is considerably lower than the DALR. ‘The average SALR is taken to be 1.5°C/1000 ft. ‘THE ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE This is the lapse rate of the air in the environment, that is, the air surrounding the adiabatic system, not within the system itself. This air is notin vertical motion. The ELR is variable. As discussed in Chapter 1, the average ELR is 1.98°C/1000 ft ‘SUMMARY OF ADIABATICS ‘The following diagram shows the DALR and the SALR. The DALR is constant at 3°C/1000 ft, but the SALR is not constant. As the height increases, the SALR approaches the DALR. SALR Height DALR Temoerature Where the ELR falls in this picture is discussed later in this chapter. STABILITY OF THE AIR ‘Air that is warmer than its surrounding environment is less dense and rises. This Is called instability ‘Air that is colder than its surrounding environment is more dense and sinks. This is called stability. Air that is the same temperature as its surrounding environment neither rises nor sinks. It is neutral ‘The stability of the atmosphere depends on the relationship between the ELR and the DALR and SALR 72 MeteorologyStability Chapter 7 ABSOLUTE STABILITY Consider the following example. The ELR is 1°C/1000 ft. The diagram demonstrates what happens when airis forced to rise. One bubble of air is dry, one is saturated ALR SALR EUR r'crt000n 4000.8 ae. ah ze 2000 8 pes we 10008 wwe 1380 x 1s'c 15°¢ Diy air Saturated air ‘The surface temperature is 15°C. The dry air cools at 3°C, faster than the surrounding ‘environment is lapsing. This means that at each level the cry bubble of air is colder than the surrounding environment, and therefore more dense, so it wants to sink. ‘The saturated air cools at 1.5°C, again faster than the lapse rate of the environment. So at each level, the saturated bubble is colder and it too wants to sink. This situation is known as absolute stability since, regardless of whether the air is saturated or Not, the air is stable, ABSOLUTE INSTABILITY Now, consider the diagram below. The ELR is 5°C/1000 fi, greater than both the DALR and the ELR. par snr euRsrorooon soon se we @) we ove O tre se © i 20008 Owe we O ae se tooo Q irc we 1 ave me Drak Soret Meg 1sChapter 7 Siability ‘The unsaturated air cools at 3°C/1000 ft and at each level is warmer than the surrounding environment. Thus, it's less dense and, therefore, tends to keep rising. ‘The saturated air cools at 1.5°C/1000 ft. At each level it is warmer than the surrounding environment, hence less dense. It too tends to keep rising. We call this situation absolute instability. CONDITIONAL INSTABILITY Now consider a situation in which the ELR is between the SALR and the DALR, asin the diagram below. DALR SALR ELR "0/1000 4000 ft elect we 155" “= 3000 2000 1 we ire 180 10008 wre | 1asc 2c Dry air Saturated air ‘The environmental temperature is lapsing at 2°C/1000 ft. The unsaturated air is cooling at 3°C/1000 ft and at each level it is cooler than the surrounding environment, so it wants to sink. ‘The saturated air, however, is cooling at 1.5°C/1000 f, so at each level it is warmer than the surrounding environment and it tends to rise. This situation is called conditional instability. The air is stable when unsaturated, but unstable when saturated. 14 MeteorologySuabiliey Chapter 7 SUMMARY OF STABILITY SALR “Temoorature ‘The diagram shows the stability of the air when the ELR falls in different areas of the graph. Absolute Stability ELR DALR> SALR Conditional Instability DALR>ELR> SALR Note that in all the above cases, an initial trigger action is required to start the air rising. There are ‘several forms that this trigger can take, which are discussed thoroughly in the chapter on Cloud Formation. NEUTRAL STABILITY There is one more type of stability not yet mentioned. If the air is unsaturated and the ELR is exactly 3°C/1000 ft, then the rising air is cooling at the same rate that the environment is lapsing. So the air is neutrally stable, Ifthe air was saturated, the ELR would have to be identical to the SALR for the air to be neutralChapter 7 Stability CONVECTIVE OR POTENTIAL INSTABILITY Potentially unstable air occurs when horizontal air motion is present at the same time air is being lifted, such as in a low pressure centre or along @ frontal surface. The air in the lower layers must be saturated and the air in the upper layers must be dry, as demonstrated in the following diagram. 25-24 ree t ELRS4°crio00R unstable 5000 20-12 EC, ono" Unsaturated aie 7 a ee soot ELR 1°C/1000 = inlay stable sore Saturated air ‘The diagram above shows that before lifting occurs, the ELR is lower than the SALR, therefore, the layer is stable. The lower air cools at the SALR as its lifted because itis saturated. Since the air above is dry, it cools at the DALR. When the air reaches the top of the obstruction, the temperature difference between the bottom of the 5000 ft layer and the top has increased, hence the ELR has increased. It is now greater than the DALR, so the layer is unstable, In the next diagram, the lower air is dry and the upper air is saturated, so the opposite occurs. Initially the ELR is high, but as the air cools, the temperature difference decreases, lowering the ELR to below the SALR and making the layer stable. 16 MeteorologyStability Chapter 7 san tze ze t ELROSTCIOOOR gon stable Cools atthe sooo Saurated air ae darsilaae 5000 ELR&2°C/1000 8 | = inally unstab In summary, the following processes increase stabi aA Send Unsaturated air Advection of cold air or other cooling at low level Advection of warm air or other heating of upper air Decreased humicity at low levels or infusion of dry air at high levels Descending air motions such as subsidence created behind mountains in high pressure centres or through divergence at low level Factors that lead to increased instability are 1. Advection of warm air or heating of the air at low level 2. Advection of cold air or other cooling of the upper air such as night time radiation from the top of clouds 3. Increased humidity at low level 4, Enforced lifting which may lead to conditional instability (over mountains, on shore winds at coasts etc) 5. General lifting, as in low pressure centres and in the case of convergence INVERSIONS Inversions are extremely stable, as the ELR is in fact negative. The most common inversion forms at low level during clear nights, when radiation and co ground level is at its maximum. This is known as a ground inversion. When the surface is snow covered, the cooling can be intense, and surface temperature is often 40°C lower than at the level of the Stevenson Screen (1 - 2 m). From the screen upward, the air temperature rises 10 - 20°C in extreme cases.Chapter 7 Stability In broken terrain, the cooled air at the surface drains into the lowest area of the ground, creating hat is called a katabatic wind, This can lead to fog formation. This is discussed in more detail in later chapters, When winds are light and the ground is covered with snow, the inversion may be at 4000 ft to 7000 ft and dominates the weather situation. Inversions can form in the troposphere, when warm air moves over a colder layer of example, with a warm front. In many cases, clouds form in the inversion but these do not have strong vertical air currents CLOUD FORMATION As discussed at the beginning of the chapter, you must understand the concepts of stability and adiabatics in order to understand the processes of cloud formation. THE DRY THERMAL Consider the following hypothetical situation. The surface temperature is 10°C and the environmental temperature lapses normally until height "X’, then there is an inversion. The surface is heated at a particular location, which causes the temperature to rise to 20°C. The air in this region becomes less dense and starts to rise. a eee) Temperature n° This is what is known as a “thermal.” In this case, the air is unsaturated so itis called a dry thermal. Because the air is unsaturated, it cools at the DALR — faster than the environment and hence eventually the two lines will intersect. In the hypothetical example, the two lines intersect at X, the height at which the inversion starts. If the thermal were to continue to rise it would follow the dotted line, so it would be cooler than its environment. Therefore, it will be more dense and no longer has the tendency to rise. If you were to fly below height X, you would experience turbulence due to the updrafis in the thermal. Above height X, the conditions would be smooth, 18 MeteorologyStability Chapter 7 FORMATION OF A CLOUD Dewpoint was not taken into account in the previous example, which assumed the air never reaches saturation. What would happen if, at some point in the rise of the air, it became saturated? The following diagram represents this situation. eLR o 6 6 OOO Temperature in °C ‘As before, the trigger action is surface insolation, which leads to the formation of a thermal that slaris to rise. However, now there is a line representing the dewpoint, which has @ lapse rate of 0.5°C/1000 ft. In the diagram, the DALR line intersects the dewpoint line before it intersects the ELR line. Hence the thermal has reached saturation before it has stopped rising. At this point, water vapour starts to condense to form cloud. The thermal is still warmer than the environment so it continues to rise. However, its temperature now falls at the SALR. It eventually intersects the ELR and stops rising. So, the base of the cloud is the point in which the DALR intersects the dewpoint line, known as the lifting condensation level. The top of the cloud is where the SALR intersects the ELR. Once the thermal reached saturation, the lapse decreased to the SALR. The lower the SALR the longer it will take for this line to intersect the ELR. Warm air has a higher moisture content when saturated so it has a lower SALR due to the large emounts of latent heat released, If the air is cold, the SALR is close to the DALR and the line intersects the ELR quickly. Hence, warmer air leads to a thicker cloud forming than those formed in colder air. The diagram on the next page demonstrates this scenario, Meteorology 19Chapter 7 Stability eLR Cus top for warm sir ae *S. cloud top for cold air coronene LCL, Warm air SALR Cold air SALR. 6 5 1 15 Temperature in °C CALCULATING CLOUD BASE If the dewpoint was constant, we could quite easily calculate the height that the cloud base would form. It would simply be: (T-T.) +3 x 1000 Where: T= surface temperature T.= dewpoint This would give an answer in feet. However, since the dewpoint is also lapsing, itis not quite as simple as this. The temperature to which the thermal must fall must be the same as the temperature to which the dewpoint must fall. This is referred to °: ~ (GH + 1000) but also: ‘a (0.5H * 1000) Where ‘H's the height of the cloud base in feet. Hence: T—3H + 1000 = T,_0.5H + 1000 7-10 MeteorologyStability Chapter 7 Rearranging the formula to make H the subject: H=(T-T,)400 Using the same process, the following formula is derived: (T-T4)125 ‘Where ‘h’ is the cloud base in metres. You must memorise both formulae. The derivation, however, is for your information only. Note that the above formulae are only valid for convective clouds, that is, those formed by thermals. FORECASTING CLOUD FORMATION When forecasters determine whether or not convective clouds are likely to form, they must initially select a representative environmental lapse rate curve for the air mass in question. The dewpoint at the ground is checked and then assumptions are made of the development of the air temperature near the ground (amount of cloud, insolation, estimated maximum temperature, etc.) The condensation level can be calculated based on the forecast temperature and current dewpoint. To forecast convection a comparison is made between the lifting (path) curve with the actual lapse rate curve. When such a comparison is made, four main types can be distinguished, The following key applies: DALR SALR eee Here Dewpoint Meteorology TeChapter 7 Stability ‘The condensation level is on the cold side of the lapse rate. No clouds form, dry thermals only. Rate of ascent of the thermals 0.5 -2 mis. (Over hot (dry) surfaces, the dry thermals may be much stronger. Height Temperature ‘The condensation level is on the warm side of the lapse rate. ‘The moist adiabatic lapse rate intersects the environmental lapse rate curve rather early. ‘Small convective clouds form. Rate of ascent 1 ~ 4 mis below clouds, 5 ~ 10 mis inside the clouds. Height Temperature 712 MeteorologyStability Chapter 7 ‘The condensation level is on the warm side of the lapse rate curve. The moist adiabatic air does not intersect the lapse rate curve until high level. Large convective clouds form. Hail and electrical discharges may occur. Rate of ascent at tens of metres/sec in the cloud subjects the aircraft to heavy turbulence. Temperature 4, The condensation level is on the cold side of the lapse rate and no clouds form. If the air is forced to rise, e.g. over an obstruction, temperature is forced to cool to the condensation temperature and the thermals begin to rise by themselves. This condition is, called Latent Instability “Temosrature Meteorology 713ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘Thank you to Ashley Gibbs for the use of his photographs. INTRODUCTION Clouds are collections of water droplets, ice crystals, or a mixture of both. They provide indications of: possible turbulence poor visibility precipitation icing hee ‘The average lifetime of a cloud is 15 - 20 minutes, but cumulonimbus clouds can last 2 ~ 3 hours. ‘There are several different types of cloud, all with different characteristics regarding the weather factors above. Cloud formation is discussed in detail in the nex! chapter. This chapter focuses on defining the different cloud types and their features, with a basic mention of formation processes. CLOUD TERMS Cirrus High clouds with a feathery appearance Cumulus Clouds with a flat base and a top like a cauliflower Stratus Widespread clouds of great horizontal but little vertical extension Alto Medium level clouds Nimbus Clouds with moderate precipitation Lenticularis Clouds with a lens like appearance Castellanus Clouds with a turret like appearance Mamma Clouds with a base that has a pendulous or pouch like appearance Fractus Clouds with a broken or ragged appearance Meteorology sChapter 8 Clouds CLOUD CLASSIFICATION The initial subdivision of clouds is into two main types: layer clouds and clouds of great vertical extension (or heap clouds). LAYER CLOUDS ‘These form in stable air and can be further subdivided into categories according to the height bands in which they are found. Hence there are three further subcategories as follows: High level clouds (16 500 ft to 45 000 ft) Cirrus ci Cirrocumulus CC Cirostratus CS Medium level clouds (6500 ft to 23 000 ft) Altostratus: AS Altocumulus AC Low level clouds (Surface to 6500 ft) Nimbostratus NS Stratocumulus SC Stratus sT Each cloud type has a two letter abbreviation, Notice that the medium level and the high level bands overlap. This happens because in the summer the medium level clouds can extend up to 23 000 ft, and in winter the high level clouds can come as low as 16 500 ft CLOUDS OF GREAT VERTICAL EXTENSION ‘These form in unstable air and air not restricted to a particular height band like the layer clouds. Cumulus CU Surface to 25 000 ft Cumulonimbus CB Surface to tropopause Nimbostratus NS Surface to 15.000 ft A nimbostratus cloud can be a low cloud or a cloud with vertical extension because when there is strong lifting, nimbostratus can behave like 2 heap cloud and extend through several height bands. ‘The next few sections look at each of the cloud types in tum and describe the characteristics of each. 82 MeteorologyClouds Chapter 8 LOW CLOUDS STRATUS, ST ‘Stratus (ST) is a layer cloud with large horizontal extent but litle vertical development. It generally has a very low cloud base (below 1000 ft) and covers the whole sky. The typical depth is 1000 - 1500 ft. The base can be quite diffuse with veils hanging down beneath the cloud. Its @ turbulence cloud, often found in the warm sector of polar front depressions. It can also be formed when low fog lifts. ST consists of water droplets that are sub-zero in winter but are not very dense, so light to moderate icing can be expected. Precipitation may occur as drizzle, freezing drizzle, or snow grains. Meteorology 83Chapter 8 Clouds AA stratocumulus (SC) cloud is a stratiform cloud caused by turbulence. It can be found between heights 1000 ft and 6500 ft. Because it is formed by turbulence, you might expect light to ‘moderate turbulence when flying in or below the cloud, Conditions are calm above the cloud. Like stratus, this cloud consists of water droplets, so light to moderate icing, drizzle, freezing drizzle, or snow grains can be expected. In addition, you can expect ice pellets and, from the thicker stratocumulus, intermittent rain or snow. Heavy snowfall can be experienced in winter. MEDIUM CLOUDS ALTOSTRATUS, AS sa MeteorologyClouds Chapter 8 Altostratus is similar to nimbostratus but is less deep and less dense. This type of cloud can Cover the whole or a major part of the sky and is an indication of the approach of a warm front. Altostratus contains water droplets and ice crystals, therefore, it can cause light to moderate icing. Light to moderate turbulence can also be expected. Precipitation can take the form of continuous or intermittent rain or snow. ALTOCUMULUS CASTELLANUS, ACC Altocumulus castellanus gets its name for the cloud’s appearance, which is similar to castle turrets extending from the top. It develops from altocumulus when there is mid-level instability. It ccan therefore indicate the possibility of CBs forming. It tends to be denser than altocumuulus so icing and turbulence can be moderate to severe. ALTOCUMULUS LENTICULARIS, ACL Altocumulus lenticularis is a lenticular cloud, which means it is lens-ke in appearance. It is formed orographicelly in association with mountain waves. Icing in this cloud can be severe due to the constant replenishment of moisture by updraughts in the wave, HIGH CLOUDS Al high clouds fall within the 16 500 - 23 000 ft band. They use the prefix ‘cir(o)’. CIRRUS, CI Cirrus is a thin wispy cloud. It is associated with the approach of a warm front. It can also indicate the line of a jet stream, It consists of turbulence. crystals and does not produce icing or precipitation. Likewise, there is no Meteorology 85Chapter 8 Clouds CIRRO-STRATUS, CS Cirro-stratus is a sheet-like cloud, sometimes with a wispy veil underneath. It causes a bright ring around the sun and the moon, known as the halo phenomenon. It is associated with warm fronts. Like cirrus, it consists of ice crystals and does not produce icing, precipitation, or turbulence. CIRRO-CUMULUS, CC 86 MeteorologyClouds Chapter 8 Cirro-cumulus is divided into smaller cloud elements that look like the scales of a mackerel. It is formed when there is turbulence within cirrus or cirrostratus. Cirro-cumuulus consists of ice crystals and occasionally freezing water droplets. There is no icing or precipitation. There may be light turbulence. ‘CLOUDS WITH GREAT VERTICAL DEVELOPMENT CUMULUS ‘This photo features heap clouds, which are clouds that generally have greater vertical than horizontal extent. They are formed convectively and the base can be found between 3000 and 7000 ft in the surnmer and 700 and 4000 ft in the winter. The tops can extend to 25 000 fi Cumulus clouds consist of water droplets, which are supercooled above the freezing level Precipitation can be present when the cloud has a vertical extent greater than 10 000 ft. It can take the form of rain or snow showers. When the cloud becomes towering without being ‘iced’ (cirrus forming) at the top, it is called towering cumulus, TCU, Strong vertical currents can be present and larger CU should be avoided. Moderate to severe icing conditions can be encountered, but because the time taken to traverse the cloud is usually short, any ice build up tends to be small Meteorology 87Chapter 8 Clowes CUMULONIMBUS Cumulonimbus is a towering cumulus cloud with a top that has turned into cirrus. This is called the anvil and extends in the direction of the wind. The anvil is fibrous and diffuse in appearance. This cloud is very hazardous to aircraft. Itis very dense and consists of water droplets of varying sizes, s0 moderate to severe icing may be expected. Moderate to severe turbulence is also likely. CB can give precipitation in the form of rain or snow showers and hail, Due to the severe weather conditions associated with this cloud, it is discussed in detail in a separate chapter on thunderstorms, CLOUD AMOUNTS Not only is the type of cloud important, but also the amount of cloud. If half or less than half of the sky is covered with clouds, there should be litle if any problem in avoiding them. If more than half the sky is covered, avoidance becomes difficult. In aviation meteorology, the sky is divided into eight equal parts called oktas, You cen describe the amount of cloud as @ number of oktas, for example 4 oktas. This would mean that 4/8ths, one half, of the sky is covered. 88 MeteorologyClouds Chapter 8 In meteorological messages, use three letter abbreviations. These correspond to a number of oktas as specified below: G) | Sky clear Few ‘Scattered Broken Overcast ‘Aerodrome reports use an observation area with a radius of 5 km around the airport plus the area in the direction of approach. The exception is CBs, which are reported if they are within a 15 km radius of the airport. For airfields equipped with instrument landing systems, cloud base reports are referenced to the site of the middle marker beacon. ‘You may also see or hear the term CAVOK in meteorological messages. This means ceiling and visibility OK. In the following conditions you can replace the visibility, weather, and cloud group in ‘a meteorological report with the word CAVOK, Visibility > 10 km, 2. No clouds occur below 5000 ft or the highest greater. No CB in the vicinity (> 15 km). 4. No precipitation (except ice crystals), thunderstorms, low snowdrit, shallow fog, low drifting dust or sand, or sand or dust storms. imum Sector Altitude, whichever is the CLOUD BASE In addition to the amount and type of cloud, the cloud base is also reported based on the distance from the ground to the cloud. The cloud base is the lowest zone in which the type of obscuration perceptibly changes from that corresponding to clear haze to that corresponding to water droplets or ice crystals. A METAR or MET REPORT uses 100 ft intervals for clouds up to 10 000 ft, and 1000 ft intervals, for those above 10 000 ft. For example, you may receive the following in a report: FEW003 SCTO10 BKNO40 ‘The numbers after the descriptive abbreviations give the cloud base in hundreds of feet, so FEW003 means 1 ~ 2 oklas with a cloud base of 300 ft Meteorology 89Chapter 8 Clouds CLOUD CEILING The cloud celling is the height above aerodrome level of the lowest layer of cloud of more than 4 oktas. MEASURING CLOUD BASE AIREPS. There are several ways to measure the cloud base. The cheapest and easiest way is to use AIREPs (reports from the pilots of aircraft). This may not always be possible on approach and departure routes that aren't used frequently HUMAN OBSERVATION The general weather service uses an imperfect method in which the observer estimates the cloud base. Eslimated cloud bases can have large errors and have to be supplemented by the direct ‘measurements to be used in aviation meteorology. BALLOONS Ifthe cloud base is low, as is the case of ST/SC clouds, balloons that rise at a known rate can be used to determine the cloud base. The time taken for the balloon to disappear into the cloud is measured, and the measurement is converted into a distance. CEILOMETER Most ceilometers use a light-pulse that is reflected by the cloud. The laser reaches the higher levels without any significant scattering. The reflected light-pulse is received by a light-sensitive cell and half the time of transport gives the measurement of the cloud base. One problem of this type of cellometer is that precipitation can also give reflecting light-pulses, which leads to the cloud base measurement being too low. ALIDADE The Alidade is used at night. The alidade is positioned a known distance from a searchlight. The searchlight is shone on the cloud and the alidade measures the angle above the horizontal of the searchlight glow on the base of the cloud. The cloud base is calculated by trigonometry. VERTICAL VISIBILITY If fog is thick or snowfall is heavy, the cloud base loses its importance and vertical visibility is roported. Vertical visibility indicates at what height above the ground the pilot of an aircraft should have visual contact with the ground vertically down below. ‘An important difference between cloud base and vertical visibilty is that the cloud base mostly indicates a height in which the pilot can see forward, while vertical visibility only indicates at what height the pilot can see vertically down. 810 MeteorologyClouds Chapter 8 SUMMARY OF CLOUD TYPE AND CHARACTERISTICS [ c ee Cirrus Cl [46500Rto — |icocrystals | Nil Nil 41000m+ | Found 400 to 600 45000 ft nm ahead of a warm front Cirostratus. CS |16600fto —[icecrystals | Ni Ni 41000 m+ | Found 400 to 600 45 000 ft rm ahead of a warm front Cirrocumulus CC |16500fto —|icocrystais [Light | Nil 4000m+ [Found 40010600 _ | 45,000 ft rm ahead of a warm front when turbulence exists Altocumulus AC | 6500 ftto Water Lightto | Light to | 200 Turbulence cloud 23.0008 droplets and | moderate | moderate | 1000 m ice crystals Altostratus AS | 6500ftto Water Lightto[Lightto [2010 | Warm front 200 nm 23.000 droplets and | moderate | moderate | 100m | ahead. Merges with ice crystals NS as the front is approached Nimbostratus NS | Ground/evel to | Water Moderate | Moderate | 10 to 20 m | Warm front very 6500. Can be | droplets but |to-severe | to severe close 10000 ftto | canbe ice 15.000 crystals at ‘merging into AS | medium at higher levels | levels, Stratocumulus SC | 1000 fo 6500 | Water Lightto [Light to | 1010 30m | Turbulence cloud ft droplets __| moderate_| moderate Stratus ‘ST | Ground level to. | Water Nilto light | Occasion | 10 to 30 m | Turbulence cloud 6500 ft droplets ally ight to moderate Cumulus: ‘CU | 1000 ft to Water Moderate | Moderate | Less than | instability cloud 25.000 ft droplets and | to severe | to severe | 20m Large CU may ice crystals develop into CB Cumulonimbus CB | 1000 ftto Water Moderate | Moderate | 10 to 20m | Instability cloud 45.000 ft droplets and to severe | to severe ice crystals Altocumulus AC |6500ftto Water Moderate | Moderate | - ‘An indication of castellanus C_ | 23 000ft droplets and |to severe | to severe Lnstable air at mig joe crystals levels; can indicate approaching CB Altocumulus AC | 6500 ftto Water Moderate | Moderate ‘Associated with Lenticular L |23 000 droplets and |to severe | to severe mountain waves ice crystals MeteorologyINTRODUCTION This chapter covers the formation of clouds in more depth than previous chapters. Clouds form when air rises and cools adiabatically. If rising air cools to its dewpoint, the water vapour will condense out as water droplets. The height at which this occurs is the condensation level. This is also the level the cloud base occurs. There are several different liting processes that can lead to cloud formation. They are as follows: Turbulence Convection Orographic upiit Frontal uplift Convergence gee TURBULENCE CONDITIONS Turbulence clouds can form whenever there is a stable layer. Such a stable layer may occur if there is an inversion or isothermal layer above it, preventing lifting. If the wind speed is greater than about 10 kt, turbulence within the layer can lead to a steepening of the lapse rate. Note: Although a wind speed of greater than 10 kt is necessary for turbulence clouds to form, once formed it can persist at lower speeds. If this steepening is such that the saturation layer occurs within the turbulent layer, then turbulence clouds form. Meteorology ontChapter 9 Cloud Formation MECHANISM ‘The diagrams below show what happens when there is @ stable layer of 3000 ft thickness and turbulent mixing ocours within the layer. 3000 R- 12°C 2000 ft- 13°C 4000 ft. 14° on- 150 ‘The above diagram shows the layer before turbulence commences. The layer is stable, the ELR being only 1°C/1000 ft. Surface temperature is 15°C, making the top of the layer 12°C. Above 3000 ft is an isothermal layer, where the temperature remains 12°C (although this could equally be an inversion layer). 3000 8 200% 41000 f on ‘The above diagram shows the situation during turbulence. Pockets of air ere circulated within the layer. Due to the nature of air as a bad conductor, the pockets cool or warm adiabatically. 92 MeteorologyCloud Formation Chapter 9 ‘As you can see from the diagram, this means bubbles of air ascending to the top of the layer is 6°C, colder than the environmental temperature. Descending bubbles of air are 21°C when they reach the bottom of the layer, warmer than the environment. 30008 2000 ft 4000 A on The final diagram shows the situation after turbulence. The temperature at any one level becomes the average of the temperatures of the bubbles that have ascended and those that have descended, The surface temperature has increased and the temperature at the top of the layer has decreased. Overall the ELR has increased. It is now 3°C/1000 ft. This may result in the dewpoint being reached below the top of the layer. For example, assume that the surface dewpoint is 12°C. The dewpoint lapses at 0.5°C so it would not be reached before the top of the layer in the pre-turbulence case. However, after turbulence the dewpoint would fall within the layer, hence saturation would occur and clouds would form, as shown in the next diagram. Meteorology 93Chapter 9 Cloud Formation Pee DEWPOINT 30008 rose 2000 8 awe 1000 8 8c on re By comparing the new environmental temperature with the dewpoint at various levels, you find that the cloud base is at 2400 ft CLOUD TYPES ‘The following cloud types are formed by turbulence: Stratus Stratocumulus Altocumulus Cirrocumulus Rene CONVECTION Convective processes were introduced it recapped below. the chapter on Stability, but the processes are CONDITIONS Convective clouds form when the surface is heated. This heat energy passes to the air above the surface by conduction. This air is now warmer than the surrounding environment so it starts to rise, that is, convection occurs. If the rising air reaches its dewpoint before it reaches the same temperature as the environment, condensation occurs. 94 MeteorologyCloud Formation Chapter 9 MECHANISM The following key applies to the next few diagrams: DALR ALR es EIR! Dewpoint Height ‘ Temperature In the diagram above, the surface is heated, which starts a vertical motion of air. Initially, the air cools at the DALR unti it reaches the dewpoint. Water vapour then starts to condense out as droplets and a cloud starts to form. The level at which this occurs is the condensation level and is coincident with the cloud base. The air now cools at the SALR. Lifting, and hence cloud formation, ceases when the rising air reaches the same temperature as the surrounding environment. The temperature to which the surface must be heated in order for condensation level is the critical temperature. to be lifted to its In the diagram, the DALR intersects the dewpoint curve when the dewpoint temperature is quite close to the environmental temperature at a low height. Only a small amount of lifting occurs after this point, so the cloud form is quite small Such small clouds are not large enough vertically to produce precipitation. They are usually isolated (forming over hot spots on the surface) and the sky is otherwise clear. They are, therefore, referred to as fair weather cumulusicumuli This is common on warm summer days. As temperatures fall in the evening, they tend to disappear. If fair weather cumulus form in the morning it may mean there will be large Cu or Cb later on in the day when insolation increases, for example in the next diagram. Meteorology 95Chapter 9 Cloud Formation Height Temperature The relative positions of the ELR and the dewpoint curves are the same. The only difference is that the surface is heated to a much higher temperature. The DALR intersects the dewpoint curve ata greater height. After this point, there is much more lifting before the SALR intersects the ELR So, with greater surface heating there is @ much bigger cloud, but one with @ higher cloud base. If this cloud exceeds 10 000 ft in height, it may produce precipitation. ‘Another factor is the stability of the atmosphere. The steeper the environmental lapse rate, the longer it takes for the temperature of the rising air to reach the same temperature as the environment, so the larger the cloud that forms. ADVECTION Another way for convective clouds to form is with advection. Advection is the horizontal movement of air. If cold air passes over a warm surface it becomes heated from below, starting the process of convection. Typical convective clouds such as cumulus and cumulonimbus can form, ‘An example of this is cold air passing over a warmer sea surface such as polar air moving south cover the North Atlantic. CLOUD TYPES ‘The following types of clouds are formed convectively: 4. Cumulus 2. Towering cumulus 3. Cumulonimbus OROGRAPHIC UPLIFT CONDITIONS Orographic clouds form when air is forced to rise over an obstruction, such as high ground. This ‘may ocour in a stable or an unstable environment. The type of cloud that forms depends on the stability and moisture content of the atmosphere. 9-6 MeteorologyCloud Formation. Chapter 9 MECHANISM In stable conditions, air is forced to rise over the obstruction. Initially, it cools at the DALR. Once it reaches its dewpoint, cloud starts to form. This formation is a stratiform cloud. The air cools at the SALR. ‘As it passes over the crest of the ridge, the lifting force no longer is present so the air flows down the other side. It initially warms at the SALR. Since much of its moisture has condensed out 2s cloud, it becomes unsaturated again at a lower temperature than the original dewpoint. Hence the base of the cloud is higher on the leeward side than the windward side. ‘The air thon warms at the DALR. The diagram below shows the temperature at ground level on the lee side is higher than that on the windward side. This warming wind is known as the Foehn Wind. In drier conditions, the cloud base may be above the top of the ridge. If this happens, the clouds that form are altocumulus lenticularis, Meteorology 97Chapter 9 Cloud Formation Altocumulus Lenticularis (Lenticular Cloud) These clouds get their name from their lens shape and, generally, indicate the presence of mountain waves, which are discussed in detail in the chapter on Windshear and Turbulence. ‘These types of clouds can cause severe turbulence. The cloud is being continuously replenished with moist air. It, therefore, contains high concentration of supercooled droplets. Icing, therefore, can also be severe. If the conditions are unstable, the obstruction provides the initial lifting force. After the crest is reached, the air continues lifting due to the unstable nature of the air. The cloud that forms is a ‘cumuliform rather than a stratiform. ‘The bulk of the cloud forms on the windward side of the obstruction. Most of the precipitation falls here as well. The lee side is said to be in rain shadow. 98 MeteorologyCloud Formation Chapter 9 Cap Cloud ‘Another situation that causes orographic uplift is when the atmosphere is initially stable then becomes unstable. Initially, stratiform clouds form. If this is at a medium level, it becomes altocumulus. If the atmosphere then becomes unstable, this can develop into altocumulus castellanus, Stratocumulus can develop into stratocumulus castellanus but this is rare. Meteorology 99Chapter 9 Cloud Formation CLOUD TYPES ‘The following clouds can be formed orographically: IN UNSTABLE CONDITIONS Cumulus Cumulonimbus IN STABLE CONDITIONS Stratus Stratocumulus Altocumulus Altocumulus lenticularis WHEN ATMOSPHERE IS INITIALLY STABLE AND LATER BECOMES UNSTABLE Altocumulus castellanus FRONTAL UPLIFT CONDITIONS ‘A front is the boundary between two air masses, generally in motion, with different properties. Usually the comparison is made between the relative temperatures of the air masses. There are two main types of front: the warm front and the cold front. ‘A warm front is found when warm air is replacing cold air. A cold front is found when cold air is replacing warm air. In both cases the warm air, being less dense, rises up over the cold air. Looking at it from the point of the warm front, the warm air slides up over the cold air it is replacing. From the point of view of the cold front, the cold air undercuts the warm air it is replacing, ‘The fronts have different properties and hence the cloud types that form along them differ. MECHANISM THE WARM FRONT ‘The warm ait rises over the cold air, forming a sloping front with a gradient of only about 1 to 150, 0 the lifting is very gentle and a stratiform cloud forms. From the ground up, the types of cloud that forms will be stratus, nimbostratus, altostratus, cirrostratus, and cirrus. Note that when flying toward a warm front from the cold side, you will encounter a progressively lowering cloudbase. ‘The gradient is such that the first cloud, the high cloud cirrus, can be encountered up to 600 nm ahead of the surface position of the front. 9-10Cloud Formation Chapter 9 WARM FRONT WARM AIR ‘THE COLD FRONT Cold air pushes undemeath the warm air it is replacing. The slope of the cold front is very different from that of the warm front. It averages a slope of 1 to 50, and close to the ground it can be almost vertical, sometimes forming a protruding area that looks like @ nose, as shown in the next diagram. The ait may be unstable, but if itis not, it can be made so by the large amount of enforced lifting. Hence the type of cloud which forms on this kind of front is generally cumuliform in type, although there can be shallow bands of stability where NS and Cl can form. Since the front is steeper, the associated cloud ceases no more than about 200 nm after the passage of the surface front. ‘Meteorology 9-1Chapter 9 Cloud Formation COLD FRONT ‘CLOUD TYPES COLD FRONTS ONLY ‘Cumulus ‘Cumulonimbus WARM FRONTS ONLY Stratus Altostratus Cirrostratus MAINLY WARM FRONTS, OCCASIONALLY COLD FRONTS. Nimbostratus Cimus 9-12 MeteorologyCloud Formation Chapter 9 CONVERGENCE CONDITIONS Wherever there is convergence, air is forced to rise. Such convergence occurs in depressions and non-frontal troughs. MECHANISM ‘As air converges into the low pressure area, the air at the centre of the low, or the centre line of the trough, is forced to rise. This leads to instability and saturation, hence the formation of clouds. CLOUD TYPES ‘The cloud types that form are those that are associated with instability. These are cumulus, cumulonimbus, and towering cumulus. Meteorology 9-13INTRODUCTION Clouds can consist of a combination of water droplets, supercooled water droplets, and ice crystals. Individual water droplets and ice crystals are very small and light, and due to upcurrents in the clouds, they do not fall as precipitation on their own, If they combine with other water droplets or ice crystals they become progressively heavier. If the Uupourrents in the cloud are not strong enough to support their weight they fall as precipitation. It follows that the stronger the upourrents are, the heavier the droplet or crystal has to be in order {or precipitation to occur. So the largest droplets fall from convective clouds such as cumulus and ‘cumulonimbus. PRECIPITATION PROCESSES ‘There are two theories conceming the formation of precipitation. These processes are not mutually exclusive and, given the right conditions, may both occur within the same cloud. BERGERON THEORY (THE ICE CRYSTAL EFFECT) Where sub-zero conditions occur, both ice crystals and water droplets may be present. Water vapour may sublimate onto the ice crystals. Collision with supercooled droplets allows the crystal to grow in size. Once the crystal reaches a sufficient size, it falls as precipitation. The type of precipitation depends on the temperature of the air through which it falls. If sufficiently warm, the crystal melts and falls as a rain droplet. If not, it might fall as snow. ‘The difference in saturation vapour pressure between ice and water is greatest at approximately -12°C, so clouds reaching this temperature produce precipitation. Snow has a relatively low rate of fall, so a cloud thickness of 1500 to 3000 ft is sufficient if the temperature at the cloud top is approximately -8°C to -12°C. If supercooled water droplets fall through colder air they might freeze and form freezing rain. This is common with nimbostratus clouds on a warm front. The droplets fall through the front into colder air. In dense clouds such as cumulonimbus, there may be a sufficient concentration of supercooled water droplets for them to freeze onto ice crystals to form a snow pelletChapter 10 Precipitation COALESCENCE THEORY (CAPTURE EFFECT) ‘The Bergeron Theory requires part of the cloud to be below 0°C, so ice crystals are present. In many clouds in lower latitudes, no part of the cloud is below 0°C yet precipitation still falls. The Coalescence Theory covers this scenario. In the cloud there are water droplets of varying sizes. The larger, heavier croplets fall faster and collide with smaller droplets on their way down. When the droplets become sufficiently heavy. they fall as precipitation. INTENSITY OF PRECIPITATION Precipitation is described by the following terms: Rainfall Rate (mm per hour) Rain Rain/Hail Showers <05 <2 05104 21010 Sane 1010 50 > 50 CONTINUITY OF PRECIPITATION Continuity of precipitation is described using the three terms described below. Showers ‘Showers are of short duration and are associated only with convective clouds, that is, ‘cumulus and cumulonimbus. Intermittent Intermittent is associated with layer clouds. Precipitation falls from time to time with short breaks. Continuous Continuous precipitation is that which falls for periods of an hour or longer without breaks. Continuous precipitation is also associated with layer clouds. 10-2 MeteorologyPrecipitation Chapter 10 PRECIPITATION TYPES The following table describes the different types of precipitation and the clouds they fall from. le Freezing Drizzle Snow Grains ST or SC Diameter: 0.2t0 0.5 mm Visibility: 500 to 3000 m Imperceptible impact. Drizzle does not make a splash on the ground. Rain (continuous) Thick AS and NS Diameter: 0.50 5.5 mm Visibility: 3000 to 5.5 km. 41000 min heavy rain Perceptible impact: Drops have to be large to overcome the up- currents in the cloud in order to fall. Larger drops break up into smaller drops as the rain falls, ‘Snow (continuous) Thick AS and NS. Grains/Needles: <1 mm diameter Pellets: 2 to 5 mm diameter Flakes: ‘A collection of crystals greater than 4 mm in diameter. The lower the temperature the smaller the flake size, ‘Surface temperature must be < 4°C for snow to reach the ground before melting Hail cB Diameter: to 50 mm Weight: up to 1 kg Height: up to 48 000 ft Rain (intermittent) Snow (intermittent) Thick AS and SC Rain Showers Snow Showers Heavy CU and cB Sleet ‘A mixture of rain and snow or snow that has partially melted in the descent. leet falls when the temperature is between + 5°C. to+6°C Soft Hail, or cB ‘Small rounded pellets of less than 5 mm diameter Graupel Can be the early stage of hail growth Ice Pellets sc Diameter: <5mm Transparent pellets either spherical or rounded. Meteorology 103Chapter 10 Precipitation HAIL Hail forms by the ice crystal effect when there are updraughts stronger than 10 mis. Hail can cause serious damage to an airframe, especially with larger hailstones. The table below ‘summarises the strength of updraughts required to produce stones of various sizes and masses. ‘Small Hail (Graupel) | <5mm 49 Hail (Grete) 2om 99 om 809 400m 3709 440m 4kg In the UK and Norther Europe, the updraughts in thunderstorms are rarely strong enough to allow the hailstones to grow to any appreciable size. Large hailstones are more likely to be encountered in heat air mass thunderstorms in tropical locations. 104 Meteorology(Eie th) INTRODUCTION estimated that every day there are about 44 000 thunderstorms across the planet. Thunderstorms develop from well-developed cumulonimbus clouds. Not all cumwulonimbus clouds develop into thunderstorms, however. The features described in this chapter apply to very active CBs as well as actual thunderstorms. CONDITIONS ‘Thunderstorms are most likely to occur with the following combination of conditions: 1, An environmental lapse rate greater than the SALR through a depth of at least 10 000 ft and extending to above the freezing level. Sufficient water vapour to provide early saturation and to form and maintain the cloud. A trigger action to start the lifting process. This can take several forms. TRIGGER ACTIONS There are five different possible trigger actions: Convection Orographic uplift ‘Advection Convergence Frontal lifting (generally in association with cold fronts and occlusions) ok eNne THUNDERSTORM CLASSIFICATION ‘Thunderstorms are generally classified as one of two types: 1. Heat or airmass — in this case the trigger action is one of the first four above. 2, Frontal — the trigger action is the fifth in the list. MeteorologyChapter 11 Thunderstorms HEAT/AIRMASS THUNDERSTORMS CONVECTION Although heat/airmass thunderstorms can form with one of four triggers, convection is the most likely one. Since surface heating is greater in the summer, statistically these thunderstorms are ‘more likely in the summer. They are also more likely during the day and over land and tend to be isolated, especially if they have formed in a cold air mass. The cold air mass thunderstorms tend to dissipate in the evening, ‘Thunderstorms that form in a warm air mass may form a multicell structure, ‘A multcell thunderstorm is a cluster of CBs where various cells at differing stages interact. The Great depth of instability > Strong vertical windshear > stable layer between the warm lower air and cold upper air In the mature stage of these storms there are severe updraughts and downdraughts, which can give rise to very violent weather such as torrential rain, large hail, strong winds, and even tomadoes. The mature stage can last for several hours. MOVEMENT OF THUNDERSTORMS. ‘Thunderstorms formed in a col or slack pressure gradient tend to move erratically, but generally thunderstorms move with the wind at the 700 hPa level, which is equivalent to approximately 10.000 f. ‘Supercell thunderstorms in the Northern Hemisphere tend to move 20° to the right of the 500 hPa (18 000 f}) wing, SQUALL LINES ‘Squall lines are usually formed in the warm air mass ahead of a cold front. Squall phenomena are most frequent during the evening and early night. They are not very common in Western Europe. ‘Squall lines are more common over large continental areas such as Eastern Europe or, more frequently, North America. A squall line with thunderstorms also contains hail, and tornadoes can occur. Although the CB along the squall can seem very small and insignificant compared to the frontal clouds behind, in reality the most intense weather phenomena are caused by squalls. HAZARDS TURBULENCE AND WINDSHEAR Turbulence is moderate to severe in thunderstorms, caused by updraughts and downdraughts within the cloud. Gusts associated with thunderstorms can cause vertical displacements of up to 5000 ft. The effects can be felt up to 40 miles away. Severe turbulence can be encountered several thousand feet above the cloud tops, as well 2s within and below the cloud. Flying within a few thousand feet of the tops of CBs should be avoided. Windshear is a more sustained change in windspeed or direction. Its, therefore, likely to be more dangerous, especially on the approach where the effect on an aircraft's airspeed can have serious consequences. In the most extreme cases changes of as much as 60 kt in speed and 20° in direction can be experienced within a layer of only a few hundred feet. Meteorology 1sChapter 11 Thunderstorms GUST FRONT ‘Some thunderstorms may have a well defined area of cold air flowing out from a downdraught in all directions, but tending to lead the storm along its line of movement. A gust front might extend ut 24 to 32 km from the storm centre and can be felt from the surface to about 6000 ft. The cold air undercuts warm air and windshear may be associated with it. This gust front can be quite distant from the cloud and without precipitation it does not show up on weather radar and can therefore be quite unexpected. Occasionally there may be roll cloud associated with it MICROBURSTS Microbursts are strong downdraughts of air that descend from the centre of CB clouds with speeds up to 60 kt down to levels as lov as 300 ft. They are typically less than 5 km across and last from 1 to 5 minutes. ‘As the downdraughts approach the ground, the ait splays out in all directions. The following diagram shows an aircraft approaching the CB. It initially experiences a strong headwind (A), then a downdraught (B), followed by a tailwind (C). 116 MeteorologyThunderstorms Chapter 11 bursts are the most extreme example of windshear and can result in large airspeed changes that can result in the loss of large aircraft. ‘There are two types of microburst: wet and dry. The wet type has large amounts of precipitation associated with it so shows up well on weather radar. In the dry type any precipitation has evaporated before reaching the ground, s0 is less easy to identify. Some virga may show up on radar. Dry microbursts are generally the more severe type and tend to be associated with heat aitmass thunderstorms over dry near-desert regions. The evaporation of the precipitation absorbs latent heat and enhances the downdraughts. HAIL Hail can be encountered in the cloud, below the cloud, and beneath the anvil. Since it is not Possible to tell whether or not @ given storm produces hail, for avoidance purposes it is safer to assume that it will. The stronger the lifting and the greater the moisture content, the greater the chanee of hall. Hail can be up to 14 cm in diameter and can be encountered up to 45 000 ft, producing severe skin damage with even a short exposure. ICING ‘Any flight in cloud or precipitation can result in icing when the temperatures are below zero. Icing ‘can occur down to temperatures as low as ~40°C. Icing is more severe near the base of the cloud where the droplets are larger. This is discussed more thoroughly in the chapter on Icing. Carburettor icing is also a risk and can occur in the temperature range -10°C to +30°C. Meteorology nzChapter 11 Thunderstorms LIGHTNING Various processes can lead to different charges separating within a CB cloud. In a CB cloud, hail can collide with water droplets and ice crystals in the cloud. This results in a net transfer of positive ions from the warmer hail to the colder supercooled water droplet or ice crystal. This results in the positively charged ice crystaliwater droplet moving upward in Updraughts and the negatively charged hail falling downward with gravity ‘As a water droplet falls within a cloud it gathers speed. Once it reaches about 9 mis it starts to split. Larger parts of the split droplet become positive and smalier parts become negative. The small negative parts are lifted higher up the cloud than the larger positive parts. ‘Supercooled water droplets might also freeze onto hall. Tiny splinters of ice break off, become negatively charged and ascend within the cloud. These processes result in @ net charge difference within the cloud. Once this reaches a potential difference of about 3 million volts per metre over a distance of about 50 metres, a discharge of current, lightning, takes place. ‘Most lightning occurs within 10°C (approximately 5000 ft) of the freezing level. Hazards associated with lightning are temporary blindness caused by the flash, interference with ‘compasses and other instruments, and possible airframe damage. STATIC Static causes interference on LF, MF, HF, and VHF radio equipment. In severe cases a visible discharge may occur, called St. Elmo’s Fire, which is 2 purple light around windscreen edges, wing tips, propellers, and engine nacelles. Although not dangerous in itself it is an indication that the air is highly charged and lightning is ikely. WATER INGESTION Turbine engines have a limit to the amount of water they can ingest. If the updraught velocity in the thunderstorm approaches or exceeds the terminal velocity of the falling raindrops, very high concentrations of water may occur. It is possibie that these concentrations can be in excess of the quantity of water turbine engines are designed to ingest, which could result in flame-out andior structural failure of one or more engines. To eliminate the risk of engine damage or flame-out, it is essential to avoid severe storms. During an unavoidable encounter with extreme precipitation, the recommendation is to follow the severe turbulence penetration procedure contained in the approved aircraft fight manual, with special emphasis on avoiding thrust changes unless excessive airspeed variations occur. Water can exist in large quantities at high altitudes even where the ambient temperature is as low as -30° C. 1s MeteorologyThunderstorms Chapter 11 TORNADOES ‘Tomadoes are associated with severe thunderstorms. They form with massive convergence in a trough with sharply inclined isobars. Differing wind directions give a rotating twist and the lifted air becomes a spiral. They are very localised — less than 300 metres across — and the lifting can be so strong that it can pick up water from a sea surface or dust from the land. Wind speeds in the vortex can reach 200 kt. If the funnel does not touch the ground it is called a funnel cloud: if it does touch, it is called a tornado, ‘Tornadoes are common in the United States but rare in the UK and Europe. PRESSURE VARIATIONS Pressure variations can cause the given QNHIQFE to be in error, sometimes by as much as 1000 ff. Local gusts exacerbate the problem and VSls are also subject to errors. Aircraft should be flown for attitude rather than altitude. WEATHER RADAR Weather radar is provided to enable pilots to avoid thunderstorms and is designed to detect areas of heavy precipitation. The strength of the echo is not necessarily an indication of the strength of the associated turbulence. Radar return intensities may be misleading because of attenuation resulting from intervening heavy rain. This may lead to serious underestimation of the severity of the rainfall in a large storm, and an incorrect assumption of where the heaviest rainfall is likely to bo ‘encountered. The echo from that part of an area of rain furthest from the radar is relatively weaker and the actual position of the maximum rainfall at the far edge of the storm area is further away than indicated on the radar display, sometimes by distances up to several miles. Additionally, a storm cell beyond may be completely masked. The high rate of growth of thunderstorms and the danger of flying over or near to the tops both of the main storm and the small convective cells close to it must be considered when using weather radar for storm avoidance. Meteorology 119