Generalized Sagdeev approach to nonlinear plasma excitations

M. Akbari-Moghanjoughi

Citation: Physics of Plasmas 24, 022311 (2017); doi: 10.1063/1.4977527

View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4977527
View Table of Contents: http://aip.scitation.org/toc/php/24/2
Published by the American Institute of Physics

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 PHYSICS OF PLASMAS 24, 022311 (2017)

Generalized Sagdeev approach to nonlinear plasma excitations

M. Akbari-Moghanjoughi
Department of Physics, Faculty of Sciences, Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University, 51745-406 Tabriz, Iran

(Received 20 January 2017; accepted 14 February 2017; published online 28 February 2017)
In this work, we extend the Sagdeev pseudopotential approach by introducing the generalized
potential, which is used for the investigation of nonlinear periodic, solitary, as well as double
layer excitations in plasmas. Particularly in the framework of the generalized potential, the
nonlinear excitations are investigated based on their total Sagdeev pseudoenergy. In this
framework, conventional solitons are categorized as species with zero Sagdeev energy. A new
type of positive energy solitons with subsonic Mach numbers is found. It is remarked that
positive energy solitons do not obey the standard behavior of KdV solitons. Different types of
nonlinear excitations are characterized in terms of their Sagdeev energy, and the parametric
regions in which they exist are studied in detail. The nonlinear periodic waves are found to be
either negative or positive energy type, characteristics of which are found to be quite different. A
small amplitude theory of Sagdeev cnoidal waves is developed, which can be used to investigate
the low energy waves with Mach numbers close to the critical one. Using the new concept of
Sagdeev energy, we study different properties of large amplitude positive and negative energy
nonlinear periodic waves in a plasma with arbitrary degree of electron degeneracy ranging from
dilute classical up to the completely degenerate plasmas. Published by AIP Publishing.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4977527]

The study of the nonlinear excitations is fundamental develop a small amplitude theory for nonlinear periodic
to many branches of science and engineering. Due to com- cnoidal waves. We also extend the conventional Sagdeev
plex nature of electromagnetic interactions between approach, which is usually employed to study the large
charged species and delicate interplay between the disper- amplitude solitary waves, to other types of nonlinear
sion and nonlinearity plasmas, it can accommodate a great excitations with the finite Sagdeev energy. We find that
variety of nonlinear structures such as periodic, cnoidal, finite energy excitations are possible theoretically and
shocks, soliton, and double layers.1,2 The study of the non- that nonlinear excitations can be either negative or posi-
linear behavior of ionized environments, their instabilities, tive energy types with a completely different behavior.
and optical and electrostatic responses has been one of the Particularly, we find solitons with positive and negative
main interests of plasma scientists. The small amplitude energy.
nonlinear response of plasma is usually studied via the Here for our demonstration purpose, we consider a sim-
reductive perturbation methods. In fact, the latter method ple one dimensional hydrodynamic model for the electron-
has become one of the effective tools in the study of nonlin- ion plasma, which follows as
ear plasma waves and their interactions.3–5 However, there
are more rigorous approaches such as the Sagdeev pseudo- @ni @ni ui
þ ¼ 0; (1a)
potential method to tackle finite amplitude perturbation @t @x
phenomena.6,7 The pseudopotential method as a very pow- @ui @ui e @/ 1 @Pi
erful approach has been extensively used in the past to þ ui ¼  ; (1b)
@t @x mi @x mi ni @x
study the solitary waves and sheath structures in plas-
mas.8–20 Solitons are very important nonlinear excitation e @/ 1 @Pe
0¼  ; (1c)
with diverse applications in nonlinear optics and communi- mi @x mi ne @x
cation technology. For the first time, two scientists named @2/
Norman Zabusky from the Bell lab and Martin Kruskal ¼ 4peðne  ni Þ; (1d)
@x2
from Princeton University computationally studied the
behavior of these waves in dispersive and nonlinear media where ui, ni, ne, Pi, and Pe denote ion fluid velocity,
using the finite difference method, showing their unique ion number density, electron number density, ion fluid
features including the noninteracting behavior during their pressure, and electron fluid pressure, respectively, and /
collisions.21 Their work also explained the earlier problem is the electrostatic potential. In order to be as general as
posed by Fermi, Pasta, and Ulam. possible, we consider an arbitrary degenerate isothermal
In this work, we study the propagation of nonlinear electron fluid, which correctly reduces to the equation
excitations in a model electron-ion plasma with arbitrary of state (EoS) of classical and fully degenerate limits
degree of electron degeneracy ranging from dilute classi- in appropriate regimes. The generalized equation of
cal up to the completely degenerate regime. Here, we state is19,20,22

1070-664X/2017/24(2)/022311/10/$30.00 24, 022311-1 Published by AIP Publishing.

022311-2 M. Akbari-Moghanjoughi Phys. Plasmas 24, 022311 (2017)

ð ½exp ðgÞ=Li3=2 ½exp ðg0 Þ with g0 ¼ be le0 being the equi-

21=2 me3=2 1 E 1=2 dE
ne ðle ; Te Þ ¼ ; librium value of g. The plasma parameters are scaled as
p2 h3 0 ebe ðEle Þ þ 1 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ð n ¼ ni =ni0 ; u ¼ u=cs (cs ¼ kB Te =mi is the ion sound
23=2 me3=2 1 E 3=2 dE speed) and / ¼ e/=kB Te , where the quasineutrality ne0 ’ ni0
Pe ðle ; Te Þ ¼ ; (2)
3p2 h3 0 ebe ðEle Þ þ 1 assumption is used. The space and time parameters are then
normalized to the ion Debye sphere radius and the inverse ion
where le is the electron fluid chemical potential, be ¼ 1/kBTe,
plasma frequency, respectively.
and me and  h are the electron mass and reduced Planck con-
In order to study the nonlinear waves in plasma, we
stant, respectively. Eq. (2) is usually represented in terms of
change to the reduced stationary frame n ¼ x – Mt in which
polylog functions as19
M is the Mach number of the waves moving with the frame.
ne ¼ Ne0 Li3=2 ½exp ðbe le Þ; Applying this transformation to Eqs. (4) and combining Eqs.
(4a) and (4b) after an integration with appropriate boundary
Pe ¼ Ne0 kB Te Li5=2 ½exp ðbe le Þ; (3)
conditions, we find
 
where Ne0 ¼ 2ð2pkB Te me =h2 Þ3=2 and ne0 ¼ Ne0 Li3=2 M2 1 3r
½exp ðbe le0 Þ is the equilibrium number density of the elec- / þ C1 ¼ 1  2 þ ð1  n2 Þ; (5)
2 n 2
tron fluid and le0 is its equilibrium chemical potential.
Therefore, one obtains the standard definition for EoS as in which C1 is the integration constant. Moreover, from Eq.
ne ¼ @Pe =@le , which is an isothermal EoS. This EoS may be (4c), we arrive at / þ C2 ¼ g in which C2 is also an integra-
compared to the one appropriate for the fast adiabatic pro- tion constant. Without loss of generality, the integration con-
cesses like in Langmuir oscillations given in Ref. 23. On the stants may be set to zero via so-called Galilean
other hand, ion fluid is defined through the adiabatic EoS transformation,20 since they only introduce a shift in the
with the pressure Pi ¼ kB Ti ni0 ðni =ni0 Þ3 with ni0 being the electrostatic potential value, hence C1 ¼ C2 ¼ 0. Poisson’s
equilibrium ion number density and Ti being the ion temper- equation then can be transformed into the most general
ature. The normalized set of hydrodynamic equations is as energy equation of the form ð1=2Þðd/=dnÞ2 þ Vð/Þ ¼ E0
follows: which may be compared to the more general energy conser-
vation relation ðm=2Þðdx=dtÞ2 þ VðxÞ ¼ E0 . In our case,
@n @nu Vð/Þ is called the Sagdeev potential and plays an analogous
þ ¼ 0; (4a)
@t @x role to the mechanical potential in a physical problem and
@u @u @/ @n ð1=2Þðd/=dnÞ2 plays the role of kinetic energy of the unit
þu ¼  3rn ; (4b) mass particle. The constant E0 also plays the role of total
@t @x @x @x
energy of the particle in the potential. Hence, the energy-like
@/ @g le equation here is completely equivalent to the problem of an
0¼  ; g¼ ; (4c)
@x @x kB Te imaginary particle in the potential. The potential shape Vð/Þ
@2/ can be adjusted so that Vð0Þ ¼ V 0 ð0Þ ¼ 0 without loss of
¼ ne  n; (4d) generality again, where V 0 ð0Þ is the value of dVð/Þ=d/ at
@x2
/ ¼ 0. The latter adjustment possibility is due to the arbi-
where g is the reduced electron fluid chemical potential, trary choice of the V–/ coordinate center. The Sagdeev
r ¼ Ti/Te is the fractional plasma temperature, and ne ¼ Li3=2 potential satisfying the latter requirement is

 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi1=2
pffiffiffiffiffiffi 2 2
V ð/Þ ¼ M þ r  6rM M þ 3r  2/  M4 þ ð3r  2/Þ2  2M2 ð3r þ 2/Þ
2

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi3=2
6=r
 M2 þ 3r  2/  M4 þ ð3r  2/Þ2  2M2 ð3r þ 2/Þ
36
 
þ Li5=2 ½expðg0 Þ  Li5=2 ½expðg0 þ /Þ =Li3=2 ½expðg0 Þ: (6)

Ð
The integral n ¼ ½E0  Vð/Þ1=2 d/ has real solution Vð0Þ ¼ V 0 ð0Þ ¼ 0. The three roots of the Uð/Þ ¼ 0 in the
only for the case E0  Vð/Þ, i.e., for the reduced Sagdeev small-amplitude limit are
potential Uð/Þ ¼ Vð/Þ  E0 < 0. Let us first consider
the small amplitude solution to the problem, which leads T 2 þ V0002 þ TV000
/i ¼  ;
to the KdV cnoidal waves as follows. To this end, we TV0000
h pffiffiffi
pffiffiffi
i
Taylor expand the Sagdeev potential around the point
16i 3 T 2 þ 17i 3 V0002  2TV000
/ ¼ 0 to get Vð/Þ ¼ ð1=2ÞV 00 ð0Þ/2 þ ð1=6ÞV 000 ð0Þ/3 where /j;k ¼ ; (7)
we have ignored the term higher than Oð/3 Þ and used 2TV0000
022311-3 M. Akbari-Moghanjoughi Phys. Plasmas 24, 022311 (2017)

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
where 2= V000 so that A  L2 ¼ 12=V0000 ¼ constant, as known
 from the KdV theory.5 It is obvious that for soliton solution
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi1=3 Eq. (13), it is required that V000 < 0. Also note that in the
T¼ V0003  3E0 V00002 þ V0000 3E0 ðE0 V00002  2V0003 Þ : (8) limit /1 ¼ /2 we have k ¼ 1 and K(0) ¼ 1, hence the period
of oscillations becomes infinite s ¼ 1, which is correct
The second and third derivative values of the Sagdeev poten- for solitary waves. In the other limit as /1 ¼ 0 and /2 ’ /3 ,
tial are given as we have k ’ 0, and using the limiting property cnðx; 0Þ
  ¼ cosðxÞ, the solution reduces to the linear wave with
1 Li1=2 ½expðg0 Þ
00
V0 ¼  ; K(0) ¼ p/2 and the
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi period of oscillations s ¼ ðp=2Þ=
M2  3r Li3=2 ½expðg0 Þ V0000 ð/3  /1 Þ=12. It is seen that for values of the Mach
3ðM2 þ rÞ Li1=2 ½expðg0 Þ number M > M1, there are no small amplitude periodic or
V0000 ¼  : (9) cnoidal waves, since the solution of Eq. (10) will not be peri-
ðM2  3rÞ3 Li3=2 ½expðg0 Þ
odic for V0000 < 0. However, as will be seen in the following,
Note that for E0 ¼ 0 (the standard zero energy solitons) we the large amplitude nonlinear periodic waves still exist. The
have /i ¼ 3V000 =V0000 and /j ¼ /k ¼ 0 as a special case. non-periodic solutions for V0000 < 0 of Eq. (10) are as follows:
Now let us transform the generalized energy equation into
the form /ðnÞ ¼ /2 þ ð/3  /2 Þcn2
" rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi #
 2 jV0000 jð/3  /1 Þ ð/3  /2 Þ
1 d/ V 000  i n; : (14)
¼  0 ð/  /1 Þð/  /2 Þð/  /3 Þ: (10) 12 ð/3  /1 Þ
2 dn 6
Note that for ordinary zero energy solitons, the second
We will limit the solution to Eq. (10) with the root ordering
derivative value is always negative, that is, the value of their
/1  /2  /3 and /2  /  /3 (where Vð/Þ  E0 ) with
Mach number is larger than a critical value given below
all roots being real. The general solution to Eq. (10) can be
written in the following form: sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Li3=2 ½expðg0 Þ
"rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi # Mcr ¼ 3r þ : (15)
V0000 ð/3  /1 Þ ð/3  /2 Þ Li1=2 ½expðg0 Þ
2
/ðnÞ ¼ /2 þ ð/3  /2 Þcn n; ;
12 ð/3  /1 Þ
In Fig. 1(a), we have shown the small amplitude (cnoidal)
(11) solutions of the Sagdeev potential in the classical dilute
plasma with g0 ¼ 20  0, cold ion r ¼ 0, and very close to
which is called the cnoidal solution with the integral form of
the critical Mach number value Mcr ¼ 1. Note that only in the
cn(x, k) given as
limit M ’ Mcr , the small amplitude presented above is valid.
ðy qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Two values of the positive energy E0 > 0 with very small dif-
dt
x ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffipffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; y ¼ 1  cn2 ðx; kÞ: (12) ferences are used. As remarked, the cnoidal wave profiles are
0 1  t2 1  kt2
significantly different. The corresponding Sagdeev potential
Equation (11) represents a nonlinear wave with the ampli- for E0 ¼ 106 is given in Fig. 1(b) using the exact potential
tude A ¼ /3  /2 and the period of oscillations s ¼ KðkÞ= (solid curve) given by Eq. (6) and the small amplitude
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi expanded third order potential (dashed profile). The three real
V0000 ð/3  /1 Þ=12 with k ¼ ð/3  /2 Þ=ð/3  /1 Þ and K(k)
being the complete elliptic integral of the first kind. It is roots along with the two extrema of the profile are also
noted that at the cnoidal critical point V0000 ¼ 0, the wave- shown. It is observed that the amplitude of the oscillation
length of nonlinear waves approaches infinity. The corre- /2  /  /3 in Fig. 1(a) is in agreement with the turning
sponding value for dilute classical plasmas with cold ion points of the potential in Fig. 1(b). Note that in Fig. 1(b), we
coincides with the Mach number value of M1 ’ 1.316. have plotted the reduced potential Uð/Þ ¼ Vð/Þ  E0 . Figure
Note also that if we consider the root ordering /1  /2 1(c) shows the Sagdeev potential profiles for two different
 /3 in order to be consistent with the cnoidal solution in values of the Mach numbers M < Mcr and M > Mcr. These
Eq. (11), then for the case of zero energy solitons, E0 ¼ 0, two profiles differ in the sign of V000 , where for M < Mcr we
we have /1 ¼ /2 ¼ 0 and /3 ¼ 3V000 =V0000 > 0 (since we have V000 > 0 (solid profile) and M > Mcr for which V000 < 0
have V000 =V0000 < 0 as it is the case for ordinary compressive (dashed profile). For the latter case, the propagation of a soli-
tary wave becomes possible. Note that for existence of soli-
solitary waves). Then from Eq. (11), we find using the limit
tary or periodic waves, one must have three real roots for a
property cnðx; 1Þ ¼ sech ðxÞ, a small amplitude soliton solu-
given value of E0. Three different scenarios exist, which are
tion in the KdV limit as24
shown in Fig. 1(c). It is observed that for M < Mcr or V000 > 0,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 
3V000 V000 the energy must be positive valued 0 < E0 < Vmax in order
2
/ðnÞ ¼  000 sech n ; (13) to give rise to three distinct real roots. It should be noted
V0 2
that Vmax indicates the maximum value of E0 for which
which is the exact solution of the small-amplitude energy the reduced potential Uð/Þ ¼ Vð/Þ  E0 has three distinct
equation with E0 ¼ 0 and the amplitude and the width of roots. It is also noted that for the latter case, we always have
zero energy solitons are given as A ¼ 3V000 =V0000 and L / /1 < /2 < 0 and /3 > 0. Since E0 > 0 in this Mach number
022311-4 M. Akbari-Moghanjoughi Phys. Plasmas 24, 022311 (2017)

FIG. 1. (a) The positive energy cnoidal nonlinear periodic waves for different values of energy E0. (b) The reduced Sagdeev potential Uð/Þ ¼ Vð/Þ  E0 pro-
file in the small amplitude limit M ’ Mcr. (c) The Segdeev potential for two different cases of M < Mcr and M > Mcr and possibility of the propagation of soli-
tary, positive, and negative energy nonlinear periodic excitations. (d) Regions of existence for different nonlinear plasma excitations in the M-g0 plane from
dilute classical (g0  0) up to the completely degenerate (g0  0) plasma regimes.

range M < Mcr, we will refer to these nonlinear periodic
waves as positive energy periodic waves. On the other hand,
for M > Mcr or V000 < 0, there are two distinct cases as follows.
The first case corresponds to E0 ¼ 0 for which /1 ¼ /2 ¼ 0
and /3 ¼ /max as indicated in Fig. 1(c). This is the special
case of a solitary wave, which was discussed previously in
the small amplitude limit for cnoidal waves. Therefore, a
solitary wave may be regarded as a zero energy nonlinear
perturbation. The second case associated with M > Mcr is
for 0 > E0 > Vmin, for which we always have /1 < 0 and
/3 > /2 > 0. Note that Vmin indicates the maximum E0 value
for which there are three distinct roots for the reduced poten-
tial Uð/Þ ¼ Vð/Þ  E0 . The nonlinear periodic waves for this
Mach number range are referred to as the negative energy
nonlinear periodic wave. Figure 1(d) shows the region of exis-
tence of periodic and solitary waves’ nonlinear structures in
the M-g0 plane. The regimes g0  0 and g0  0 correspond
to the plasmas with dilute classical and fully degenerate elec-
tron gases, respectively. Three distinct regions are apparent in
this plot. The region (1) for which M < Mcr and V000 > 0 in
which only positive energy (E0 > 0) nonlinear periodic waves
can propagate. The shaded region (2) with M > Mcr and
V000 < 0, on the other hand, accommodates both (zero energy
E0 ¼ 0) solitary waves and negative energy E0 < 0 nonlinear
periodic waves. Finally, in the region (3) with M > Mcr and
V000 < 0, propagation of solitary waves is not allowed, but neg-
ative energy nonlinear periodic waves can propagate. The bor-
der between the regions (2) and (3) corresponds to the
022311-5 M. Akbari-Moghanjoughi Phys. Plasmas 24, 022311 (2017)

parametric values of M, g0, and r, which make the
electrostatic potential
pffiffiffiffiffiffi value in Eq. (5) imaginary, i.e.,
/ > ðM2  2M 3r þ 3rÞ=2. The latter condition sets strict
limitations on the existence of the double layer in the
plasmas.
In Fig. 2, we have shown the phase space plots corre-
sponding to nonlinear excitations in different regions shown
in Fig. 1(d). Figure 2(a) shows the phase plot positive energy
periodic waves in region (1). The turning points are shown
as /2 and /3 . The profile with the lowest amplitude A ¼ /3
/2 corresponds to the small amplitude cnoidal wave limit.
It is remarked that with the increase in the ion acoustic Mach
number, the amplitude of the waves increases and the phase
plot profile develops into an oval shaped profile. The imagi-
nary unit mass particle trapped in the reduced Sagdeev
potential tracks the circumference of this oval profile as the
imaginary time n passes. However, the maximum value of
the imaginary velocity d/=dn (at the unstable equilibrium
point / ¼ 0) does not depend on the value of the Mach
number, but it depends on the value of energy E0 of the
imaginary particle instead. Figure 2(b) shows the solitary
wave phase plot profiles (/1 ¼ /2 ¼ 0) for different plasma
parameters. It is noticed that the point d/=dn ¼ / ¼ 0 is
the stable equilibrium point, which characterizes a solitary

FIG. 2. (a) The phase space plot for the positive energy nonlinear periodic waves in region (1) of Fig. 1(d) for different values of the Mach number. (b) The
phase space plot for the positive energy nonlinear solitary waves in region (2) of Fig. 1(d) for different values of the Mach number. (c) The phase space plot
for the negative energy nonlinear periodic waves in region (2) of Fig. 1(d) for different values of the Mach number. (d) The phase space plot for the negative
energy nonlinear periodic waves in region (3) of Fig. 1(d) for different values of the Mach number. The increase in the thickness of the curves indicates the
increase in the varied parameter value above each panel.
022311-6 M. Akbari-Moghanjoughi Phys. Plasmas 24, 022311 (2017)

excitation in a plasma in the region (2) with M > Mcr. It is
also noted that the increase in the Mach number of the soli-
ton increases the amplitude A ¼ /max . Note also that the
point / ¼ /max 6¼ 0 with d/=dn ¼ 0 is an unstable equilib-
rium (the only turning point) for the analogous particle. The
small amplitude soliton in this plot represents the KdV soli-
ton with the solution presented by Eq. (13). Figure 2(c)
presents the negative energy (E0 < 0) nonlinear periodic
wave phase profiles in region (2) for different plasma param-
eters. The smallest oval shaped profile corresponds to the
quasi periodic oscillations in the plasma at the bottom of the
Sagdeev potential well Vð/Þ. It is seen that as the Mach
number is increased, the amplitude of oscillations also
increases for these nonlinear excitations. However, unlike
the case for positive energy periodic waves in Fig. 2(a) for
negative energy waves, an equilibrium particle speed does
sensitively depend on the value of the Mach number. The lat-
ter may be considered as a fundamental difference between
the negative and positive energy nonlinear periodic excita-
tions in a plasma. Finally, we depict the phase space plots of
nonlinear excitations in region (3) with M > Mcr in Fig. 2(d).
It seems that no zero energy (E0 ¼ 0) solitary excitation can
exist in this region. This is only true if the plasma does not
accommodate the double layer excitations as will be dis-
cussed below. However, we find that nonlinear periodic
waves with negative energy (E0 < 0) can exist in this region.

FIG. 3. (a) Large amplitude positive energy (E0 > 0) nonlinear periodic excitation in region (1) of Fig. 1(d) for given plasma parameters. (b) Large amplitude
solitary wave in the parametric region (2) of Fig. 1(d) for given plasma parameters. (a) Large amplitude negative energy (E0 < 0) nonlinear periodic excitation
in region (2) of Fig. 1(d) for given plasma parameters. (a) Large amplitude negative energy (E0 < 0) nonlinear periodic excitation in region (2) of Fig. 1(d) for
given plasma parameters. The value of g0 ¼ 20 has been used for all plots.
022311-7 M. Akbari-Moghanjoughi Phys. Plasmas 24, 022311 (2017)

These negative energy periodic waves are characterized by
high values of the ion acoustic speeds and correspond to
very high values of electrostatic potentials compared to the
others discussed previously. For these nonlinear excitations,
it is also seen that both the amplitude of oscillations and
equilibrium particle speeds increase with the increase in the
Mach number.
Figure 3 shows the nonlinear oscillation profiles corre-
sponding to different Mach number regions shown in Fig.
1(d) in the classical dilute regime g0 ¼ 20  0. We show
the positive energy nonlinear periodic excitations in Fig. 3(a)
for given cold-ion (r ¼ 0) plasma parameters. The wave
profile is quite similar to the one depicted in Fig. 1(a).
However, these oscillations are large amplitude periodic
oscillations with positive energy with an amplitude as large
as A ’ 2.5. The large amplitude solitary wave is shown in
Fig. 3(b) which corresponds to region (2). Figure 3(c) shows
the profile for negative energy nonlinear wave in region (2)
with an overcritical Mach number value. It is seen that the
negative energy nonlinear periodic wave in this region has
relatively lower/higher wavelength/frequency compared to
that of a positive energy periodic wave in region (1).
However, while the Mach number for periodic waves is
higher for periodic waves in region (2) compared to those in

FIG. 4. (a) Large amplitude positive energy (E0 > 0) nonlinear periodic excitation in region (1) of Fig. 1(d) for given plasma parameters. (b) Large amplitude
solitary wave in the parametric region (2) of Fig. 1(d) for given plasma parameters. (a) Large amplitude negative energy (E0 < 0) nonlinear periodic excitation
in region (2) of Fig. 1(d) for given plasma parameters. (a) Large amplitude negative energy (E0 < 0) nonlinear periodic excitation in region (2) of Fig. 1(d) for
given plasma parameters. The value of g0 ¼ þ20 has been used for all plots.
022311-8 M. Akbari-Moghanjoughi Phys. Plasmas 24, 022311 (2017)

FIG. 5. (a) Sagdeev potential and (b) phase space plot of the new type of positive energy soliton. The increase in the thickness of the curves indicates the
increase in the varied parameter value above each panel.

region (1), their amplitude is lower. The latter is opposite to potential shown in Fig. 5(b) shows the stable equilibrium
the characteristic of a solitary wave in which the higher the point and a returning point required for the soliton.
Mach number, the higher will be the amplitude of the wave. However, the fundamental difference of the ordinary soliton
Finally, we consider the large amplitude negative energy with that of the positive energy is that for ordinary soliton,
nonlinear periodic wave in region (3) with highest values of only full compression or rarefaction is possible, while posi-
the Mach numbers. It is remarked that the amplitude has tive energy can be partly rarefactive and partly compressive.
decreased and the frequency/amplitude increased/decreased. It is remarked from Fig. 5(b) that the increase in the Mach
We conclude that positive energy nonlinear periodic plasma number also leads to decrease in the equilibrium velocity of
excitations are generally characterized by larger wave ampli- the analogous particle. Figure 6 shows the positive energy
tudes and lower Mach numbers. solitary excitations for profiles shown in Fig. 5, which are
The large amplitude nonlinear excitation profiles in a obviously much different from that shown in Fig. 3(b). It is
dense plasma regime with g0 ¼ þ20 are shown in Fig. 4. observed that the positive energy solitons are partly
Figure 4(a) shows the positive energy periodic oscillations in
region (1) of Fig. 1(d), which may be compared to its classi-
cal counterpart shown in Fig. 3(a). It can be seen that in
dense plasmas, positive energy periodic nonlinear waves
have relatively higher amplitude and energy (E0) than those
of classical ones. It is also remarked from Fig. 4(b) that soli-
tary waves’ amplitude and width for dense plasma are also
larger compared to that of the classical one shown in Fig.
3(b). The negative energy periodic nonlinear waves in region
(2) for the dense plasma regime also have the same charac-
teristic compared to its classical partner of Fig. 3(c).
However, the negative energy nonlinear periodic oscillations
for the dense plasma regime shown in Fig. 4(d) can have
much lower energy compared to their classical version
shown in Fig. 3(d), while at the same time their amplitude
and wavelengths can be very higher.
In Fig. 5, we observe that a solitary wave with positive
energy is also possible. This becomes evident if we closely
inspect the Sagdeev potential in Fig. 5(a). It is observed that
for E0 ¼ Vmax > 0 the condition of solitary wave propagation
is met where /1 ¼ /2 < 0 and /3 > 0. It is seen that the
increase in the Mach number for positive energy solitons
FIG. 6. Profile of a positive energy solitary wave in region (1). The increase
unlike the ordinary solitons leads to decrease in the ampli- in the thickness of the curves indicates the increase in the varied parameter
tude. Also, the phase space plot corresponding to this value above each panel.
022311-9 M. Akbari-Moghanjoughi Phys. Plasmas 24, 022311 (2017)

FIG. 7. (a) Comparison between the Sagdeev potential profiles of the nonlinear periodic, solitary, and double layer plasma excitations. (b) Comparison between
the phase space profiles of the nonlinear periodic, solitary, and double layer plasma excitations. These plots have been produced as a demonstration purpose
and are applicable only for comparison of different nonlinear wave profiles in any given plasma.

rarefactive and partly compressive and are subsonic in In conclusion, we have developed a generalized reduced
nature. They also show contradiction with the usual theory Sagdeev potential method for the examination of different
of KdV soliton with their amplitude increasing with the kinds of nonlinear excitations in plasmas. We also developed
Mach number values. the small amplitude theory for the propagation of cnoidal
We would like to consider the profiles of a double layer waves in plasmas based on the Sagdeev potential approach.
excitation as a demonstration for pedagogical purpose. In Fig. It is found that both positive and negative energy periodic
7, we have shown the Sagdeev potential and the correspond- nonlinear waves can propagate in the plasma and there are
ing phase space plots for cases in which all three kinds of no Mach number limitations to those waves unlike solitary
excitations, namely, nonlinear periodic, solitary, and double excitation. The ordinary solitary wave solution to the gener-
layer excitations exist. Figure 7(a) shows that compared to the alized Sagdeev potential is the limiting case E0 ¼ 0 of the
potential of a solitary excitation, the double layer has two sta-
ble equilibrium positions, shown by an arrow in the plot. In
the case shown in Fig. 7(a), however, there can be at most
four distinct real roots for the reduced Sagdeev potential
and therefore the characteristic of nonlinear periodic excita-
tions in such plasma systems can be quite different from
those previously discussed cases with only three real roots.
This is because the oscillation characteristics of the periodic
wave not only depend on the position of /2 and /3 between
which the oscillation takes place but also depends strongly on
the position of the other root /1 (/4 ). The investigation on
the latter point is out of the scope of current research and may
be accomplished in a future work. Figure 7(b) shows the
phase space plots corresponding to the potential profiles
shown in Fig. 7(a). A difference in profiles for periodic, soli-
tary, and double layer excitations is clearly observed in this
plot. Finally, a large amplitude double layer wave profile cor-
responding to the parameters in Fig. 7(a) is given in Fig. 8,
which evidently indicates the existence of double stable equi-
librium points in these excitations. An important point to note
is that if there is a possibility for plasma double layer such as
FIG. 8. The large amplitude double layer excitation profile for the potential
shown in Fig. 7, then negative energy solitons with a very
shown in Fig. 7(a). This plot has been produced as a demonstration purpose
high Mach number value in region (3) would be also possible and is applicable only for comparison of different nonlinear wave profiles in
(e.g., see the blue arrow in online version in Fig. 7). any given plasma.
022311-10 M. Akbari-Moghanjoughi Phys. Plasmas 24, 022311 (2017)

6
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