166 Chapter Five andthe second paral derlvaive fs since = —1. The parish dervaive of y with respect to ¢ now holding x constant) i & mw a ay and the second partial derivative is s Fy 2, ac Seat Combining hese rus ges wll ‘atv? at? ‘whichis Eq, (5.3). Hence Eq, (5.5) isa solution of the wave equation. ann SN Oe 5.3. SCHRODINGER'S EQUATION: TIME-DEPENDENT FORM ‘A basle physical prinlple that cannot be derived from anything else tm quantum mechanics the wave function W corresponds to the wave variable y of wave motion in general. However, W, unlike y, fs not itself « measurable quantity and may therefore be complex. For this reason we assume thet ‘¥ fora particle moving freely in the + diection is specified by waar Gn Replacing «in the above forrnula by 2arv and v by Av gives, Ym Ae trons) 68) “This is convenient since we already know what » and A are fn terms of the total energy E and momentum p of the paticle being described by . Because E=hv=2nhy and wwe have Free particle was ee 6.9) Equation (5,9) describes the wave equivalent of an unrestricted particle of total ‘energy E and momentum p moving In the +x direction, just as Eq, (5.5) describes, for example, a harmonic displacement wave moving freely along a stretched string. “The expression for the wave function ¥ given by Eq. (5.9) is correct only for freely ‘moving particles, However, we ate most interested in situations where the motion of 4 particle is subject to various restrictions. An important concern, for example, is an tlection bound to an atom by the electre feld ofits nucleus, What we must now do is obtain the fundamental differetial equation for Y, which we can then solve for Y in a specific situation. This equation, which is Schrodinger equation, can be artived atin vatious ways, but it cannat be rigorously derived from existing physical principles:167 Quantum Mechantes the equation represents something new. What will be done here is to show one route to the wave equation for Y and then to discuss the significance of the result. We begin by differentiating Eq. (5.9) for W twice with respect to x, which gives ay 2 ey aw ae Pym Differentiating Eq. (5.9) once with respect to ¢ gives 6.10) Gan) At speeds small compared with that of light, the total energy # ofa particle isthe sum of its kinetic energy p’/2m and its potential energy U, where U is in general a function of position x and time t e= 2 +ue,0 2m (6.12) The function U represents the influence of the rest of the universe on the particle, Of ‘course, only a small part ofthe universe interacts with the particle to any extent; for Enwin SchrOdinger (1887-1961) was ‘bom in Vienna toan Austin father nd ‘hall-English mother and reeived his ociorate atthe university there. Alter World War 1, during which he served 1s an alley olice, Schrodinger hed sppotments ax Severs) German universes before becoming professor ‘of physics in Zurich, Siterland, Late ‘November, 125, Sehradinger gave a tall on de Brogleb notion thet s moving particle has a wave character: A colleague remarked to him afterward that to deat properly with @ wave, one needs a wave equation. Scheédinger took this to heart, and few weeks Inter he was “struggling with ‘anew atomic theory. f only mew more mathematics! 1am very ‘optimistic about this thing and expect that sean omy... salve 4 ewllbe very beau” Schrodinger wee not the only physicist to find the mathematics he needed dificult; the eminent rnalhe- ‘atician David Hilbert sid at about this ime, “Physics is much too hard for phystcits,") The struggle was succesful, and in Jena 1926 the frst of four papers on “Quantization as an Eigenvalue Problem” was completed. in tis epochal paper Schrodinger introduced the ‘equation that ears his name and solved i for the hydrogen atom, thereby opening wide the door tothe modern view ofthe atom ‘hich others had only pnched ajar. Ry Jina Schrodinger hed applied wave mechanics to uke harmonic osilator, the diatomic molecule, the hydrogen atom in an electri eld, the absorption and emission of radiation, and the scateting of radiation by atoms and molecules. He had also show that his wave me ‘chanics was mathematically equivalent to the moce abstract, Heisenberg-Born Jordan mati mechanics, “The significance of Schrodinger’ were was at once realized 1m 1927 he succeeded Planck a the University of Bein but left Germany in 1933, the year he received the Nobel Prize, when the Nazis came to power. He was at Dublin’ Insitute for Ad vanced Study from 1939 untl his return to Austria in 1956. tn Dublin, Schrodinger became interested in biology in panticlae the mechanism of heredity. He seems to have been the fist to rmake definite the ides of a genetic code and to idently genes 13 ong molecules that cary the code inthe form of variations In how their atoms are aranged. Schrodinger’ 1944 book What 's Lyf? was enormausiy influential, not only by what it said but also by introducing biologists to @ nev way of thinking —that ofthe physiist—about their subject. What Life? started James ‘Watson on is search for “the eacret ofthe gene,” which he and Francis Crick (a physics) discovered in 1953 tobe the stoce ture of the DNA molecule,168 Chapter Five Instance, in the case ofthe electron in a hydrogen ator, only the electric field of the nucleus must be taken into account. ‘Multiplying both sides of Eq. (5.12) by the wave function YF gives Ev aa +Uy 6.3) Now we substitute for BV and pV from Eqs. (5:10) and (6.11) to obtain the time- dependent form of Schradinger’s equation: ‘Time-dependent Schodinger Rev ‘equation in one a tm ae 7 UY (6.4) dimension In thnee dimensions the time-dependent form of Schrodinger’ equation is wv _ ® (2 aE 6.15) where the particles potential energy U is some function of x,y, 2, and t "Any restrictions that may be present on the particle motion wil affect the potentil- energy function U. Once U is known, Schrodinger equation may be solved for the wave function Y of the particle, from which its probability density |? may be de- termined for a specified x, y, zt ‘Validity of Schrddinger’s Equation Schrodinger equation was obtained here using the wave function ofa frely moving jporicle (potentol energy 17 ~ consimt), How can we be sure i applies to the general ase of a particle subject to arbitrary forces that vary In space and time [U = UGx, y, 2, OF? Substituting Eqs. (5.10) and (5.11) into Eq, (5.13) is really a wild leap ‘with no formal justification; this is true forall other ways In which Schrodinger’ equa- tion can be arrived at, including Schrodinger’ own approach. ‘What we must dois postulate Schrédinger’ equation, sole it for a variety of phys- teal situations, and compare the results ofthe calculations with the results of expert- ‘ments. If both sets of results agree, the postulate embodied in Schrodinger’ equation is valid. If they disagree, the poswlate must be discarded and some other approach ‘would then have to be explored, In other words, Sechrédinger’ equation cannot be derived from other basic priniples of physics; iis a basic principle in itself ‘What has happened is that Schrodingers equation has turned out to be remarkably accurate in predicting the results of experiments, To be sure, Eq. (5.15) can be used only for nonrelativistic problems, and a more elaborate formulation is needed when particle speeds near that of light are involved. But because itis in accord with experl- tence within its range of applicability, we must consider Schrodinger equation as & volid statement concerning certain aspects of the physical world Tt is worth noting that Schrédinger’s equation does not increase the number of principles needed to describe che workings of the physical world, Newton’ second lawQuantion Mechanics of motion F = ma, the basic principle of classical mechanics, can be derived from Schrodinger equation provided the quantities it relates are understood to be averages rather than precise values. (Newton’ laws of motion were also not derived from any ‘other principles. Like Schrodinge?s equation, these laws ate considered valid in their range of applicability because oftheir agreement with experiment.) 5.4 LINEARITY AND SUPERPOSITION ‘Wave functions add, not probabilities ‘An important property of Schrodinger’ equation is that it is linea inthe wave function W. By this is meant that the equation has terms that contain W and its derivatives but rho terns independent of ¥ or that involve higher powers of V or its derivatives. As 4 result, a linear combination of solutions of Schrédinger’ equation fora given system. {is alco itself a solution. If Wy and pare two solutions (that is, two wave functions that satisfy the equation), then Waa, + a, fs also a solution, where ay and a, are constants (see Exercise 6). Thus the wave fanc- tions ¥, and ¥, obey the superposition principle that other waves do (see Sec. 2.1) and we conclude that interference effects can occur for wave functions just as they can for light, sound, water, and electromagnetic waves, in fact, the discussions of Secs. 3.4 and 3.7 assumed that de Broglie waves are subject to the superposition principle Let us apply the superposition principle to the diffraction of an electron beam. Fig- ure 5.24 shows a pair of slits through which 2 perallel beam of monoenergeticelee- twons pass on their way to a viewing screen. If sit 1 only is open, the result is the Intensity variation shown in Fig. 5.2b that corresponds to the probability density P= P= vey 1 slit 2 only is open, asin Fig. 5.2c, the corresponding probability density is P,= Wap = Wi ‘We might suppose that opening both slits would give an electron intensity variation Aescribed by Pi + Pp, as in Fig 52d. However, this isnot the case because in quantum, ICs @ oo © Figue 62 (a rangement of doublet experest, The electon intensity a the sree with ‘only st 1 open. (0 The electron intensy atthe screen th only lt 2 open GD The sum et the fntensites of ©) and (. (The stale atthe sren wth shits and 2 both open. The wave fence and Ws add to produce the Ines at he screen, notte probably destes MP snd IP 16"