—

T W ENT IET H CENT U RY T EXT BO O KS

E D IT E D BY

A F N IG H T IN G A L E , P H D
. . . .

s u r n a m rz u n nu r o r m e n s c n o o w c m ca co
‘

AND

C H A R LES H . T H UR BER , A M . .

A SSOC I A T E P R O F E SSO R O P P E D A G O GY IN T H E UN l V BRS lT Y

OF C H ICA GO
 T W ENT IET H CENT UR Y T EXT- BO O KS

P L A NT S
—
A T EXT BO O K O F BO T A N Y

BY

j O H N M . CO ULT E R, A M . .
, PH D
. .

H EAD O F D E P A R T M E NT OF O
B T AN Y
U N I VE R SIT Y O F C H IC AG O

NEW Y O RK
D. A PPL ET O N A ND CO M PA NY
1 90 1
 C o pm ‘
o n r, 1 89 9

BY D . AP P L E T O N A N D C O MP A N Y
 P L A N T S '

—
A T E X T BO O K o r BO T A N Y

P R E F A TO R Y N O TE

A L TH O U G H P l t R l ti and P l t St t an h e e a on s an ru c u res av

been prep r ed independent vol me chiefly to meet t h

a as u s, e

need of tho e chool which can give b t one h lf yea to

s s s s u a r

Botany they for m together a nat ral introd ction t o the

,
u u

science W ith thi in view the i m ple title P l t eem

. s , s an s s s

su itable with the nde tanding that thi vol m e i an

, u rs s u s

introd ctio to the t dy of plant

u n s u s .

E ither part o f thi co mbi ed vol m e m y be ed fi t

s n u a us rs ,

a cording to the view or need of the teacher In many

c s s .

c e it m y be wi e not to ob e e the order of the book

as s a s s rv ,

b t to organize laboratory work

u ee m be t and to a ign as s s s , ss

the appropriate reading wherever they m y occ r in the s a u

vol m e The a thor i a tickler for indep nde t te hing

u . u s s e n ac ,

and wo ld not pre m e to pre cribe an order or a m ethod

u su s

for teacher H i p rpo e i i m ply to o ff er tho e fact and

s . s u s s s s s

su gge tion which m y be helpf l to the m in organi ing

s s a u z

and pre enting their work H e wo ld ge that intelligent

s . u ur

contact with plant i the e ential thing ; that a clear s s ss

u nder tanding of a few large fact i better than the ll

s s s co ec

tion of n m ero mall one ; and that getti g th o gh

u us s s n r u

sho ld never acrifice the lei re needed for dige tion

u s su s .

The two part of thi work are indexed eparately and

s s s ,

reference to indexe sto be made at t h end of each part

s are e .

JO H N M . CO U L TE R .

T u n U m vnnsrrv or 03 1 011 0 0, N ovember , 1 8 9 9 .

 TW ENT IET H CE NT UR Y T E XT BO O KS -

PL A NT R EL AT O NS
A F IRST BO O K O F BO TANY

BY

JO H N M . CO ULT E R , A M . .
, PH D
. .

HE AD PR OF O
E SS R OF B O T ANY
U N I V E R SI T Y O F C H IC AG O

S E CO N D E D I TI O N R E VI S E D

NE W YO R K
D . A P P L ET O N A N D CO M P A NY
1 90 1
 P R E F A CE .

ethod of te hing botany in e ondary chool

TH E m s ac s c s s

are very diver e d in far they expre the experience

s , an so as ss

o f succe f l tea her they are worthy of caref l con i d era

ss u c s, u s

tion A the over whel ming factor in cce f l teaching

. s su ss u

i the teacher m ethod are of econdary i mportance and

s , s s ,

m y well vary
a It i the p rpo e of the pre ent work to
. s u s s

contri b te another gge tion to the method o f teach

u su s as

ing botany in econdary chool The thor doe not s s s

. au s

intend to c itici e other m ethod of teaching for each

r s s ,

te her h h i own be t m ethod b t it m y b e wel l to

ac as s s , u a

s tate the principle which nderlie the preparatio of thi s u n s

work .

The bo t any i divided into two part ea h repre enting

s s, c s

work for half a year The two book are i dependent . s n ,

and opinion m y d iff er to which ho ld precede The

s a as s u .

fir t book herewith pre ented i d om inated by E cology

s , s , s ,

and al o contain certain f ndam ntal of P hy iology that

s s u e s s

are nat rally gge ted T h econd book will be domi

u su s . e s

na et d by M orphology b t plant tr ct re f nction and , u s u u ,

u ,

cla ification will be d evelo p d together in an attempt to

ss e

trace the evol tion of t h plant kingdo m In the j dg

u e . u

m ent of the a thor E cology ho ld prece d e M orphology

u s u ,

b t thi order b ring to E cology no knowledge of plant

u s s

s tr ct re and plant gro p which i of co r e f t

u u s u s, s u s u n or u

nat e Th advan t ge which eem to overbalance thi d i

. e a s s s s

a dvant ge are follow

a as s

1 The . t dy of the m o t evide t life relation of

s u s n -
s

plant give a proper conception of the pla of plant i

s s ce s n
F
F
vi P R E F A CE .

nat re a fitting backgro nd for b eq ent more detailed

u ,
u su s u

t die
s u s
.

2 S ch a view of the plant kingdo m i certainly of the

. u s

m o t per manent val e to tho e who can gi

s b t a hal f u s ve u

year to botany for the large problem of E cology are con

, s

t
s an t ly pre ented i u b eq en t experience when detail
s n s s u , s

of tr ct re wo ld be forgotten
s u u u .

3 The work in E cology herein

. gge ted de m and lit su s s

tle or no of the c m po nd m icro cope an in tr m ent

u se o u s , s u

ill adapted to fir t contact with nat re s s u .

The econd b ook will de mand the

s of t h co mpo nd u se e u

m icro cope and tho e chool which po e

s , ch an e q ip s s s ss ss su u

ment m y prefer to a that part fir t or excl ively u se s us .

In reference to the of thi part om ething ho ld u se s s s u

be ai d altho gh ch ca tion are reit rated in al mo t

s , u su u s e s

every recent p blication A e parat pam phlet containing

u . s e

S gge tion to Teacher who thi b ook h been ”

u s s s u se s as

prepared b t a few general tate m ent m y be m ad e here

, u s s a .

Thi book i intended to pre ent a connected read able

s s s ,

acco nt of om e of the f n d am ental fact of botany and

u s u s ,

m y erve to give certain am o nt of inform ation

a s aIf it u .

perform no other ervice in the chool however it p

s s s s, , s ur

po e will b defeated It i e tirely too compact for any

s e . s n

su ch for great bject which ho ld involve a large

u se , su s, s u

am o n t of ob ervation are often m erely gg ted It i

u s , su es . s

intended to erve a pple ment to thre far m ore im

s as su e

portant factor ( 1 ) th t h who m t amplify and s : e ea c e r , us

su gge t at every point ; ( 2 ) th l b t y which m t

s e a or a or , us

bring the p pil face to face with plant and their tr

u s s ue

t re ; ( 3) fi ld w k which m t relate the fact o b erve d

u s e -
or , us s s

in t h laboratory to their act al place in nat re d m t

e u u , an us

bri g new fact to notice which can b e o b erved nowhere

n s s

el e Taking the re lt obtained fro m the e three fac

s . su s s

tor the b ook e k to organize the m d to gge t

s, s e s , an su s

explanation I t e k to do thi in two way ( 1 ) by

s . s e s s s :

mea h xt which i in ended to be clear and

f t
ns o t t e e , s nu
 P R E F A CE . v ii

technical b t compact ( 2 ) by m
, u f t he i ll t t i ea n s o u s ra on s ,

which m t be t died us caref lly the t xt they are

s u as u as e , as

only econd in i m portance to the act al m at rial E pe

s u e . s

i lly i thi tr e in referenc to t h land cap

c a s s u m any o f e e s e s,

which ca not be made a part of xperience

n e .

Thank are d to vario m ember of t h botanical

s ue us s e

staff of the U niv r ity wh have b n of gr at ervic in

e s , o ee e s e

off ering gge tion su d in prepari g ill tration

s s an In n us s .

thi fir t book I wo ld e pecially acknowl d g the aid of

”
s s u s e e

P rofe or Ch rl
ss R Barn a d D H nry C C wl
es . e s an r . e . o cs .

The prof ional b otani t wh m y critically examin

e ss s o a e

thi fir t book know that E cology i till a m a of incho

s s s s s ss

ate fact concerning which we m y b e aid to be m aking

s, a s

preli minary g e It m to b tr e everthele

u e ss s . se e s e u , n ss,

that the e fact r pre ent t h th ing b t adapt d for pre

s s e s e s es e s

en at ti in ele m entary work T h a th or h b en m

on . e u as e co

p lel de to depen d pon t h writing of W ar mu ing d of e s an

K ner for thi f n d a m ental m aterial

er s From the work of
u .

the latter and fro m the recent plendid vol m e of S h im

, s u c

per m o t ef l i ll tration have been b taine d The

, s us u us s O .

n mber of ori ginal ill tra t ion i large b t tho e obtained

u us s s , u s

el ewhere are properly cre d ited

s J N M CO U L T E R . OH . .

T U
HE R Y C A O M y 1 8 99
NI V E S IT or H IC G ,
a , .

P R E F A CE TO TH E SE CO N D E DITIO N .

thi edition the fir t eleve chapter r m ain p ti

IN s s n s e rac

cally they were wi th the xc ption of ch correction

as ,
e e su s

and addition co ld be mad e pon the plate and a few

s as u u s,

change of ill tra t ion The rem aining chapter however

s us s . s, ,

dealing with pl nt ocietie are e ential ly r ca t b oth in

a s s, ss e s

text and ill tration E peciall i thi tr e of the m e o

us s . s y s s u s

phyt e and halophyte ocieti Thi h been m ade s es . s as n e ce s

sary by the recent rapid d evelo pment of the bject by a su ,

larger field experience and by t h availability of m or it ,

e e su

able il l tration
us s J M C
. . . .

T UHE C A O M y 1 9 01
NI VE R SITY or H IC G , a , .
 CO N TE N T S .

P AGI

I .
—INT RO DUc rIO N

II .
—F O L IA C E LE A VE S : TE E LI G H T -
RE LA TI O N
III .
— F O L IA S E L E A vE s : F U NCT I O N , ST R U CT U R E ,
A ND P R O T E CT I O N 28

IVfi -
SH O O TS

Vu —q
‘
ns

VI .
—R E PR OU D CT I V E O R G A Ns

V II .
—F LO W E R S A N D I N SE CT S

V I II .
-
AN I N D I VI D UA L P LA NT IN ALL OE I TS R E LA TI O NS
IX .
—T II E ST R U GG LE F OR E XISTE N CE

X .
—T H E N U T R IT I O N os P L ANTS
X L — P LA NT O
S CI E T I E S : EC O LO G IC A L F A CT O R S
XI I .
—H YD RO P H YT E O
S C IE TI E S

X II I — X E R O P II YT E
. O
S CI E TI E S

X IV .
—M E sopa E O
S CI E T I E S

IN D E x
2 P LA NT RE L A T I O N S

n mero
u are the condition of living and it m y be aid
u s as s , a s

that each ociety h it w pecial reg lation which d

s as s o n s u s, a

mit certain plant and excl de other The t dy of plan t

s u s . s u

societie to determ ine their condition of living i one of

s, s , s

the chief p rpo e of botanical field work u s s .

3 Pl t . livi g thi ga —Before engaging in a t dy

an s as n n s u

of ocietie however one m t d i cover in a general way

s s, , us s

how the i divid al plant live for the plant covering of the
n u s,

earth rface i a living one and plant m t alway be

’
s su s ,
s us s

tho gh t of living and at work They

u as m ch alive . are a s u

as are ani mal and far m ere livi g i concerned they

s, so as n s

live in m ch the am e way N m t it b e ppo ed that

u s . or us su s

ani m al m ove and plant do not for whil m ore ani m al than
s s , e s

plant have the power of m oving fro m place to plac om e

s e, s

plant have thi power and tho e that do not can m ove cer
s s , s

tain part The m ore we know of living thing the m ore i

s . s s

it evident that life proce e are alike in them all whether ss s ,

plant or ani m al In fact th re are o m e living thing

s s .
, e s s

ab o t whic h we are ncertain whether to r gard th m

u u e e as

plant or ani m al s s .

4 Th pl nt b od y
.
— E very pla t h
e aa body which m y . n as ,
a

be alike thro gho t or m y b e m ade p of a n m b er of

u u a u u

diff erent part W h n t h green thr ady plant ( lg )

s . e e e s a c
e , so

co mm on in fr h wat r are exam ined t h b ody look like

es e , , e s

a i m pl thr ad witho t any pecial part b t t h body of

s e e ,
u s s u e

a lily i mad e p of ch d i i m ilar part

s root t m
u su ss s as , s e ,

leaf and flower ( Fig 7 5 1 44 1 5 5

,
T h plant se e s .
, , ,
e

witho t th e p cial part i ai d to b i mpl t h plant

u es s e s s s e s e, e

with the m i calle d mpl The i m ple plant live in

s co ex . s s

the am e way and d o t h am e kin d of work far

s es e s , so as

living i conc rn d d o the com pl plant T h d i ff er

s e e , as es ex . e

ence i that in the ca of t h i m ple plant it whole b o d y

s se e s s

doe every ki nd of work while in the co mpl x plant

s e

di ff er nt kind of work are done by di ff e rent region of t h

e s s e

body d the e r gion com e to look nlike when d i ff er

, an s e s u

en t hape are b tt r
s it d to di ff erent work in the
s e e su e , as
 IN T RO D UCTI O N . 3

a e of a leaf and a root two region of the body doing

c s , s

diff erent kind of work s .

5 P la t .
ga n — nThe e region
or of the plant body th s s us

se t apart f pecial p rpo e are called g

or s The im
u s s or a n s . s

p l t
es of plant therefore do not
s, have d i tinct orga , s n s,

while the com plex plant m y have everal kind of organ s a s s s .

A ll plant are not either very i m pl or very co m plex b t

s s e , u

beginning wi th the im ple t plan t one m y pa to other s s s a ss s

not q ite u imple the to other m ore com plex and

so s , n s , so

on grad ally ntil the m o t complex form are reached

u u s s .

Thi proce of becom ing m ore and m ore com plex i known
s ss s

as dfi i t i ti
er en which i mply m ean t h etting apart of
a on , s s e s

diff erent region of the bo d y to do di ff erent kind of work

s s .

The ad vantage of thi to the plant b eco m plain by ing s es us

the com m on ill tration of the di ff erenc b tw n a tri b e

us e e ee

of avage and a civilized co mm nity The avage all do

s s u . s s

the am e thing and each avage do everything In the

s s, s es .

civilized co m m nity om e of the mem b er are far m er

u s s s,

other baker other tailor oth er b tcher etc Thi i

s s, s s, s u s, . s s

what i known s divi ion of lab or as d great d s ,

”
an on e a van

tage it h i that ev ry kin d of work i b etter d one D if

as s e s .

fe re n t i ti of organ in a plant m an to the plant j t

a on s e s us

what d ivi ion of labor m ean to t h co mm nity it re lt

s s e u su s

in m ore work and b etter work and new kind of work

, , s .

The very im ple plant re e mbl the avage tri b e the m

s s es s ,
co

plex plant re e m ble the ivilized comm nity It m t be

s s C u . us

u n d er tood however that in the ca e of pla t t h d i ff er

s , , s n s e

en t i tia referred to i one of organ d not of individ al

on s s an u s .

6 P la t f
. cti ns —
n W hether plant have m any organ
un o s s,

or f w organ or no organ it ho l d b e re m em b ered that

e s, s, s u

they ll at work and are all doing t h

ar e a am e ential
, e s e ss

thing Al tho gh m any di ff erent kind of work are being

s . u s

carried on by plant they m y all be p t n d er two head s, a u u s,

nu r t i ti and p d tion E v ry plant wheth r i m ple

re ro u c on . e , e s

or com plex m t care for two thing ( 1 ) it w pport

, us s s o n su

( n u triti on ) and ( )
2 the, prod ction of other plant lik u s e
4 P L A NT R E L A TI O N S .

it l f ( r prod tion) T the great work of n trition many

se e uc . o u

kind of work contrib te and the am e i tr e of repro

s u , s s u

d tion N tri tion and reprod ction however are the

uc . u u , ,

two primary kind o f work and it i intere ting to note s , s s

that the fir t advance in the di ff erentiation of a im ple

s s

plant body i to eparate the n tritive and reprod ctive

s s u u

region In the complex plant there are n tritive organ

s
. s u s

and reprod ctive organ by which i m eant that there are

u s s

di tinct organ which pecially contri b te to the work of

s s s u

n trition and other which are pecially concerned with

u , s s

t h work of reprod ction

e T h diff erent kind of work are u . e s

c onvenien tly poken of f ti o s each organ having one

s as u nc n ,

or more f nction u s
—
.

7 Life lati na I it n tritive and reprod ctive work

.
-re o n s u u

the plant i very dependent pon it rro nding It

s u s su u s
.

m t receive m aterial fro m the o t ide and get rid of wa te

us u s s

m aterial ; and it m t leave it o ff pring in favora ble us s s as

c ondition for livi ng po ible A a con eq ence every

s as ss . s s u ,

organ hold a definite relation to om ething o t ide of it

s s u s

s elf known it lif el ti

, F or exam ple green leave
as s e r
-
a on .
, s

are definitely related to light many root are related to , s

s oil ertain plant are related to ab ndant water ome

, c s u , s

plant are related to other plant or ani m al ( living

s s s as

para ite ) etc A plant with everal organ therefore

s s , . s s, ,

m y hold a great variety o f life relation and it i q ite a

a -
s, s u

c omplex pro blem for ch a plant to adj t all of it part su us s s

properly to their nece ary relation The t dy of the ss s . s u

life relation of plant i a divi ion of Botany kno wn

- s s s s as

E ology and pre ent to

c ,
m any o f the m o t i mportant
s s us s

probl m of plan t life

e s .

It m t not be ppo ed that any plant or organ hold

us su s s

a perfectly i mple li fe relation for it i aff ected by a great

s -
, s

variety of th ing A root for in tance i aff ected by light

s .
, s , s ,

g ravity m oi t re,
oil m aterial contact
s u t E very, s , , e c . or

g therefore
an , m t adj t it el f to a very
, co mplex t
us of us s se

life relat ion and a pla t with ever l organ h s many

-
s, n s a s as o
 R
I N T O D U CT I O N . 5

delicate dj t m ent to care for that it i really imp i

a us s s oss

ble yet for to explain why all of it pa t are placed

, as , us s r s

j t they are In the b eginning of the t dy of plant

us as . s u s,

only o me of the m o t prom inent f nction

s s d life rela u s an -

tion can be con idered In order t do thi it ee m bet

s s . o s, s s

t
er to b egin with i gle organ and afterward the e can
s n s, s s

be p t together in the con tr ction of the whole plant

u s u .
 CH A P T E R II .

F O L IA G E L E A V E S : TH E L I G H T R E L A T I O N -
.

8 . Defini tion —A
foliage leaf i the ordinary green leaf s ,

an d i very i mportant organ in connection with the work

s a

of n trition It m t not b e tho ght that the work done b y

u . us u
'

such a leaf cannot b e done by gr en plant which have no e s

l ave
e the alg for exam ple A leaf i i mply an
s, as ae, . s s or

gan t apart to do ch work better In t d ying the

se su . s u

work of a leaf therefore we have c rtai kind of work

, , e n s

set apart m ore di tinctly than if they were conf ed with

s us

other kind For thi rea on the l af i elected an i

s
. s s e s s as n

t d ro tiuc to o m e of the i mportant work carried on by

on s

plant b t it m t not b forgotten that a plant d oe not

s, u us e s

need leave to d thi work th y i m ply nable it to work

s o s e s e

m ore e ff ectiv ly e .

9 P o iti n —I t i ea ily ob erve d that foliag leave

. s o s s s e s

grow only pon tem and that t h t m which b ear the m

u s s, e s e s

alway expo them to light ; that i ch leave are aerial

s se s, su s

rather than b t erranean ( Fig 1 7 5 su M any se e s .

, ,

stem gro w n d ergro nd and ch t m either b ear no

s u u , su s e s

foliage leave or are placed that the foliage l ave are

s, so e s

sent ab ove the rface in m o t f rn and m any plant of

su , as s e s s

the early pring ( Fig 4 5 46

s se e s .
, ,

1 0 C l n —A not h er fact to b o b erved i that foliage

. oo e s s

leave have a characteri tic green color a color

s niver al s , so u s

that it h co m e to b e a ociate d with plant

as d e pe ss s, an s

i lly with leave

c a I t i al o evident that thi green color
s . s s s

hol d o m e nece ary relation to light for the leave of

s s ss ,
s

plant gro wn in the dark potatoe pro ting in a cellar

s , as s s u ,
 F OL IAGE L E A VE S : TH E L IG H T -
RE L A TI O N . 7

do not develop thi color E ven when leave have devel s . s

oped the gre color they lo it if depriv d of light i

en se e , as s

shown by the proce of blanching celery d by t h eff ect ss , an e

on the color of g a if a b oard h lain pon it for r ss as u

so m ti m e I t ee m plai th refore that the g e n color

e . s s n, e ,
r e

fo n d in worki g foliage leav dep n d upon light for it

u n es e s s

exi tence
s .

W concl d that at l a t
e u of t h e ential life rela e s on e e e ss -

tion of a foliage l af i what m y b e call d the light l

s e s a e -
re a

ti on Thi ee m to ex plain ti factorily why ch leave

. s s s sa s su s

are t developed in a b terranean po ition

no m any su s , as a re

st e m and m o t root
s d why plant which pro d ce the m
s s , an s u

do t grow in the d ark in cavern The m e green

no , as s . sa ,

and hence t h am e light r lation i o b rv d in other

e s -
e , s se e

part of the plant w ll d in plant witho t leave the

s as e , an s u s,

only d i ff r nc b eing that l ave di play it m o t

e e e p i e s s s c on s cu

ou s ly A noth r in d ication that the gr n color i con

. e ee s

t d wi t h light m y b e o b tain d f o m t h fact that it i

n ec e a e r e s

fo nd only i the rfac region of plant If one c t

u n su e s . u s

acro a living t wig or in t o a cact b o d y t h gr en color

ss us , e e

will b e een only in the o t r part of t h ction The con

s u e e se .

l i
c u s on i that the l af i a p cial organ for the light
s e s s e -
re

lation P lant o m eti me grow in ch it atio that it

. s s s su s u ns

wo l d b e n afe for the m to di play l av or at lea t large

u u s s e e s, s

leav esIn ch a ca the work of the l ve can b thrown

. su se ea s e

u p on the t m A no t a b
s e l ill tration
. of thi i t h cact e us s s e us

plant which prod c no foliag l ve b t who e te m d i

, u es e ea s, u s s s

p lay the
s leaf color .

1 1 A n xp d d
.
g ne — A noth r g
an e neral fact in r f r
or a e e e e

ence to the foliage leaf i that i m o t c it i an xpan d e d s n s a se s s e

orga Thi m an t hat i t h

n . s great am o nt of rface
e s as a u su

ex po ed in com pari on with it m a

s A thi form i ofs s ss . s s s

su ch co mm on occ rr nce it i af to concl d that it i in

u e s s e u e s

so m e way relat d to t h work of the leaf d t hat what v r

e e , an e e

work the leaf doe d emand an xpo re of rfac rath s s e su su e er

tha thickne of bod y It i b t ano the t p to y th t

n ss . s u r s e sa a

2
8 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

the a m o nt of work activ lea f can d will d e p nd

u an e o e in
par t pon t h am o nt of rfac it xpo e
u e u su e e s s .

TH E L I G H T- R E L A T I O N .

12 . Th e ge n e ral r
ord inary po ition of the
e lati on — T h e s

foli g l f i m or l h ori ont l Thi

a e ea s o re bl i t to e ss z a . s e na es

r c i t h d ir c t ray of lig h t pon it pp r rf c In

e e ve e e s u s u e su a e .

thi way m or r y f s e a s O

ligh t t r ik t h l f s e e ea su r

f c th n if it t o d h a e a s o O

l iq ly or dg It i uc O II e e . s

of t i d th t l f b l d e n sa a ea a es

d ir c t d t h t t h a re so e e a e

flat rf i t ight su ace s a r

angle to t h i i d t s e nc en

ray f ligh t W h il thi s O . e s

m y b tr of h ri n a e ue o zo

tal l v i g l ea es n a e n e ra

w y th b v ti of a , e o se r a on

al mo t y p l t w ill s an an

ho w t h t it i v y S a s a er

g l t t m t t e n e ra s a e en . o

whi h th m o c e re a re n u er us

xc pt i ( F ig e e on s se e .

Le v m t b r gd a es us e a ran e

to r iv m h l ig h t e ce e as uc

p o i bl t h l p in as ss e o e

th i w k b t t m h e r or . u oo uc

light will d t oy t h es r e

gr n b t ( hl ee su s an c e c o ro

F IG . l1 . i pl (
T he
p y )
h
ea ves o f
) ll w h
thi h is an tt i l
F icus are , c s e sse n a
lh i l
in ge n e ra will
to th w k
o r zo n ta ,
Thb u t it
dj t be see n
e or e a us
h l w
t at t h e o di d w re c t e d
.

m t t ligh t th f
e r o ne s are o n

w d h arl , b an d m t at t h e e a ves e co m e o re en o ,
e re o re ,
h
will l
l
h
m
o ri zo n t a

l
d
be
i
as
a
th e
d lic t
st e

t at t h e
is
f
as c e n ed . It
s e a e on e ,
or

th r m t b j t no gh
a so se e n ea ves a re so

b h
ro ad w i l w
th at t e re are f e ve rt ca ro s .
e e us e us e u
 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

14 . leave however which

H otil e leaves —There are s, ,

have no fixe d light po ition b t con tr cted that s , u are so s u

they can hift their po ition the direction of the light

s s as

chang S ch leave not in t h am e po ition i the

es . u s a re e s s n

af t rnoon i th e as n e

for noon d th ir e , an e

night po ition m y b s a e

v y d i ff r n t fr m er e e o

i t h r ( Fig 2 3 e e se e s .
, a,

3b So m of t h , e e

co mm on ho plant u se s

how thi pow r I S s e . II

th ca of t h m e se e co

m O li t h ight on xa s e n

Rm 8a l db d P t ‘ f t h
e
l v
T h e d a y pos it io n o f t h e ea ves o f re u
O SI O" O ea es

re m arkably d ff er t
. .

( ) — f m Ce rci s A te r A . uu a . Is i en

fro m t h po ition in light e s .

If ch a pl t i xpo d
su an s e se

to t h ligh t in a wi d ow d
e n an

the po itio of t h leave s ns e s

not d d th n t rned
e , an e u

half way aro n d to u , so as

b ring the oth i d to the er s e

light the l v m y b e ,
ea es a

ob erved to adj t the m

s us

sel v gra d ally to the

es u

Changed h h t l t .

G
b
i h p ii
’
I O u IO ll S
l .

P IC ah T he n g t os t o n o f t h e eave s
l — b
. .

15 Comp p .t A d ( —
assf m an a o f re d u
‘
L erctsi . A te r A n nn .

st riking ill t ration of a us

sp cial
e lig h t p o itio i fo n d in t h c ll d co ms pa n s u e so -
a e
“
ss

p lant T h b ts known. of th e p l nt i t h
e ro in w
es d es a s s e s -
ee

of t h prairi r gion G rowing in it atio

e e p o ed t . s u ns ex se o

int n e ligh t t h l av
e s t rn d dg wi t h fl t f c
, e e e s ar e u e e e se , e a a es

b ing t rn d away fro m t h int n e ray of m idd y

e u e d e e s s a , an

d irected toward the ray of l inten ity that i tho e of s s e ss s s, s

 P O L IA C E L E A VE S : TH E L IG H T -
RE L A TIO N . 11

P IC 4
. . plants sh owing th mot il l
T wo sen sit lve ,
e e ea ve s . T he pl t t o th
an e le f t h as its
l a d
ea ves m rou l eafl ts xp d d ; t h
n nu e s e e an e e o ne t o t he r igh t sh w o s the l e afl e ts

f ld d t ge th a d th l ea es d r opi g A ft
o e o er n e v o n -
er KE RN E R .

th e m orning and evening ( Fig A a re lt t h se e . s su , e

ap x of t h leaf point in a g n ral nor th or o th dir ction

e e s e e s u e .

It i a ig ificant fact th t wh n the plant gro w in had d

s s n a e s s e

pla e the l av do not a m

c s e y ch espo itio I t ss u e an su s n .

s ee m evident therefore that the po ition h om thing

s , ,
s as s e

t o d o with avoidin g t h e dan ger of too int n li ght It e se .

 PL ANT RE L A TIO N S .

mu st not be ppo ed su s

that there i any s se

c racy i the north or

u a

o th d irection the
s u , as

edgewi e po i ti on s s

e m to b e th ig ifi
s e s e s n

cant one In t h . e ros

l w d pro b ably t h
n -
ee e

north and o th d ir s u ce

tion i th prevailing s e

on e ; b t i t h prickly
u n e

lett c a v ry co m mon
u e, e

weed of w t gro n d as e u s,

an d of the m o t
on e s

s triking f t h co m pa o e ss

plant t h e d g wi s, e e se

po ition i fr q ntly
s s e ue

assu m d witho t e y u an

s pecial r f r c to t h e e en e e

north or o th d ir s u ce

tion of t h ap x ( e e se e

Fig .

1 6 H li t r pi m. e o o s .

The proper t y of l av e es

and of ot h r o g e r an s

O f r pon d i g to li ght
es n

i k ow
s n h li t n as e o ro

p i m s d it ,i one an s

O f t h m o t i m po t n t
e s r a

O f tho t n l i fi se e x e r a n n

cu c to which plant
os

org n r pon d ( a s es se e

Fig 6 s .
,

F IG .5 Th e
. common p ick ly le ttuce ( L actuca
r I t ho l d b d er
s u e un
-
Scariota ) ,
wi se , an d
h i
s ow n g

in
th l

ge n e ra
e es st
ea v di g d g
l t h d s t h pl a
n or an
an

ou
n e e

ne
s too d cl rly th t thi ea a s

i b t a li ght gli m p e
a .

—Af te r A R T H U R an d M A c DO U C A L . s u s s
 F OL IAG E L E A V ES : TH E L I G H T- R E L A TI O N . 13

F la . 6 . T h pl an ts are
ese gro wi ng n ear a win d o w . It w ill be d t h t t he
n o t ice a s te ms
be d tr gly t
n s on o ward s t h e li ght , a nd t h at t h l e eav es f ce th
a ligh t e .

of t h m o t o bvio r la t io of foli g l v to light d

e s us e ns a e ea es , an

th at t h i m portant p rt which h liotropi m pl y not ly

e a e s a s, on

in conn ction with foliag leav b t l o in

e n ct i n e e s, u a s co n e o

with oth r pl n t organ i e of t h m o t i m port t d

a s, s on e e s an an

ext n iv bj ct of plant phy iology

e s e su e s s .

R E L ATI O N OF L E A V E S TO ONE A N OTH E R .

A . On e rect s t e ms .

In i w of wha t h b v e i d i t wo l d m th t the as ee n sa , u se e a

po ition of foliag l av
s th t m d th ir r l t i to
e e e s on e s e , an e e a on

on e anoth m t b d t m i d to o m e xt t by t h
e r, us e e er ne s e en e

nec ity of a f vo bl ligh t latio It i ppa t th t

e ss a ra e - re n . s a re n a

the condi tion of t h p o bl m not t h a m f

s r cte r e a re e s e o r an e e

as for a horizontal t m s e .

1 7 R l ti f b r dth t
. e a mb r f
on ti l
o w ea o nu e o ver ca ro s .

U pon an erect te m it i b rve d t h t the l av

s s O se a e e s are u su
14 P LAN T RE L A T I O N S .

ally arrang d in a d efinite n m b er of v

e u e rtical row It i s . s

to the advantage of the plant for th e l es e ave to hade one

s s

another little po i ble Th erefore

as as ss .
, the narrower th e

leave the m ore n mero m y be the

s, u us a vertical row ( s se e

Fig 7 s .d ,
an

the b road the er

l av t h f wer
e es e e

the ver tical ro w s

( se e Fig A .

relation xi t e s s,

therefo e b r , e

twe n the br adth

e e

o f leave d the s an

n mber of verti
u

cal row and t h s, e

m aning of thi
e s

b eco m e pl i s a n

when t h light e -
re

lation i id s co n s

ered .

18 . R elati on of
le ngth t o the dis
t a n ce b e t we e n
leaves Of th e sa me
F 7 A n E as te r l ily h wi g narrow lea
IG . .

n
,

l ave
s o

umero us v rt i cal ro ws
e
n

.
ves
r°w — The ° e s

i a v rtical row n e

m y b e clo e tog th r or far apart

a s If th y ho l d be clo e
e e . e s u s

togeth r d t the am ti m long it i vi d t that they

e an a s e e , s e en

will hade ch oth r con i d rably t h light can ot w ll

s ea e s e , as e n e

strike i b twe n th m and r ach t h

n e fac of the lower
e e e e su r e

l af Th refor t h clo er tog ther th l av of a v rti

e . e e, e s e e e es e

cal w the hort r

ro , the l av and the farth r apart
s e are e es e

the leave of a row t h long r m y they b e Short l ve

s , e e a . ea s

perm it the light to trike b tw n the m ev n if they are s e ee e

clo e together
s the t e m d long l ave p r m it the
on s an e s e

sam e thin g only when the y are far a part on the te m A s .

 F O L IA G E L E A V E S : TH E L IG H T- RE L A TIO N . 15

relation is to
o b erv d th refor b tw n t h length
be s e , e e, e ee e

of leav d th ir d i tanc a part i the a m e vertical row

e s an e s e n s .

Th am e kin d of r lation can b b rve d i r f r nc

e s e e O se n e e e e

to t h bre d th of leav for if leav

e a not only hort b t e s, e s are s u

narro w they can tand very clo e tog ther It i th s n s e . s u s se e

that the l ngth d b readth of leave the n mb r of

e an s, u e ve r

tical ro w on the t m d t h di tanc b tw n the l av

s s e , an e s e e ee e es

P IC 8
. . A dr ga o n - t re e , s h wio n g narro w l e a ves e xt e n di ng in al l di i
rec t o n s , an d u um e r

ous ve rt ca l ro i ws .

of any w all have to d with t h light r la t io

ro ,
d are o e -
e n an

anwr s t t h pro bl m of h d ing

e s o e e s a .

1 9 E l g. ti f th
on l w r pat i l on— l h o i t ill e o e e o es .
' ‘
e rc s s

anoth r co mm o r g m t b y which
e n a ff ctiv ligh t
ra n e en an e e e

r lation i c r d by l v whi h
e s se u b ro d
e d pl c d ea es c a re a an a e

clo e tog th r on t h t m I
s e e ch a c th talk
e s e . n su a se e s s

(p tei l ) of
o es t h l we l v b co m lo
e g r tho n tho r ea es e e n e a se

abov d th th r t t h i blad b y n d t h h d ow (
e an us us e r es e o e s a se e

F ig . I t m y b e notic d that it i v ry co m m o to
a e s e n
16 P LA NT R E L A T IO N S .

find t h lo we t leave of a plant the large t and with the

e s s s

longe t p tiole even when the leave are not v ry clo e

s e s, s e s

together on the tem s .

It m t not b ppo d that by any of th d evice

us e su se e se s

shad ing i ab ol tely avoi d e d Thi i often i mpo i ble d

s s u . s s ss an

som ti m e n d e irabl It im plv m ean tha t by the e

e s u s e . s s s

F IG . 9 . A pl
ant ( Satnl patd la) w t h t h e i l o we r pe t i l l
o e s e o n ate
g d th
, rus t n gi t he bl d a es

be y d t h sh ad
on e o w of t h e u pp l er ea ves . A l oo se rose tte .

a rrang m t th m o t favor bl light r l tio i o ght by

e en s e s a e -
e a n s s u

avoi d i g too g a t h ad i g
n re s n .

2 0 Dir t i o of l
. ea — N t o ly i t h p i t io
ec n th eav o n s e os n on e

ste m to b e o b erved b t the direction o f leave m y r lt

s , u s a e su

i a favora b le rel t ion to ligh t

n I t i a very co m m on thing
a . s

t fi d a pl n t with a cl
o n t r of co mpara t ively l rge l v
a us e a ea es

at or near the b a e wh r th y are in danger of h d ing s , e e e no s a

oth r leave e and wi t h t h t e m l ave grad ally b co m in g

s, e s e s u e
18 P L ANT RE L A T I O N S .

carried far that mo t of the part which i covered

so s s is
b t a te m ( petiole ) for the pper part ( b lade ) which
u s u is
expo d se .

In m any plant which do t form l o tt s g s no c ose r se e a en

F IG . 11 . A grou p of li l strati g th ros tte h ab i t a d t h ligh t re lat i

ve - f o r-e ve rs , il u n e e n e - on .

In t he rose tte s it will b b d h w th l

e o se rve fi tt d t g t h
o d di m i i h
e ea ves a re e o e e r an n s

in s zei i n war d th t
s , so i h di g i
a id d T h i d i id l l
e xcess ve s a n l
s a vo e e n v ua ea v es a s o

b d t wh t h y
.

bcm e o e n arro w wher th yere l ap and e o ve r , p dt

are ro a es e re e are e x o se o

light . I n th e backg u d i pl an t h wi g l
ro n s a i y d fin i t
s o ti l w
n e ave s n ve r e e ve r ca ro s .

eral ro tte arrang m ent of t h l v m y b o b rv d by

se e e ea es a e se e

looking d own pon th m fro m a b ov ( Fig in o m

u e e se e . as s e

of the arly b tt rc p which e low th t t h larg

u e u s a re so a e e

leav wo l d rio ly h d
es anoth r x pt th t the
u se us s a e on e e , e ce a

lower l av hav long r petiole tha the pper and 80

e es e e s n u ,

r ach b eyond the hadow

e s .
 F O L IA G E LEA VE S : TH E L IG H T -
R E L AT I O N . 19

P ro 1 2. . T wo cl u m s o fp rose t tes o f t he h s lee k

ou e ( Scra pe r ci nu m ) , t he o ne to t h e
igh t sh wi g th compa t wi t
r o n e c n er con di t i t h
on , e o ne to t h e l ft wit h
e rose tte s mo re
o p f t be i g k pt i d rs f
en a er n e n oo o r se ve ra l d ay s .

22 . no t bl f t f foliag
Bra n ch e d leaves — A n o t h e 1 .
'
a e e a u re O e

l av which h o m thi g to d wit h t h ligh t r l tion

e e s, as s e n o e -
e a ,

i that on o m plant t h b l d d o
s st con i t of
e s e a e es no s s on e

pi c b t i lo b d or v b rok n p i to p r t pi c
e e, u s e e en e u n se a a e e es .

W h n t h d ivi ion
e d i t inct th y
e c ll d l fl t
s d s a re s e a re a e ea e s , an

ev ry grad a t ion in leav

e b fo n d f m d i ti tl f es ca n e u ,
ro s nc ea

l t to lo b d l av to th d l v
e s ed fi lly t h o
e who e es. o e ea e s , an na se s

m argin not in d t d at all ( ti ) Thi d i ff r nc

s a re en e en re . s e e e

in l av pro bably h
e es as

m ore i m portant re a

son than t h light

s e

r lation b t it ig
e , u s s

n ifi c a n ce m ay b e oh

served i thi conn c n s e

tion I th o plant
. II se s

who l v se ea es a re nu

d ivi d d th l av e , e e es

gen r lly ith d i

e a e er

mi i h in s ize toward n s

th top of t h t m
e e s e ,

or t h low r on d e e es e
F IG 18 T he lea ves o f a b e lltl o we r ( Campa n ul a)
v lop lo g r p t iol
. .
,

o n e e es . sh wi g t h
o n tt g m teTh l w
rose e a rran e en . e o er

In t hi ca e t h g p ti l
e o es are i ly l g yi g t h i
s u c cess ve on e r, ca rr n e r
s s e en
bl d b y d th h ad w f t h b lad s b
a es e on e s o o e e a o ve .

e al o tlin of t h
r u e e —A f te K E R N E R
r .
F IG 14 A grou p of l ea ves sh o win g h o w b ra n c ln a l lea ves o ve rt o p e ac h th w th
o er 1 o ut

b hdl
. . ,

d a n ge ro u s s h di g
a n il
It w l b e se e n t h at th e l a rge r bl d
a es o r l
e ss - ra n c e ea ves

b
.

are d
t o war s t he o t to m of t h e g ro u p .
 F O L IA GE L E A VE S : TH E L IG H T R E L A T I O N
-
. 21

plan t i conical a form very co m m o in herb with entire

s , n s

or nearly ntire leave In plant W ho e l af blad e e

e s . s s e s ar

b ro k e p in t onleaflet (
u mp d or b h d l ) s co ou n ra n c e e a ves ,

however no ch di m in tion i ize toward the t p of the

, su u n s o

t m i nece ary ( Fig

s e s tho gh it m y fr q ntly
ss se e . u a e ue

P ro 1 5
. . A plan t h s o wi ng mu c h -
b ra n c h ed l ea ve s , whi ch occ u r in gre at p f i
ro us o n m an
i
o u t c u t t n g o f! t h e ligh t f ro m o n e a n o t h er .

occ ur . W he n a b ro a d bl a d e
p i t o l fl t is b ro k e n u n ea e s

the d ang er o f h di g i v y m
s a hl n th light s er uc e s s , as e c an

strike thr ou
g h b tw t h pp
e r le fl t
een d r ch t h e u e a e s an ea e

l afl t b l
e e s e o w O th l w l
. n th will b plo t ch
e o er e a ve s e re e s es

of ligh t an d ha d w b t t h
s will hif t t hro gho t the
o , u ev s u u

day th
. so a t p b blro l g p r t of th leaf will r c ive
a v a ar e a e e e

light t a so m ti m d ring t h d y (
e e Fig u The e a se e .
22 P LA N T R E L A T IO N S .

gen e ralo tline of ch a plant therefore i

u ally t su , , s u su no

conical in the other ca e b t cylindrical ( Fig 4

, as s , u se e s .
,

1 5 1 6 22 45 83 96 1 5 5 1 6 2 1 74 for branched l av
, , , , ,
) , , , e es .

M any other factor enter into the light relation o f foli s -

age leave pon erect tem b t tho e given m y gge t

s u s s, u s a su s .

F IG . 16 . A cy cad , sh owin g much -bran ch ed leaves and palm l i k e habi t

-
.

o b ervation in t h i direction and rve to how that t h

s s , se s e

arrange m ent of l av in r f r nce to light d p n d pon

e es e e e e e s u

many thing and i b y m an a fi x d

s, d in d i ff rent
s no e s e an e

thing T h t d y of any growing pla t i r f renc to th i

. e s u n n e e e s

on e relation pr ent a m ltit d e of pro ble m to tho e wh

es s u u s s o

kno w how to o b erve s .

B . On h or i zon ta l ste ms .

23 E .xampl of horizont l t m that i t m x po d

es a s e s, s, s e s e se

on one ide to the dir c t light will b fo n d in t h

s of e , e u e e a se

m any branche of tre te m pro trate on t h gro n d and

s e s, s s s e u ,
 F O L A G E L E AV E S
I : TH E L I GH T R E L A T I O N
-
.

ste m again t a pport the ivie

s It i only nec ary
s su , as s . s e ss

to no t ic how t h l ave are adj ted to light on an erect

e e e s us

t m and then to b nd the

s e ,
e

t m into a horizontal p
s e osr

tion or g i t pport to a a ns a su ,

r aliz h w favorable the

e e o un

sa m e arrang m t wo ld e en u

b e, and how m any new d a

j t m nt m t b e mad e
us e s us .

T h l af blad
e m t all b e
e es us

b ro ght to t h light i d e of
u e s

th tm f
e s e po i ble, so ar a s ss ,

and tho e that b long to s e

the low i d of the te m er s e s

m t b us fitt d into th e e e

s
p ac l ft b
esy the leave
e s

which bel ng to the pper o u

s i d e T h i m y b b ro ght
. s a e u

abo t by t h twi ting of

u e s

th e t m t h twi ting of
s e , e s

t h p tiol
e the b nding of
e e s, e

th ebl d e th a petiole on e ,

t h l ngt h
e i g of petiole
e en n s,

or in m other way so e .

E hori ontal t m h
v e rv z s e as

it sw o
p cial pro b
n sle m of e s

l af ad j tm nt which m y
e us e a

b e o b rv d ( Fig 1 8
se e se e s .
,

b o me t l me s th r e e 18 “C t F re 17 h y sa t h mum sh wi g
A c r n e , o n

pa no gh f t h f ll
. .

s ce e u or e u l b d lea es th i i g f t he p ti l
o e v e r s n o e o es

t adj st t h b l ad
.

li gh t a d t h
d v lop m nt of v ry bla d
o u t e es o , n e
e e e e e e,
g l cyli d i l h m
e n e ra n r ca a

d m all r on fi t te d
,

an s e e s a re

into the pac l ft by the larg r on ( Fig

s Thi es e e es se e . s

so m eti m r lt in what c ll d q ally p ir d l av

es e su s a re a e une u a e e e s,

where oppo ite leav d ev lop one l rg blad d m ll

s es e a e e an on e s a

8
24 P L A N T R E L A TIO N S .

one P erhap the m o t co m plete fitti g tog ther of leave

. s s n e s

i fo n d in certain ivi wh a reg lar lay r of ang lar ‘

s u e s, e re u e u

interlocking leave i form d the leave fi t ting together like

s s e , s

F m 18 A pl a nt ( P ed iatric ) wit h d pi g st
ro o n e ms, s h owi ng h w th e l ea
o ves are all

fi t t d tog e t h r
. .

b ough t to th e ligh ted si d e a

r nd e e .

the p e i ce of a mo aic In
s ch an arr nge men t i
s . f act su a s

k ow
n th m n i as g m t e d involv ch an
osa c a r r a n e en , an es su

am o nt of t wi ting di plac m nt elongatio

u s of p tiol
, s e e , n e e s,
 P L A N T R E L A T IO N 8 .

A p y
s ra of ma pl h wi
e, s o n g t h e ad j us t me n t o f th e l
ea ve s in i
s ze a n d p i ti
os on

of bl d a es a n d l e n gt h of p ti l
e o es to se cu re ex pos u re to li gh t on a h i o r zo n ta l s te m .

A te f r Ke n n an -
.

e tc .
, as to giv am pl vi d n of t h ff t p t f r th by
e e e e ce e e or u o

pl an ts to c re a favor bl light r latio for t h ir foli g

se u a e -
e n e a e

h e 21 T wo pl a wi n g ad j u st men t o f leaves
n ts sh o on a h ori zon tal ste m pl a t
T he n

b l ft b y t h
.
. .

to t h e l e ft is n i g h t s h ad e in whi ch s ma ll,
l ad es fi tt d i t p
a re e n o s a ce s e e

la g T h pl
r e o nes t e an to t h e r g t i h is Se l g i ll i whi h m ll l
a ne a, n c s a e a ve s a re d is
t ib t d l
.

r g t h
u eid a on e s es o f t h e s te m , an d o t h e rs di pl y d l g t h
a re s a e a on p
e u p e r sur

c —
f a e A ft r K a u a s e n .
 F OL IA G E LEA VE S : TH E L I G H T R E L A TI O N
-
. 27

leave ( Fig 1 9
s se e In the c of ord inary had e tr
s .
, as e s ees

every d irection of b anch m y be fo n d and t h re ltingr a u , e su

ad j t m ent of leave not d ( Fig

us s e se e .

L ooking p into a tree in f ll foliage it will b e otice d

u u ,
n

that the horizon tal branche are co mparatively b are b s e

E m 22 . . Am osaic o f fern ( A d ia ntum) leafl e ts .

n ath whil t h l f blad have b carri d to the pp

e , e e ea es een e u er

si d e d havan m d a m o aic arr ng m nt

e a ssu e s a e e .

Spr y of m ai d
a h ir f rn (
s F ig 22 ho w a m rk
en a e se e . S re a

abl a mo nt of d j tm t of t h l fl t to t h light i d
e u a us en e ea e s e s e .

A noth r gro p of f rn plan t known

e u cl b m o h
e -
s, as u -
sse s , as

ho izontal t m cloth d with m ro v ry m all l av

r s e s e nu e us e s e es .

Th l ave m y b
e se e t ki g ad v n tag of ll the pace
s a e se e n a n a e a s

on the lighted id ( Fig s e se e .

 A . F u n ct i on s o
f f oli age lea ves .

24 . F un ct ions h v o b rv d th t foliage
in ge ne ral — W e a e se e a

l ave are ligh t rel t org n

e s that thi rel tion i an
-
a ed a s, a n d s a s

im portant i vi d nt fro m t h v rio ki d f d j t

on e s e e e a us n s o a us

m nte e d to c re it W i f r ther for th t for o m

us se u . e n e , e e, a s e

i mpor tant f c t ion of th l v ligh t i n c ry It

un e se ea es s e e s sa .

wo l d b h a ty to ppo t h t light i n c ary for v ry

u e s su se a s e e ss e e

k i d of work d o
n by foli g l f f m f r m of work
ne a a e ea ,
o r so e o s

m igh t b c r i d eby t h l f t h t li gh t i t h h l p nor

a r e on e ea a ne er e s

hin d Fol i g l v
e rs . t onfia d t e f nction
ea e s a re n o c ne o on e u ,

b t u conc r d i
a re ri ty of proc
e ne ll of which
n a va e e ss e s , a

ha t d wi t h t h g t wo k of n t iti
ve o o A m o g the
e re a r u r on . n

va i ty of f nc tio which b lo g to f li g l v o m of
r e u ns e n o a e ea es s e

t h m t i m po t
e os t m y b l ct d for m ntio It will
r an a e se e e e n .

b po i bl to d lit tl m or th n i d ic t th
e ss e o f nctio e e a n a e e se u ns

un til t h pl t wi th ll it org i
e an id d b t om a s an s s c on s e re . u s e

e vi d nc e b o b tain d th t v rio
e c an ep oc t ki g e a a us r e sse s a re a n

p lac i et h foliag
n l f e e ea .

2 5 P h t o y th is — T h m o t i m por t
. o s n t f ction of t h
es e s an un e

foliag l f m y b e d t ct d by a i m pl x p ri m t If
e ea a e e e s e e e en .

an acti ely growing water plant b e b m rg d in w ter in a

v su e e a

gl ve el d po ed to t h lig h t b b bl m y b e e n
ass ss , an ex s e , u es a s e

co m ing fro m the leaf rf ce d ri ing thro gh t h w ter su a s an s u e a

(se e Fig T h wat

. r i m rely a d evi b y
e which the e s e ce

b bbl of g m y b e een If the plant i v ry a tiv t h

u es as a s . s e c e e
 F O L IA G E L E AVE S : F UN CTI O N , ST R UCTUR E , E TC . 29

b bble are n m ero

u s That thi activi ty hold a d finite
u us . s s e

relation to ligh t m y b p ov d by g d lly r m oving the

a e r e ra ua e

ve l co t ining the plant fro m the ligh t A t h light

sse n a . S e

di m ini he t h b b bl d i m i i h i n m b er d when a
s s e u es n s n u , an

E re . 23
. A n ex er p im ent to ill us t rate t h e gi v i n g Off o f ox yg en in t h e p ro cess O f ph o to

s y th si
n e s .

c rtain m o t f d arkn h b n r c h d t h b bbl

e a un O e ss as ee ea e e u es

will c a n t ir ly If now t h v l b b ro gh t b ack

e se e e . e e sse e u

grad ally in to th light t h b b bl wil l app r m or

u e , e u es re ea , e

and m m th
o rc n u l ight incr
'

Th t t h i g
e ro u s as e e ase s . a s as

being giv n ff i yg m y b prov d by coll cting the

e O s ox en a e e e
30 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

b bble in a te t t be in an ordi ary che mical p i

u s s u , as n ex er

m ent for collec t ing g over water and te ti g it i the as ,

s n n

u su al way .

So m e very i m portant thing are learned b y thi p i s s ex er

m ent It i evident that om e proce i going on within

. s s ss s

the leave which need light and which re lt in gi ving ff

s s su s O

oxyg n It i f rther vident that oxygen i li m inated

e . s u e as s e ,

the proc in d icat d i d ealing with b tance which

e ss e s su s s

contain m ore oxygen than i ne d d The am o nt f s e e . u O

oxyg n gi n ff m y be taken the m a re f t h work

e ve O a as e su O e .

The mor oxygen t h m ore work ; d we hav b erv d

e , e an , as e O s e ,

t h m or lig h t t h m or oxygen ;
e e d no light no oxygen
, e e an , .

Th refor light m t b e ntial to t h work f which the

e e, us e sse e O

eli m ination f oxyg n i an xt rnal in d ication That thi

O e s e e . s

proc whatev r i t m y b i
e ss, e ntially relat d to
e a e, s so s se e

light gg t t h i d a that it i t h pecial proce which

, su es s e e s e s ss

d m an d that the l af hall b a light relat d organ If

e s e s e -
e . so ,

it i a do m inating kind f work

s it chiefly d et rm ine O , as e s

t h lif r l tion
e e -
f foliage leav
e a s O es .

Th proc e th in d icat d i known ph t y th i

e ss us e s as o os n es s,

an d the na m gg t th t it h to d with t h arrang

e su es s a as o e e

me t f m at rial with the h lp f light

n O e It i really a pro e O . s

ce f foo d m an fact r by which raw m at rial

ss O u m ad e u e, e s a re

into plant food Thi proce i an exc edingly i mport nt

. s ss s e a

on e , for pon it d p n d the liv f all plant and ani m al

u e e es O s s .

T h foliag l v
e m y b e con i d r d th r for
e ea es p i l a s e e , e e e , as s ec a

or g f p
a ns oh t y t h i Th y o os
p cial organ n not ex es s . e are s e s,

l ive organ for any gr ti

e us wh th r on te m or fr it
s, een ssu e , e e s u

or any part f t h pla t b od y m y d t h am e work It

O e n , a o e s .

i at once ap parent al o that d ring t h night the proc

s ,
s , u e e ss

of photo y th i i not going on and th refore d ring the

s n es s s , e u

night oxyg n i t b eing giv n ff e s no e O .

A noth r part f thi proc e i not ea ily b erve d b t

O s e ss s so s O s , u

is SO clo ly r lat d to t h li m i ation f oxygen that it

se e e e e n O

m t b m entio ed
us e Car b on d ioxi d e occ r i t h air to
n . u s n e

which the foliage leav are xpo d It i giv n ff fro m es e se . s e O

 F O L IA G E L E A VE S : F UN CT I O N , STR U CT U R E , E T C . 31

ou r l ng i b r a thing d al o co m e ff fro m b rning

u s n e , an s s O u

wood or coal It i a co m m on wa t pro d ct b ing a m . s s e u , e co

b ination f car b on d oxyg O inti mate that the two an en so

ele m nt e eparat d fro m

s a re anoth r with great dif
s e on e e

fi lt y
cu D ri g the pro
. f photo ynth i it h
u n b een c es s O s es s as

d i co er d t h t car b on d ioxi d i b ing a b or b d f o m t h

s v e a e s e s e r e

air by t h l v A t hi ge i a b or b d chi fly b y gr
ea es . s s as s s e e een

p ar t d i
s an t h lig h t i j tn t h condi teio in which oxy , n us e ns

g en i b i g
s g iv n ff i t
e n i nat ral to conn e ct the two
O d, s u e , an

to i f r th t t h p oc f photo ynth i involv

n e a e r t only e ss O s es s es no

th gr n color d t h ligh t b t al o the ab o ption f

e ee an e , u s s r O

carb o d ioxi d d t h eli minati f o yg

n e an e on O x en .

W h n w b erv th t ca b on d i xi d i a o m b i tion
e e O s e a r o e s c na

of c rb a d o yg on a nit m r o bl to ppo that

x en, se e s e as na e su se

the carb on d o yg p an t d f o m x a oth r i en a re se a ra e r on e n e n

the plant d t h t t h c bo i r t in d d t h o yg n
, an a e ar n s e a e an e x e

giv b ck to the i T h p oc of ph oto y th i m y

en a a r . e r e ss s n es s a

b par t ially d fi ed th r f
e t h b re ki g p of car b o
e n , e e o re , a s e a n u n

d ioxi d b y t h g e part of t h pl nt
e i t h pr
re e n c f s e a s n e e se n e O

light t h r t tio of the carb o

, e e en d th li m inatio f
n n , an e e n o

the oxyg T h c rb en r tai d i co m bin d i t r al

. e a on e ne s e n o e

plant foo d i a w y to b d cri b d l t ,

n W m y
a e es e a er . e a co n

si d r photo ynth i t h m o t im port nt f nc tion of the

e s e s s as e s a u

foliag leaf f which t h ab orptio f car b on d ioxi d d

e , O e s n O e an

th vol tion f oxyg

e e u xt rnal indication
O d that e n a re e e s an

light d chlorophyll an i o m w y ntially conn ct d a re n s e a e sse e e

wi th it .

26 T p i
. t i — O rans f the ea i t
ra thing onto b rve
. ne O s es s O se

in connection with a working l af i the f ct that it g ive e s a s

O ff m oi t re A i m pl
s u x p ri m ent m y d m on trat thi
. s e e e a e s e s .

If a gla v l ( b ll j ) be inv rted ov r a m ll active

ss e sse e ar e e s a

plan t the m oi t r i e n to con d n on the gl and s u e s s e e se ass,

ev n to trickle d own t h i d e A till m ore conveni t way

e e s s . s en

to d e m o trat thi i to lect a ingl vigoro leaf with

ns e s s se s e us

a good petiol pa the petiol thro gh a perfor te d card e ss e u a

b ard re ting p n a t m bler containing water and invert

o s u o u ,
32 P L AN T R E L A T I O N S .

a econd t mbl r over t h blad f t h leaf which project

s u e e e O e , s

abov t h card b oar d ( Fig

e e It wil l b e b rve d that se e . O se

m oi t re giv n ff fro m the

s u rf ce f t h worki g l af i
e O su a O e n e s

cond e d on t h inner rfac f t h invert d t m bl r

e ns e su e O e e u e .

T h c r d b oar d i to h t ff v poration fro m t h wat r

e a s s u O e a e e

in t h lo w r t m bl r
e e u e .

Wh n th em o nt f wat r g iv n ff b y a ingl l f i
e a u O e e O s e ea s

not d o m v g e i d a m y b e form e d to t h am o nt f
e , s e a u e a as e u o

m oi t re gi n ff by a gr t m a
s u ve f v g t tion
O ch a ea ss O e e a , su as

m ad ow or a for t
e It i vi d t that g n pl nt at
es . s e en re e a s

work contri b ting a v ry larg am o n t f m oi t r to

a re u e e u O s u e

the air in the for m f water vapor m oi t re which h O , s u as

been ab orbe d by o m e region f t h plant T h foli

s s O e . e

age leaf therefore m y b regard d

, an g , f a e e as or a n o

tra n sp i t i not
ra that the leav
on , alone are engag d in es e

tran piration for m any part of t h plant d the a m e

s , s e O s

t hing b t b eca, e the foliage leave are the chief at f

u us s se O

tran piration
s .

In ca e the leave are b m erg d

s i tr e f m any s su e , as s u O

plant it i evi d nt that tran piration i practically checked

s, s e s s ,

for the leave are alr ady b th d with wat r d n d r ch

s e a e e , an u e su

circ m ta ce wat r vapor i t gi en ff It i evid nt

u s n s e s no v O . s e

th at n d r ch circ m tanc leaf work m t be carri d

u e su u s es us e

on witho t tr n pir tion In o m e ca e

u a s in c rt in
a . s s s, as e a

g ra e f
ss s, ch i a t d rop
u f swat r are
s, e cextr d ed at. the
, s O e u

apex f the le f or t the tip f the teeth Thi proce

O a , a s O . s ss

i call d g t t t i
s e d b y m an of it a goo d d l
u a on , an f e s ea O

water pa fro m the le f I t i pecially e d by had

sse s a . s s us s e

pla t which live in con d ition which d not favor tran

n s, s O

s piration .

2 7 R pi t i n — A o t her k i d f work al o m y be d
. es ra o n n O s a e

t t d in the foliag le f b t
ec e t a ily d cri b d In
e a , u no so e s es e .

fact it e c p d t h att n t ion f b ot ni t lo g af t er th y

s a e e e O a s s n e

had d i cov r d phot o y the i d tr piration It i work

s e e s n s s an an s . s

th at go lo g t h l f i li e v r c a ing d y
e s on so n as e ea s a v , ne e e s a

or nig h t The xt r al in d ication f it i t h ab or ption

. e e n O s e s
34 P L A N T R E L A TIO N S .

of oxygen and the giving t f carb on dioxi d It will be ou O e .

noted at once that thi i exactly the rever e f what take s s s O s

place in photo ynthe i D ri g the day th refore carbon

s s s . u n , e ,

d ioxi d e and oxygen b oth b eing a b or b d d evolved a re s e an .

It will al o be noted that the taking i f oxygen and the

s n O

giving t f car bon dioxide i j t the ort of exchange

ou O s us s

which take place in own r piratio In fact thi pro

s ou r es n. s

ce i al o called pi t i in plant It d o
ss s s t d epend
res ra on s . es n o

u p on light for it go i ,t h d ark It d o not depend

e s on n e . es
'

u pon chlorophyll for it go i plant d part

, f plant e s on n s an s O s

which are not green I t i t p c liar to leave b t goe . s no e u s, u s

on in ev ry living part f t h plant A proc which goe

e O e . e ss s

on witho t i terr ption i ll living plan t and ani m al

u n u n a s s

m t b e very clo ely r lat d to their li ing

us W concl de
s e e v . e u ,

ther for that while photo ynthe i i p c liar to green

e e, s s s s e u

plant and only take place in th m whe light i pre ent

s, s e n s s ,

re piratio i nece ary to all pla t in all con d itio and

s n s ss n s n s,

that whe it c a e lif m t oon cea

n e T h fact i
s s e us s se . e s,

re piration ppli t h n rgy which enabl t h l i ing

s su es e e e es e v

su b tanc to work
s e .

O nc i t w tho ght th at plant d i ff r from ani m al

e as u s e s

in t h f ct that plant ab orb carbon dioxi d

e a d give ff s s e an O

oxyg n whil ani m al ab or b oxygen and give ff carbon

e , e s s O

dioxide It i een w that there i no ch d i ff erence

. s s ne s su ,

b t that r piration ( a b or ption f oxyge

u es d evol tio o f s O n an u n

carb on d ioxide ) i com m on to both plant d a i m al

s s an n s .

The d i ff rence i that gr pl nt have th ad d d work f

e s ee n a s e e O

photo ynthe i s s s .

W m t al o think f the f oliage leaf there fore

e us s a O , , as

re piring organ b eca e ery m ch f ch work i done

s ,
us v u O su s

by it b t it m t be rem e m b ered that re piration i going

, u us s s

on in every li i ng part f the plant v O .

Thi by mean co mplete the li t f f nction that

s nO s s s O u s

migh t be m a d e t for foliage leave b t it ou rve to indi s, u se s

cate b oth their pec liar work ( photo ynt he i ) d the fact u s s s an

that they are doing other kind f work well s O as .

 F O L IA G E L E A VE S : F UN CT I O N , STR UCT U R E , E T C . 35

B . St ru ct u re o f foliage lea ves .

28 . Gross st ruct ure —It evi d ent tha t the e ential part
is ss

Of a foliage leaf i s it s expan d ed portion or bl d O ft n the a e . e

leaf i all blade ( Fig 7 s se e s .

,

8 1 8 ) freq ently ther i a ,

u e s

longer or horter leaf tal k s -

s

(p t i l ) which help to p t e o e s u

P ro 25
. . T wo t yp es o f lea f le ft is a lea f f Sol m
ve n at o n i . T hefig u re t o th e O o on s
’

s a l ( M y go a tu m) a d
e n h ws th n i pa al le l t h ry mi t
s o e p i ip l
r nc a ve ns r e ve n u e c ros s

i l t b i ng i i i b l e t th e k d y b i g m nocotyl type T h fig t

, ,

ve n e s e nv s o na e e e, e n a o e u re o

igh t i a l ea f of a will w a d h w
.

th e r s tt d i t h m i n cen t l i ( m id
o , n s o s ne e ve n s , e a ra ve n

rib ) di g t a i es of pa all l b h whi h are o necte d wi t h o

sen n Ou se r r e th ra n c es , c c n n e an o er

by a t w k f i l ts be i ng d i cotyl typ —A fte r E TT IN II A U E N

ne or O ve n e , a e CS s .

th e blad e
into b tter light r lation ( Fig 1 9 1 7 20
e -
e se e s .
, , , ,

and om eti m there littl l af like appe d ag ( t ip

s es a re e e -
n es s

l ) on t h petiole wh r i t join the t m who

u es e f nc e e s s e ,
se u

tion i not alway cl ar U pon xam ining the blad it

s s e . e e

i e e to con i t f a gr n
s s n b tanc e thro gh which a
s s O ee su s u
36 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

f l am e work of vein i vario ly arrange d T h large vein

s s us . e s

which en t r t h b lad n d ff mall r b ranch

e e e se d the eo s e e s, a n s

sen d ff o st ill m al l r on
s til t h m all t v i l t
e e s, un e s es e n e s a re

invi i bl d the s e , an

fra m work i a e s

clo n two k of se e r

b chi g v in ra n n e s .

Thi i pl i ly s s a n

hown by a k l s
“
s e

to l f e n
”
ea ,
on e

which h b n as ee so

t r at d t h t all e e a

the g b re e n su

ta c h di p s n e as sa

p d d o ly e are , an n

th t w rk of e ne o

v i r m i It e ns e a ns .

will b tic d e no e

th t i ome a n s

leav t h v in es e e s

d v i l t an e n e s ar e

v ry p m i nt e ro ne ,

i th r o ly n o e s n

th m i in e a n ve s

p o m i t a re r nen ,

wh il i m it e n so e

i h d t d t t s ar o e ec

y i ( an ve n s se e

26 A lea f h whof a h wit h p i l

o rn , s
Fig o
2 5 ng a s o rt e t o e , an d
s .
,

b dt 9 Sig ifi n
.

a ro a oo th d bl d wi h
e a pi e w k t a co n s cu o u s n e t or of " n ca ce
l i b w
.

i
ve n s . N o te t h e re a t o n i et ee n th e ve n s a n d th e
— It
—A ft e r ST R A BB U R G E R of l e af ve i ns
te e t h
l r
.

is c ea th at th e
fram ew rk of v in i d oing t l t t w t h i g for t h
o e s s a e as o n s e

blad ( 1 ) it m h ic ll y ppo t t h p d t g
e : ec an b a su r s e s re a ou re e n su

sta cn d ( 2 ) it c n d
e an t m t ri l t d f m t h g o uc s a e a o an ro e re e n

sub t an ce
s S co m pl te i t h
. twork f v i t h at th is
o e s e ne o e ns
 F O L IA G E L E A VE S : F UN CT I ON , ST R U CTU R E , E TC . 37

support d cond ction are very perfect ( Fig

an u It se e .

i al o cl ar tha t t h green
s s e b tance th pport ed and su s u s su e

supplied with m at rial i t h i m port nt part fethe l af t h s e a O e , e

part that d em and the light r latio St dy the arios -

e n . u v us

plan of the v in y t m in Fig 3 9 1 3 1 8 1 9 20 2 1

s e s s e s s .
, , , , , , ,

25 , 2 6 , 5 1 , 7 0, 7 6 , 8 2, 83, 9 2, 1 6 1 .

F IG . 27 . A pl ant ( F ittonia) whose l ea ves sh o wa ne t work o r ve i n s, and also an ad j ust

me n t to o ne anot h e r to f or m a mosai c .

30 E pi d.e rmis —
a thick l af b e tak n ch that
If e e , su as

of a h y ci th it will b e fo n d po i ble to peel ff f om

a n ,
u ss O r

it rfac a d licat tran par t ki ( pid mi ) Thi

s su e e e s en s n e er s . s

epiderm i co mpl t ly cov r t h l af d gen rally how

s e e e s e e , an e s s

no gre n color I t i a prot c t iv covering b t at t h am e

e . s e e ,
u e s

tim e it m t not co m pletely h t ff t h gr n b tance

us s u O e ee su s

b eneath fro m the o t ide It i fo n d therefore that u s . s u , ,

three i m portant part f a or d inary foliag le af are ( 1 )s O n e

 P L A N T R E L A TIO N S .

a network of vein ; ( 2) a green b tance ( m phy ll) in s su s eso

the m e he f the network s s O d ( 3) over all an epi d er m i an s .

31 St omata — I f a co m po nd m icro co pe i
. . d ome u s s u se , s

ve y i m portant ad d itional fact m y b d i cov re d The

r s a e s e .

thi tran parent epi d rm i i n, s e s s

fo n d to b e m ad e p f a l y r of u u O a e

c ll which fit clo ly tog th er e s se e ,

o m eti m e dov ta iling with ach s s e e

other C rio op ning i the . u us e s n

p ider m i will al o b e d i covere d e s s s ,

o m eti m e in v ry gr at n m b er s s e e u s .

G ar d i g each op ni g are two u n e n

cre c t hap d c ll known s en -

s e e s, as

F IG ll 28 pid m iCe g ur
s Of
d c ll
t he
d b et
e
w ee th
er
m
s
a a -
e s , an n e

l t l ke op g l d thro gh the
. .

of h wi M a ra n ta , s o ng t he s i -
i en in ea s u

( wi h
sto ma w d
e
s)
p i d
t
r m i I ts
Th
t
whol “
pp arat
a
e s . e e a us

kno wn a t m ( pl r l gu ar
o

ce ll s ,
13 as s o a u a

t m t ) which r lly m an s o a a , ea e s
“
m o th f which t h g r d c ll m igh t b e call d t h
u , O e ua -
e s e e

lip ( Fig 2 8
s se e So m eti m e s . to m ta fo n d only
, s s a a re u

on t h n d er i d e of t h l af o m eti m only
e u s e e ,
s es

on t h pp r id e d om tim
u e on b oth
s e , an s e es

s id e s .

T h i m por t a t fact a b o t to m t i tha t

e n u s a a s

t h g ar d c ll can chan g th i
e u -
e h ap s d e e r s e , an

so reg lat the ize f t h o p i g It i t

u e s O e en n . s no

certain j t why t h g rd c ll ch g t h i
us e ua -
e s an e e r

sh a pe and j t w h t to m t d for l av us a s a a o e es .

They are oft n call d b r at hing po e e

“
e re s ,
”

b t the na m e i very ina ppro priat

u Sto m ata
s
i “
e
F 'G ' 29 A B ng ?

m f m
.

s to the
are not p c l ar to t h p d m of fol gee u i m e e I er Is ia e pid e
a ro

, of 3

leav for th y are fo d in t h pi d rm i lil

es, e un e e e s y

of any gr en part t m e yo ng fr i t f m
, as s e s, u u ,
gu rd ns f un

t
e c It i. evident th r for
s th t th y hol d ,
hl phyll
e e e, a e of c o ro .

an i m port nt r lation to gr n ti e which

a e
li l k p i
m
ee ssu
an d

s t- i
th e
e o e n ng
8 "

13 c ov ered b y e p d er m A l o f w ex m n e i b w i s. s ,
I e a i et ee n .
 rO L I A e E L E A VE S : F UN CTI O N , STR U CT U R E , E TC . 39

f oliage leave and other green part f plant which li e

s s O s v

su b merged in water we find that the epidermi co tain , s n s

no to mata Therefore tomata hol d a d efinite relation

s .
, s

to green part covered by epiderm i only when thi pid

s s s e er

m i i expo ed to the air

s s s .

It wo ld e m that the to m ata pply pen p ag

u s e s su O ass e

way for material fro m the green ti

s thro gh the pider ssu e u s

m i to the air or fro m the air to the green ti

s ,
e or b oth ssu , .

It will b e re mem bered however that q it a n mb er f

.

, ,
u e u O

su b tance s tak en into the leaf and given t from it

s are ou ,

so that it i hard to det rmin whether the to m ata are

s e e s

sp ecially for any one f the e m ove m ent For in tance O s s . s ,

th l af give
e e t m oi t re in tran piration oxygen in
s ou s u s ,

photo ynthe i s d car b on d ioxide in re piration while it

s s, an s

take in carb on d ioxide in pho t o ynthe i and oxygen in

s s s s,

r piration It i tho ght tom ata pecially favor tran pira

es . s u s s s

tion and if ,
b reathing pore
, so , i not a happy phra e s s s ,

for they cer t ainly a i t in the other exchange ss s s .

h
32 M esop y l .l — If a cro ection b m ad e of an ordi ss - s e

nary foliage l f ch th a t f a lily the three leaf ea , su as o ,

region can be een in their pro p r relation to each oth er

s s e .

Bo nding the ection above

u d b elow i the lay r of tran
s an s e s

parent epi d e m al cell pierc d here and there by to mata

r s, e s ,

m ark ed by th ir pec liar g ar d c ll e Between the epi u u -

e s .

d rmal layer i t h green ti e kno wn t h m phy ll,

e s s e ss u , as e es o

m ad e p of cel lu which contain n m ero sm all green u us s

bodie which give color to t h whol leaf and are kno wn

s e e , as

chl h
or o
p y ll b d i or h l p l t o es c or o as s .

The m e ophyll cell are ally arrang d d iff erently in

s s u su e

the pper and low r region of the leaf In the pper

u e s . u

r gion the c ll are elongated d tan d pright pre ent

e e s an s u , s

ing their narrow en d to t h pper l af rface for ming s e u e su ,

the p li d ti e In the lower region the cell are irreg

a sa e ssu . s

ular d loo ely arrang d to l av pa ag way for air

, an so s e as e e ss e s

between form i g the p gy ti e The air pace am ong

,
n s on ssu . s s

the cell co mm nicate with one another that a y t em of

s u , so s s

4
40 P L AN T R E L A TI O N S .

air chamber exten d thro gho t the po gy m e ophyl l

s s u u s n s .

It i into th y tem of air chamber that the to m ata

s is s s s s

open and they are p t i to direct comm ication with

, so u n un

or working c ll The pec liar arrange ent

‘

th m e h
p y ll e so m e s . u

of the pper m e ophyll to f m the pali ade ti e h to

u s , or s ssu , as

do with the fact tha t that rface of the leaf i ex p ed to su s os

the direc t ray f light Thi light nece ary to the s O . s , so ss

m e o phyll i al o d ang ro
s for at lea t two r a on I f
, s s e us s e s s .

F ro . 30 . A sec tio n t h rough l f of lily h wi g pp r epid m i ( ) l w pi

th e ea , s o n u e er s us , o er e

d e rm s i ( Ie ) w t i h it s st mat
o ( t ) me phyll ( d tt d c ll ) com po e d f t h pal i ad
a s , so o e e s s O e s e

re g o n i a nd the s p ngy reg io

o wi t h air s paces am g t h ce ll
n d two on e s, an

ve n s i ( r) c u t across .

th eligh t i too inten e it m y d troy the hlorophyll and

s s a es C ,

the h at m y d y t t h c ll By pre enting only nar

e a r ou e e s . s

row en d to thi direct light the cell are le x po e d to

s s s ss e s

inten e light and h eat St d y Fig 30

s . u . .

33 V i s — I the cro
. ction of the leaf th re will
e n n ss s e
-
e

al o b e n h re d ther em be d d d in the m e oph y ll

s e s e e an e, e s ,

th e t nd f t h v inl t
cu m ade p
e partly f tsh ick O e e e s, u O

wall d c ll which hol d the l af in hape d con d ct

e e s, e s an u

material to and fro m the m e ophyll ( Fig s se e .

42 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S

but it ally occ r and doe not nece arily i mply ex

u su u s, s ss

tre me condition of any kind H owever if the cell f the s .

, s O

pali ade ti e are n ally narrow and elongated or

s ssu u u su ,

P ro 32 . . Se ct i on th ro u g h a p tior on of th e lea f of the yew ( Tan us) -

, s h o wi n g cu t c ei l
( e ) , ep id ermi s ( e ) , an d the u pp p t i
er or on of the pali sad e ce ll s ( p) .

form t w or thr e layer w m ight infer the prob ability f

o e s, e O

expo re to inten e light or dro ght The a co m panying

su s u . c

ill trat ion ( Fig 31 ) how in a triking way t h e ff e t f

us . s s s e c O

light inten ity pon the tr c t re f the m e ophyll by

s u s u u O s ,

contra ting leave of the am e plant expo ed to t h extrem e

s s s s e

condition f light and had e s O s .

The m o t al tr ct ral ad aptation however are

s u su s u u s, ,

connecte d with th epi d rmi The o t r wall of the epi e e s . u e s

derm al c ll m y b eco m e thicken d om eti m exce ively

e s a e , s es ss

; the other epider mal so

wall m y al o becom e s a s

m or or le thickene d ; e ss

or even what ee m to s s

b e m or than one epi e

d rm al layer i fo nd e s u

prot c ting the me o e s

phyll If the o ter . u

F ro . 83 h . h p i
Se cti o n t l f wall of the e piderm al
roug a o rt o n o f t h e ea of s
h wi h y il ( )
ca rn at io n ,

f m d by or ew ll
s

pid m l
o

t h e ou te r
ng
t
th e
ta
o s of
ea v cu t c e

th e e er
cu

a
0 0 11 i ll u e

ll ( ) h
ce sh ep i l p
. T w y tt k
ro u g the o ter re
t h e c ut c e s assage a e ll , u
l m wh
ead s w
to t h e ll
sto a,
f t h t ose
i l wa ll t o gua rd -
ce s are

lyi
see n w ngpid m l ll g
b e t vvee n t h e t o e er a ce s
i oIl O e ll

h w s o n l w pid m l 1
in th e fig ure Be o it . tr ct re t he e er a 08 8 8 s s u u
ll m
ce p li d ll ( )
s so e O f th e h w
a sa e ce
“ f the m pal are s

?
s o n
d at
‘
O I II S
I
cu e’
i hl p
co n tai n n g c bl w m oro las ts , an d e o th e sto a

is h mb i w i h p
seen t h e ai r c a t h one f t h
er n to h c it o en s .
13 O e
 F O L IA GE LE A V E S : F UN CT I O N , STR UCT UR E , E TC . 43

be t protective b ta ce ( Fig s su s n s se e .

So m eti m e thi c ticle b s s u e

come thick that the pa age s so ss

way thro gh it leading down to s u

the tom ata beco m e r g lar canal s e u s

( Fig se e .

A nother very com m on protective

tr ct re pon l ave i to b e fo nd s u u u e s s u

in the gr at vari ty of hair de e e s

l p d b y the e pi d er m i The e ve o e s . s

m y for m b t a lightly downy a u s

covering or t h leaf m y be , e a cc v

er d by a woolly or f lt like m a e e -
ss

that the epi d erm i i entirely so s s

conceal d The comm on m ll in e . u e

Flo .A 84f m . l f i a good ill tration of a felt

hair ro th e ea s us
ofm w Pbl
cov r l
d l af (
a .

Fig
I t is
In cold
se e n
e e e se e
f m
.

w
t o gro ou t th e e pi
or d y region the hairy covering
ro

d mi er s .
r s

of leav i very notic able often es s e ,

giving them a b rilliant ilky wh ite or bronze look ( s se e

Fig 34 s . So m ti m in t d of a hair lik cov r

, e e s, s ea -
e e

ing the epiderm i d velop cale of ario patt rn

, s e s s s v us e s,

oft n ov rlapping d form ing an exc llent prot ction

e e , an e e

(se eFig I all the . c i t ho ld b renm m b er d se a se s s u e e e

that th e hair d cale m y rve oth er p rpo e al o

es s an s s a se u s s s ,

as w ll that of prot ection

e as .

36 . D i m i n u t i on
of exposed surface .

It will b e i mpo ible ss

to give m or th an a e

few ill tration of us s

thi large bject

s su .

A h
h th e leaf f bush clo er
In very d y region r s
P ro . 85 .

( La ped eza )
sect ion

s h wi
g ppe a d l w e pid mi o
t roug

n u r n
o

o er er
v

s,

it h alway been
,

as s palisade ce lls d c ll f t h p gy gi , an e s o e s on re on .

n oticed that t h Th l w pid m is p d c

e o er e m h i er ro u es nu e ro u s a rs
e
whi h b n d sh ply a d li l g t h l ea f s rface
c e ar n e a on e u

leave are m all and

s s ( appress e d ) f rmi g a l ose c, i g o n c o ve r n .
F ro . 36 . A b ra n c hi g h
n a ir f ro m t h e l f
ea o f c o mmo n mu ll i
e n . T he i ll us t ra t io n s h o ws
t h f rm
e o ,
b ut no t t he ma n y ll
-
ce e d s t ruc t u re o f th e h i a r .

co mparatively thick altho gh th y m y b v y m ro , u e a e er nu e us

( Fig
se e 4 In thi way
s each
. l , f p m all s ea ex o se s a s

rfac t t h d y su e o e r

ing i d i t n a r an n e se

nlight I su . n ou r

o thw t n d y s u es e r r

region t h c ct s e a us

a b o d pl a n t u n s ,
s

which hav d c d e re u e

their l v m ch ea e s so u

that th y no e a re

long r d for e u se

chloro phyll w k or ,

and t lly a re no u su a

r cogni d l v e ze as ea es .

I th i t d t h n e r s ea e

gl b l r y li o u a or c n

d i l fl tt d r ca or a en e

F ro A l f m l f
37 sca e
t m
ro
g th e ea
d
of Sh e ph erd ia
S e s ar e re e n a n

l f wo k ( F l g
. . .

l l p f m m pl
sca e s o ve r a i d an d or a co e te co ve r n g .
o ea r S.
F IG . 89 . A g ro u p of cac t us f
orms ( sl en d e r cyli n d rica l , col u mnar,
an d glo b l ar)
u , h
all of t em s pi y
n an d wi th ou t l eaves ; an agave in

front ; clus ters of yucca flowers in th e backgro d un .

 F OL IA GE L E A VE S : F UN CT I O N , STR UCT U R E , E TC . 47

In the am e r gion t h
38, 39 , 4 0, 1 9 0, 1 9 1 , 1 92 , s e s e

agave and y cca retai their leave b t they b eco m e

s u s n s, u so

thick that they erve water re ervoi ( Fi g 38 39

s as s rs see s .
, ,

b
a sence o f lea ves .

Inth e ca
all es se s thi r d c d rfa i ppl
s e u e su ce s su e

m t d by p li ad ti
en e a s e ssu e , v ry th ick pid rm al wall and
e e e s,

an ab n d ant c ticl
u u e .

37 . R oset t e ro ette arra g

arrangement — The s n e me nt of
leave s is a very common method of protection us ed by
 P L A N T R E L A TIO N S .

sm all plant growing in expo ed it ation sbare rock s s u s, as s

an d an d y gro nd The l t r f leave flat pon t h

s u . C us e O s, u e

g o n d or nearly
r u d m ore or l
, overlapping i very so , an e ss , s

efi t i ly arrang d for r i ting int n e light or dro ght

ec ve e es s e s u

or col d ( Fig 1 1 1 2 se e s .
, ,

38 P r t t i p i t.i — I o t h r ca
o ec a po ition i ve os on s . n e se s , s s

a m e d by t h l av wh ic h d ir ct th ir flat
ss u e e es e s e

surfac th t th y es not x po e d to the

so a e a re e s

m o t inten e ray of light

s The call d s m s . so -
e co

h e . 41 . Al f
i t i pl t i t w
ea di t io s I t h fig t th e l ft th e
of a se n s ve an n o con n . n e u re o e

l eaf i f lly p d d wi t h it f mai di i i s an d m s l afl t w ll

s u e x an e , s o ur n v s on nu e ro u e e s e

s p d I th fi g t t h i gh t i h w t h m l f ft it h b
re a n e u re o e r s s o n e sa e ea a er as een

h k d by
.

“
s dd t ch by dd h t i m th w y T h
oc e a su en ou , or su en ea , or n so e o er a . e

le fl t h b t h w t g t h f w d d pw d th f m i di i io
a e s ave ee n ro n o e er or ar an u ar e o ur a n v s ns

h b m d t g t h ; d t h m i l f t l k h b di t d h ply
av e een o ve o e er an e a n ea -
s a as ee n re c e s ar

d w w d T h wh l h g h as y m h d d th
o n ar . eface O f p o e c an e ve r uc re u ce e su r ex o sure .

A ft D BB
er UCH A R T .

pa plant alr d y m nt ion d

ss ill tration of thi
s, ea e e , a re us s s,

th l v e t n d ing d g wi
ea d r c iving on their
es s a rface e e s e an e e su

th l i t
e ray of light ( Fig 5
e ss n e n se In t h s se e s .
,
e

dry r gion of A tralia t h l v on m a y of t h for t

e s us e ea es n e es

t d hr b hav thi ch rac t ri tic d g wi e po ition

re e s a n s u s e s a e s e e s s ,

known t h p fi l p i ti giving to t h foli ge a very

as e ro e os on , e a

c rio app aranc

u us e e .

So m l av hav t h pow r of hifting th ir po ition

e e es e e e s e s

accord ing to th ir n d d ir cti g th ir fl t rfac to e ee s, e n e a su es

ward t h light or m or or l inclining th m accor d ing

e , e e ss e ,
 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

to the danger P erhap the m o t com pletely adapted . s s

leave of thi k ind are tho e of the en itive plant

s s s
“
s s s,

who e leave re pond to vario exter al infl ence by

s s s us n u s

changing their po ition The common en itive plant s s . s s

abo n d in d y region and m y b e taken a type of

u s r s, a as

su ch plant ( Fig 4 4 1 s The leave are d ivid ed

se e s .
, ,
s

into very n m ero m all l afl t o meti m e v ry m all

u us s e e s, s s e s ,

which tretch in pair along t h l f branch

s Wh e s e ea es . n

d ro ght approache
u om e f the pair of leaflet fold to s, s O s s

geth r lightly red e , s ue

ing the rface x po su e

re A the d ro ght su . s u

contin m or l fl t u e s, e ea e s

fol d tog ther th n till e , e s

other ntil finally ll s, u a

th e l e fl t m y b e a e s a

fol d d tog th r d t h e e e , an e

leav th m lve m y es e se s a

F IC . yl d
48 . h dli
Co t h w b en d ag in t the te m
e o ns o f s q u as see ng , s o a s , s .

p l h (l f fi )
in g osi ti o n s

r ss ( i h m ml m m m o
d a kn e r g t
Itin
l k aig t
l g l
e

r
t
r
gure
A
an d

“
in
18 i e sai i n v e sse

grad ally t k ng
fl .

d u a i In sa

as a tor m approach s ntil finally othing i expo d e s, u n s se .

and the v el weath r the torm by pre enting only bar

e ss e s s s e

p ol Senes itiv
. plant th reg
s lat thee x p o e d s can us u e e s su r

fac very exactly to t h

e d e n ee .

S ch m otil l ave not only b ehave in thi m ann r at the

u e e s s e

co m ing of d ro ght b t the po ition of t h leafl t are u , u s s e e s

s hift d thro gho t t h day in reference to light d at

e u u e , an

night a v ry charact ri tic po ition i a m d ( Fig 2

e e s s s ss u e se e s .
,

3 , once called a l pi g po ition Th d ng r fro m s ee n s .

”
e a e

night expo r co m fro m t h rad iation f h t which

su e es e O ea

occ r which m y chill t h l av to t h d ang r poi t

u s, a e e es e e n .

The night po ition f the lea fl t f O li h b en s O e s O xa s as e re

ferr d to already (
e Si m ilar chang in t h dir se e es e ce

tion of the leaf plan at the co m ing of night m y be es a

o b er ed in m o t of t h L g m w ev n the co mm on
s v s e e u
'

znos , e
 F O L IA GE L E A VE S : F U N CTI O N , STR U CT U R E , E TC . 51

white clover d i playing it It can b e o b erved that the

s . s

expanded eed leav ( ty l d ) of many yo ng g mi t

s es co e on s u er na

ing plant hift their po i t ion at night ( Fig

s s ften s s se e . O

a m ing a vertical po ition which b ring them in contact

ss u s s

with one another and al o cover the te m b d ( pl m l )

, s s s u u u e .

Certain leave with well developed s -

protectiv tr ct re are able to

e s u u s en

d re the winter
u in the ca e o f , as s

the calle d evergreen In the

SO -
s .

c e of j niper however the winter

as u , ,

an d m m er po ition of the leave

su s s s

a re q ite d i ff er nt ( Fig
u In e se e .

t h winter the l ave lie clo e again t

e e s s s

the tem and overlap one another ;

s

while with the co m ing of warm er

condi tion they beco m e widel y s

s pr dingea .

39 . P rotect i on against rain — It is

al o nece ary for leav to avoi d
s ss
h wi
es
F ro . 44 . T wo t wigs
ng t h e e fl ec t of
of j un i
becom ing wet by rain If the water h d p .
pe r,
ea t
s o

an d co l u on th e

i allowe d to oak in there i danger

s s
p i i l s
os t ons Of th e eaves .

y p T he o rd in ar ro te cte d
of filling the to mata and inte f ri g wi p i
s r e n n te r os tion of th e

with the air exchang H ence it l

whil
h w
p
b y es .
ea ves is s o n A

will be notice d that m o t leave are w m di i s s ar

e i n B , in
er co n
res o nse t o

t on s , th e

able to hed water partly by th ir l h p

s ,
p e eaves ave s rea d a art

h b m f ly
po ition partly by th ir tr ct re
s s,
p — f W e s u u .
an d

ose d
a ve

A ter
eco e re e

A R H IN Q
ex

In m any plant t h leave are ar

.

s e s so

range d that t h wa t er r n fi toward the tem and

e u s o s s so

reache the main root y tem ; in other plant the rain i

s s s s s

shed o twar d from the eav of a ho e

u s, as es us .

So m e of the tr ct r which prevent th rain fro m

s u u es e

soaking in are a mooth epi d ermi a c ticle lay r waxys s, u e ,

secretio felt like covering t

n s, Intere ting p i
-
s, e c . s ex er

m ent m y b e pe for m ed with di ff erent leave to t t their

s a r s es

power of hedding wat r If a g ntle pray of water i

s e . e s s

allowed to play pon di ff erent plant it will b e b erved

u s, O s
52 P L A N T R E L A TIO N S

that the water glance ff at once from the rface of s O su s

som e leav r n ff m ore lowly from oth er and m y b e

e s, u s o s s, a

m ore or l re t ain d by oth r

e ss e e s .

In thi am e connec t ion it ho l d be notic d that in

s s s u e

m o t horizontal leav
s the two rface d iff r m ore or le
es su s e ss

in app aranc the pper

e e, ally b ing m oother than the
u u su e s

lower and the to m ata occ rring in larg r n m ber om e

, s u e u s, s

ti m excl iv ly pon the nd er rface W hile the e

es us e , u u su . s

d i ff er nc e d o b tle
es have a m ore im portant m eaning than
u ss

p rot ction
e again t wetting they aresal o gge tive in thi , s su s s

connection .
 CH A P TE R IV

S H O O TS .

40 Ge n e ral
. ch aract ers — The ter m shoot is u sed to incl u de
both te m and leav
s A m ong the low r plant ch es . e s, su as

the alg and toad tool th r i no di tinct tem d leaf

ae s s, e e s s s an .

In ch plant t h working b o d y i poken of t h thall

su s e s s as e u s,

which do the work d o e by both te m d l af in the

es n s an e

high r plant Th e two kind of work are parat d in

e s . es s se e

the hig h er plant d the hoot i d i ff rentiate d into te m

s, an s s e s

and leave s .

4 1 L ife l ti
.
—I king to d i cover the ential
-
re a on . n se e s e ss

life relation of the te m it i evident that it i not mec

-
s , s s es

sar ily a light relation in the ca e of the foliage leaf

-
, as s ,

for many t m b terranean A l o in general the

s e s a re su . s , ,

ste m i not an expand d organ

s i t h or d inary foli e , as s e

age leaf Thi in d ic t that what v r m y b e it e ntial

. s a es e e a s sse

life relation it h li t tle to d with expo re of rface

-
as o su su .

It beco m e plai that t h t m i the gr at l af b earing

s n e s e s e e -

organ and that it life r lation i a leaf relation O ften

, s -
e s -
.

ste m branch d th i incr a e their pow r of pro d cing

s , an s e s s e u

l ave
e s .

In cla ifying t m th refore it em nat r l to

ss s e s, e , se s u a u se

the kin d of leav they b ear Fro m thi tandpoint th re es . s s e

are three pro minent kin d of te m ( 1 ) tho e b aring foli s s s s e

ag el av e; ( )
2 t h o b
es ring caly l ave ; d ( )
3 tho e se ea s e s an s

b earing floral l av Th re are o m pec liar for m f

e es . e s e u s O

stem which d not b ear leave of any kind b t they need

s O s , u

not be incl ded in thi general view

u s .
64 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

A . Stems bea r i ng foli age lea ves .

42 . p r po e of thi te m i to
Ge neral character .
—A s the u s s s s

di play foliage leav

s d it h been d i cover d that the e s, a n as as s e

e ential life relation f foliage leave i the light relation

ss -
O s s -
,

it follow that a te m of th i type m t be abl to relate it

s s s us e s

leave to light It i ther fore com monly aerial and that

s . s, e , ,

it m y prop rly d i play the leav it i generally elongat d

a e s es s e ,

with it joint ( d ) b aring the leave well parated (

s s n o es e s se se e

Fig 1 4 1 8
s .
, , ,

The foliage b earing te m i g erally t h m o t -

p i s s en e s con s cu

ou s part of the pla t d give tyl to the whole b od y n an s s e .

O ne i m pre ion f the for m f m o t plant i btained

’
s ss O s O s s s O

from the foliag b earing te m S ch te m hav greate- s s. u s s e

range in ize and length of life fro m m in te ize d very

s , u s an

short lif to h ge tree which m y d re for cent rie

e u s a en u u s .

Branching i al o q i t e a f at re of foliag b earing te m

s s u e u e -
s s

an d when it occ r it i evi d nt that t h pow r f d i play u s s e e e O s

ing foliage i corre pondingly incr a d C rtain pro m i

s s e se . e

nent typ of foliage b earing t m m y b con i d ere d

es -
s e s a e s .

4 3 Th b te
. ty pe —
e suI t m y ee m trang to i rranean a s s e n

l d any
c u eb terranean te m with tho e that b ar foliage
su s s e ,

as ch a tem ee m to b away fro m any light r latio

su s s s e -
e n .

O rdinarily b terran an t m end foli g b earing branche

su e s e s s a e- s

ab ove the rface d ch tem su t to b cla d , an su s s a re no e sse as

foliage b aring t em B t ft n t h only tem po e e d

-
e s s . u O e e s ss ss

by the plant i b t rran an d no b r che

s sut to e e , an an s a re se n

th rf ce In ch c
e su a only foliag l a app ar ab o
. su ase s e e ve s e ve

gro n d d they co m dir c t ly fro m t h b terran an te m

u , an e e e su e s .

The ord inary f rn f rni h a con pic o ill tration f e s u s s u us us O

thi hab it all that i n f th m ab ove gro d bei g the

.

s ,
s se e O e un n

characteri tic l ave the co mm only call d te m b ing

s e s, e s
”
e

o ly the p tiol of t h l af ( Fig 4 5 4 6

n e e M any e e se e s .
, ,

e d plant can al o b fo nd which how the am hab it

s e s s e u s s e ,

e pecially tho e which flower early in t h pring Thi

s s e s . s

cannot be regarde d a very favorable type of tem f as s or

 45 . A fe rn h i h b
( A cpi d i um) , s ow n g t ree large ran c n g le ave s co m n g f rom a o r hi i h i
l b k i
zo n ta su te rran e a n ste m ( roo t s toc ) : g ro w n g ea ve s are a so s o wn w c l are l h , hi h
d y
gra u all un ro n g lli y l l
T h e s te m , ou n g e ave s, an d pe ti o e s o f t h e arge e ave s are
. l l
t c hi k ly
cove re d ihp
wt i h i
rote c t n g a rs i
T h e s te m g ve s rise t o n u me ro us s ma ro ots ll
f
.

ro m its l f
o we r s u r a ce fi k p
T h e g ure m ar ed 3 re re se n ts t h e u n e r s u r ace O f a
. d f
p i
ort o n o f t h e l f h i p
ea , s o w n g se v e n gro u s o f s po re cases ; at 5 is re res e n t e a p d
i h h
sect o n t ro ug h p h i p
on e o f t ese gro u s, s o w n g h o w t h e s o re cases are a t tac e an d hd
p t t d by
ro e c e fl p wh il t 6 i
a a p t d i gl p
e a s re rese n e a s n e s ore case op i g
en n a nd d is
ch ar gi g it
n p th h y sp i g li k e i g xt di g al
s s o res , e ea v r n - r n e en n ong th h
e k ac an d o ve r

th e top —A f te r W ossm L o .

5
66 P L A N T R E L A TIO NS .

leaf di play and s , as a r le ch te m do not prod c e

u su s s u

m any foliage leave s, b t the leave are apt to b e large

u s .

F IG 46 A co mmo n f sh wi
e rn , o ng t he u n d e rgro u n d s te k
m ( roo ts to c ) , w hi h c se n d s th e
NS N
. .

fe w l a rge f li g l
o a e ea v e s a b o ve th e f
s u r ace —A fte r A T K I O .

Th e po
su b t e rran e an
ition i goo d howev r for s s a on e , e ,

p rpo
u f pro t ction a gain t col d
se s O d ro g h t ed wh n s or u ,
an e

th foliage leave are k ill d new one can be p t t by

e s e s u ou
58 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

certainly one of protection and it h a f rth er advantage , as u

in the way f m igration and vegetative propagation A

O . s

th te m ad vanc over the gro n d root trike t f the

e s es u , s s ou O

node into the oil In thi way fre h anchorage d new

s s . s s an

soil pplie are c r d ; t h ld part of the tem m y

su s se u e e o s s a

F IG . 48 . T wo pl a n t s of a sax if rage , h wi g
s o n rose t te h ab i t , l
an d a so th e n u me ro u s

ru n n e rs se n t o u t f ro m t h e b a se whi h t i k
c s r e roo t a t t ip an d p d
ro u ce ne w pl an ts

E NE
.
,

A te r K f R R .

d ie , b u t t h e ne w r portio
v th i oil co ction d e ns ha e e r s nne an

con t in t liv S ff t iv i th i h b i t for thi kin d of

ue o e . O e ec e s s a s

pro p g t ion t h t pl n t wi t h
a a t t m ft m ak
a f a s e re c s e s O en e u se O

it , d ing
se n t fro m n r t h b oup ci l pro t r t b ranch ea e ase s e a s a e e s,

which d v ce ov r t h gro d d form new plant

a an e e un an s .

A very f m ili r il l tr ti a i f rni h d by the tra w

a us a on s u s e s

b erry plant which en d t p c liar nak d

, r nn r s s Ou e u e
“
u e s
”

to tri k root and for m new plant which th n b ecom e

s e s, e
 SH O O TS . 59

independ nt plant e s by t he d ying Of th e r un n e r s

( se e Fig s .

47 ,
45 . Th e fl oati ng t ty pe —In thi s c e as the s e ms a re su s

t i d b y wat r
a ne N m ero ill tration can b f d in
e . u us us s e ou n

sm all inla d lak d low m oving trea m (

n F ig e s an s - s s se e .

Beneath the wat r the e te m ften ee m q it er ct b t e s s s O s u e e ,

u

F ro . 49 . A su bm e rge d pla n t ( P eru /oph y ll u m) w i t h fl t i

oa n g s te m s , s h wio ng th e s te m

j i
o n ts b i
ea r ng fi n e d l! ly id d l
e ea ves .

wh n t k e t t h y c ll p
a enl ki g t h b y t po w
ou e o a se , ac n e uo an er

o f th w t r G wi g f
e a e d m . l p ig h
ro t i n re e an o re or e ss u r n

t h w t r th y
e m t h v all t h fr d m f
a e , e t t m
se e o a e e ee o o e re c s e s

i d i pl yi g f li g l av
n s a d t th
n m ti m o ath e e e s, an a e sa e e cv

a re not call d pon t b il d ri gi d t ct e u E my o u s ru u re s . con o

of b il d i g m t i l d nti f d o m t d i pl y f li g
u n a er a an e re re e o s a o a e

wo l d m t b h ppy co m b in t i f pl n t I t m t
u se e o e a a a on or a s . us

b notic d ho w v
e th t e th , y i m p t t d it i
e e r, a ano e r ve r o r an con on

i i tro d c d
s n T h th l f f
u e th
. li gh t m t
o re a c e ea s u r ac e s e us

pa thr gh t h w t
ss o ud thi d i m ini h it in t e it y a e r, a n s s es s ens so
 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

gr atly that the working pow r of the l av i red c d

e e e es s u e .

A t no v ry gr at d ept h f water a li m it i r ache d b yon d

e e O s e , e

which the light i no long r able to b f rvice to the

s e e O se

l ave in th ir work H nce it i that wat r plant are

e s e . e s e s

re trict d to th rface f t h
s e e su O e

wat r or to hoal plac ; and i e , s es n

ch place v g tation i v ry su s e e s e

ab n d ant W ater i eriou . s so s us

an i mpedi m ent to light that v ry e

m any plant bring th ir worki g s e n

l ave to the rf c and flo t e s su a e a

th m een in wat r lilie th e , as s e s, us

b taining light f ndi mini h dO O u s e

int n ity e s

—
.

4 6 Th e limb i g ty pe Cli m b . c n

ing t m d v lop d p cially s e s are e e e es e

in the tropic wh r the v geta s, e e e

tio i den e and over hadow n s so s s

ing that m any t m hav l ar d s e s e e ne

to cli m b pon t h b o d ie of oth r u e s e

p lant and pr d th ir l v s, so s ea e ea es

in b tt r light ( Fig 5 0 5 5 e e se e s .
, ,

98 G r at woody vin ,
e es

fairly interl c t h v g t tion f a e e e e a O

tropical for t d know e s s, an a re n

li na or li n as Th “
a s,
” “
a es . e

am habit i ti abl al o in s e s no ce e, s ,

t mp r t v g tation b t itou r e e a e e e ,
u

i b y no m e n xt n iv ly d i
s a s so e e s e s

play d i t h tropic Th r e as n e s . e e

a good m ny form of li m ba re a s c

ing t m R m m b eri g t h t s e s . e e n a

th h bi t ref r to t m l
e a e s on e s i a x
e
P l o so m A li mb i e Gu iana c
p n d ing pon an oth r f
. . ng

m
t he t n k of a t ree ,
e u e or

m dj d ”
an a ‘
uste
m chanical b e llgh
f ace ‘
pp o t w m ev i su r e a n
an d id h ito avo ad n g on e e u
,

m a y h d g plant i t h
s

o t h e r aa l d
f ar as pog g lb le ,
c u e n e e s n e
 SH O O I S ’‘
. 61

li t f cli m ber In thi ca e t h te m e too wea k to

s O s . s s e s s ar

t n d alon
s a b t by interlacing with
e, another they m y
u on e a

keep pright po ition Th re

an u t m al o which s . e are s e s, s ,

cli m b by twining ab o t th eir pport the hop vine and u su , as

F m 51 A l
c us te r O f s m il ax , sh o w n g i t h e te n d ilr s w hi ch en a bl e it to c li m b a n d a so l
— E NE
. .
,

th e p i kl
r c es . A ft er K R R .

m orning gl ry oth r which p t t t n d ril to gra p the

o e s u ou e s s

supp o t ( Fig
r 5 1 t
se e h g p vi s d .t r ,
as e ra e ne an s a

c c m ber ; d till ot h which cli m b by nding t

u u an s e rs se ou

suck r to act h ol d fa t
e s t h woo d b in (
as Fig 5 3 s s, as e e se e s .
,

In all th e ca e ther i an attem pt to reach toward

es s s e s s
62 P L AN T R E L A TI O N S .

th e light wi t ho t d ev loping ch t r ct r in the t mu e su s u u es s e

as wo ld enable it to tan d pright

u s u .

4 7 Th e rect type —T h i
. type e m altogether the
e s se s

be t ad apted for the proper di play f foliage l av L eave

s s O e es . s

F IG . 52 . P a ss i o u - ti o u e r v n e si c l imb i n g s u pport s by m ea n s o f t e n d ri l s, wh ich may b e

see n mo re l
o r ess e x t e n d ed o r coiled . T h e two t y pe s of l ea ve s u po n a s in g e s te l m
may l
a so be n o te d .

can be se n t ou t in a ll d ire c t i on s an d c a rrie d u

pwa rd t o

wa rd s t h e igh t l b u t it is at t he e xpe n s e o f d e ve l o i
p g
n an

e a l b o ra t e mec han i lca sy s t e m to l

e n ab e t he ste m to re t a ni
th i p i t i
s os on . Th e re is an i n t e re s t i n g l
re a t io n b e t we e n
the e ct b d i
s e re o e s a n d zon e s o f t e m pe ra t u re . A t h igh alt i
 sn oo rs '
. 63

F IG . 58 W ood b i n e ( A mpelopsis) in a d e ci d u o us orest T he tree tru nks are al most

. f .

co ve re d b y t h e d e n se m asse s o f wood b i n e wh ose l ea ves a re adj ust ed s o as to form

i i bl
,

com p
ac t mosa i cs A lo “ e r s t ra t u m o f ve g e t at o n i is v s e , co d
m pose o f s h b
ru s

lh b
.

an d tal er s, s h o w ngi t h at the f o re s t is so me w h at o p e

n f
—A te r Se m x r m t .

t u d csor l ti t d t h bt a u es e su er

ra n e a n d pro t r t t y p an of s a e es

foli g b ri g t m
a e -
mo t
ea n s e s a re s

co m m n ; d o p to an as one a s se s

l w r l t it d
o e l tit d th
a u e s or a u es e

er t t m b m m ore
ec s e s eco e nu

m d m r l fty
e ro u s a n A m ong o e o .

t m f t h r c t ty p the tr
s e s o e e e e ee

i ths m t i m pr
e iv and it os e ss e,

h d v l p d i t a gr t vari
as e e o e n o ea

t of f r m or h bi t
”
c v oA y s
“
a s . n

011 0 r g i th g t d fie co n ze s e re a l cr '

F w A po rt io n o f a woo
54 d bi ne

nc i t h h b i t f the pin
. .

e e n e a s o e ( A mpd opxis ) T h e s te m te n . d ilr s

h h d th l
and th h ( 1 54 e 5 6C “ 8 00
v
1 8 .
’
a ve

smo o t h “ a ll
a t ta c e e mse
b y me a n s o
ve s

f d ls k
to
-
li k
a

57 58 , d m ny f, an a O O ll l
‘
su c k e rs f
— A t e r Sr a s s n u n c mt .
F m 57 A pi ne t ree . s h o wi n g th e l h ft d l
ce n t ra s a an a so th e b u nc h i ng of th e
b h wh t h b
. .

n eed el l e ave s to wa rd t h e t psi of the ra n c es e re e re is t h e e s t e x po s u re

t o ligh t .
 SH O O TS .

comm on tr e m y b known ven at a d i tanc by their

e s a e , e s e,

charact ri tic h b it ( Fig 60 6 1

e s T h d i ffi c lty
a s se e s .
, ,
e u

of the m echanic l p o bl m olv d b y th e h g b o d i a r e s s e es u e es

i very great
s Th y m aintain for m d po ition and
. e an s en

d re tre m endo pr re d train

u us e ss u an s .

F m 58 An e lm in its wi n ter co ndi t ion ,

h wi g t h b s o n e a se n ce o f i
a co n t n u o u s ce n t ra l
h aft th main st e m s b k i ng p i t bra ch
. .

s e oo n rea u n o n es . an d g i i
v ng a s p di
re a ng to p
O n eac h i d i t h b k gr u d are tr s f t h pi
. .

s e n e ac o n ee o e ne t yp
e, s h i
o w ng t he ce n t ral

sh ft
a d i ca l t li
an co n ou ne .
 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

48 . R e lat i on t o light —
te m b eari g foliage leave
As s s n s

h ol d a p cial rela t ion to light it i n ce ary to peak of

s e , s e ss s

t h in fl ence of light pon th ir direc t ion the re pon e to

e u u e ,
s s

F in . 59 . An e lm in f liage
o , sho wi n g th e b rea k i n g u p o f th e t run ki n to b ran c h e s an d

the s p di
rea ng to p
.

which i kno wn h li t pi m al d y r f rr d to nd r
s as e o ro s , re a e e e u e

foli g l v a In t h c e of an r t t m t h t n d ncy
e ea es . e as e ec s e e e e

i to g ow toward the o rce of light (

s r Fig 1 s s u se e s .
,
 sn oors . 69

T hi h the general re lt of placing the leaf blad e at

s as su s

righ t angl to the ray of light and in th i re p ct t h

es s , s s e e

h liotro pi m of th te m ai d in ec ring a favorable l af

e s e s s s u e

p ition ( Fig 63 6 3 ) P ro trat te m are di ff r ntly

os se e s .
, u . s e s s e e

aff ecte d by the ligh t however b eing directed tran v r ely , , s e s

to the ray of light The am e i tr e of many foliage

s . s s u

P ro . 00 . An o ak in its wi n te r ii
con d t on , s h wi o ng th e wi d e
branchi g T h n . e var ou s i
d i i
re c t o n s of t he bran hes h ac ve bee d t n e er mi e d b y t h e li gh t l at i s
n -
re on .

b ra nch e s , as yb
al m o t y t in
ma e se e n by o b se rving s an re e

which t h l w b ch e i t h gen
o l tran v r po i
er ran e s a re n e e ra s e se s

tion Th b ranch g rally t d to t rn pw r d wh n

. e se es e ne en u u a s e

they are b yond the region of had ing S bterranean te m

e s . u s s

are al o m o tly horizon t al b t t h are t f the infl ence

s s , u ev ou o u

of light and n d er the infl ence of gravity t h re pon e to

,
u u , e s s

which i known y f p m which g i d e t he m into t h

s as eo r o zs
'

, u s e

tran ver e po ition The cli m bing te m like the erec t one
s s s . s , ,
70 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

F IG . 61 . C o tt o n woo d i wi
s, n n t e r co n di t i
o n , o n a sa n d d u ne , sho wi ng t h e b ra n c hi ng

h ab i t , and t h e te n e nd cy t o g ro w in gro u ps .

g o w t wa
r s o rd s light wh ile floating te m
th e , s s m ay be
ei the r ct r e e or t n r ra s ve se .

B . St e ms b ea r i ng sca le le a ve s .

rl h tr Ge ne cl l fi
a which d o
c arac e .
—A s a e ea s on e es

not rv fo li g
se it d o
e as not d lo p t h n ce ary
a e , as es e ve e e ss

c hloro phy ll Thi m th t it d

. t d
s ch e an s a oe s no nee su an

ex po of rf
s u re c d h nc l
sul v a al ly m
e , an ch e e sc a e ea e s a re u s u u

sm ll r a d rt i ly
e , m
an i ce
p i m t h
a n foli g a re o re n c on s cu c s an a e

l v ea A g o d i ll tr t i
es . f c l l v
o i f i h d by
us a on o s a e ea es s u rn s e

th di
e or ly b d f t in whic h t h cov ing of
n arv s c a u s o re e s , e er

ov lapping aly l v i v y o pic o ( Fig

er sc ea es s er c ns u us se e .

A there i no d elo pm n t of chloro phy ll in

s s evch l v e su ea e s,
 sn o ws . 71

they do not need to b expo ed to the light Stem bearing e s . s

only cale leav therefore hold no nec ary light relation

s e s, , e ss -
,

a d m y b
n bte ranea
a wel l aerial F the am e
e su r n as as . or s

h e. as A gro p f wee pi ng b i rch es h wi

u o s o ng th e b ra n ch i n g h abi t a d th pecu lia
n e r

h b i t of
. .

h a gi g b
n chl ts
n T h e tru n ks a ls
ran e . h o s o w t he a b i rch bark i p li g O R
n ee n

in band s ro d the stem

a un .

rea on cale l e do not n d to b eparated from

s s e av s ee e s on e

another b t m y overlap , in the b d referred to

u a , as u s .

So m eti m e cale leave occ r interm ixed with foliage

s s s u so
s
F ro 68 Su nfl owers w t i h t he u ppe part
r of th e ste m s h arply b e n t to ward s th e ligh t
—A f te
. . .

gi vin g t h e l ea es b tt e ex p m
v e r os u re r Sc a n - an .
74 P L A NT RE L A TIO N S .

are of thi ch aracter ; s

and the m ain p as ur

po e i food torage
s s s

th m o t favorable
e s

po ition i a b t
s s su er

ra n e anone ( Fig se e .

So m ti m ch e es su

s cale leave b co m e s e

very broad d not an

m erely overlap b t u en

wrap one anoth r e , as

in the ca e of the s

onion .

51 . The tube r ty pe .

The or i ary otato d n p

m y be tak n
a an il e as

l tration (
us Fig se e .

T h m in t cal e u e s e

le ve to b fo nd at
a s, e u

the ye of the
“
e s
”

potato d not overlap , o ,

w h ich m an that the e s

ste m joint f r ther s a re a

apart than i t h b d n e u

type The wh l f m
. o e or

of the t m r lt s e e su s

fro m it a place s u se a s

of foo d torag d s e, an

he ce ch t m are
n su s e s

F m 64
. . An
l h ft
arau ca rian pi n e,

l l t
s h o wi n g t he g n r lly
e e a b t rra su e
ce n t ra

b ra n c h p
s

es s
a , and

re a d n g i
t he
in
re gu ar

e ve r y di t i rec
c u s e rs

on and
of
n n Food torage
ea . s ,

b i ll l
ea r n g n u me ro us s m a Th l w e av es e o sub t rran n po i t ion
e ea s
m t b
.

,
h d d ww d d r d c d
er

a
os t
t h l g t whil t h
re e
ra n c

b b m
ar e s
es d ex en

e ose
o

a
n

o ve
ar s

e co
an

e
an cale e u e s

l v are f t which
,

m h i t l d m ll
o re o r zo n a Th di f an s a er . ese ea es ac s
f i th
e re u ees i a d di c t i
n f th
e s ze n re on o e
m to follow each
b a h es sec re t h e larg st ligh t xpo
r nc u e e
se e

s u re . other nat rally u .

 SH OO TS .

52 . Th e rootst ock ty pe —Thi s is pro b

a bly the m o t comm on form of b t s su er

r an e an stem It i elongated are foli . s , as

a g te
e m and
s hence the cale
s, leave s s

a re well eparated It i prom inently

s . s

us ed for food torage and i al o ad m irably s , s s

a dapted for bterranean m igration ( su se e

F ig It can d for the plant in the

. o ,

w y of m igration what pro trate foliag

a , s e

bearing te m d and i in a m ore protected

s s o, s

po ition A d vancing b eneath the gro nd

s . u ,

it en d p a cce ion of branche

s s u su ss s

t o the rface I t i a very e ffi ci nt

su . s e

m ethod for t h reading of plant “ ”

p e s s,

an d i exten ively s ed by gra e in s us ss s cc v

ering area and forming t f Th per i t

s ur . e s s

en t contin ance of the wor t weed i ofte

u s s s n

d ue to thi habit ( Fig 6 9 s It se e s .

,

i i m po i b le hb s ss
F u ds
ro 65 Bran c
to r mo v
. .

m h b e e of e l . T ree ud s

( ) wi h h
al l o f th e l ppi a
k t
ng
t eir o ve r
scales are

i ndefinitely h w h j s o n, ea c u st

branc h i g b
l f
( ) n
a

of
ove the
o ld
sca r b

roo t to ck
an ea .

f s s A te r Bs u n a n s .

from the oil s ,

and any fragment that r m in s e a

bl to n d p fr h cro p are a e se u es s

of a rial b ranch e es .

5 3 A lte rn ati on
. of re st an d

act ivity — Inall of the thr e

. e

tem type j t m entioned it

s s us ,

i i m portant to not that th y

s e e

a oci t d with a r mark

a re ss a e e

F io . as . A bulb , mad e up of over ap l able alt rna t ion b tw n r t e e ee es

P13 8
accou n t
m
of
t

f
“

ood
b id !

t
”0 “m y 0"
— Af t
and vigoro activity Fro m us .

t h e b r anc h b d t h e new l av es
s o rage e r

Gnu .
u s e
 P L A N T R E L A TIO N S .

e m e r g e wi t h
great rapidity ,

and tr e b e s e

co m e covered
with w foliage ne

in a few day s .

Fro m the b su

te ran an tem r e s s

the a rial part e s

ome p o 0 u s

pe d ily that the s e

Fin .Ap 67 pl
. wi b b
o tat o
r ace
an t, s h o
f o f the n g t h e su te rranean tu e rs .

su
m A f ter S sn u no s n

gro n d ee m to
.

u s s

be covered ddenly with yo ng vegetation Thi dden

su u . s su

change from co m parative re t to great activity h been s as

well pok en of the awakening of vegetation

s as .

C . Stems bea r i ng fl or a l lea ves .

54 . called
Th e fl owe r .
—The ao-

flower which cert in plant s

”
a s

prod c repre ent anoth r ty pe o f

u e s e

shoot b eing te m with p c liar

, s s e u

leav S attractive
es . flower o a re s

th t th y h av b n v ry m ch
a e e ee e u T he roo t s toc k of 30 10 .

t d ie d and thi fac t h l d

s u s as e mon ‘
om i : im m thc
d l pd
un d er s id e

m ny p o ple to b li ve that flow r

ro o ts a re e ve o e an d o n t h e
a e e e e s upp id er s e are se e n th e m m
a re t h only part of plant worth
e s s whi h m c ark th e p it i os o ns o f th e
cces i i l bran h which
t d y ng A md fro m the fact
s u i . e
su

b ea r
s ve ae r a

the lea m The

c es

mm ”
that great m any plan t d not
.

a s o ing t ip is p ro te c te d by sca es l
( fo rm i ng po i
pro d c flow r ven u e tho e s, e in se
t i on s 0 ,
a

pr
s b d s m in
b ud ) ,
e vio u
an d

u
the s

that d the flow r are conn cted

o e s e d icat d by gro ps f i n g li k
e u o r -
e

sca s whi c h mark t h at tac h

W t h only one of the plant pro
r e
i
m m , t m r sc l
e o Ad a c
a e a es v n

ce that of repro d ction i g i f n t a d dyi g be hi nd

.

ss e s, u . n n ro n n

E v ry one know that flower are

e s s
s h a rootst k m y gi e i
uc oc a v r se

t an i d e fi n it s sion of
ceedingly variable a d nam e
o n e u cces

ex n s a ial plan ts —A f te x o n“
'
, er , .
 sn o o rs
'
. 77

have b een given t o y k ind of a iatio o t h at t heir e ve r v r n, s

t dy i ofte not m ch m ore tha l arning the de fi nitio

s u s n u n e ns

of nam e H owe r if we eek to di o er the l ife rela

s. ve , s sc v -

tion of flower we fi d that they m y be tated ery im ply

s s n a s v s .

5 5 Life ralat iona The flower i to prod ce

.
-
eed It -
s u s .

m t ot
us ly p t itself into p oper rela tion to do thi b t
n on u r s, u

F lo . 09 . Th e roo ts t ock o f a rus h h wi g h w it d a

( J a ne ne) , s ob n o a v n c es e n ea t h th e
g ro u n d and se n d ab
s ove t he f i fb h
s u r ac e a su cces s o n o Th b ranc es e rea ki n g u p

l t i o man y pa ate l d i id l —A fte

.

o f s uc h a roots tock o n ly re s u s n s se r n v ua s . r Co wnxs .

th re m t al o b o m e arrang m ent for p t t ing t h

e us s e s d e u e se e s

into prop r co d ition for d ev loping w pl nt In t h

e n s e ne a s . e

p rod ction of
u d it i n c ry for t h
se e flow r to c re a s e e ssa e e se u

tran f r of c rtain y llowi h pow d ry b odi which it pro

s e e e s , e es

d ce known p ll or p ll g i to t h organ i
u s, as o en o en - ra n s, e n

which the ed pro d c d known t h pi til Thi

se s a re u e , as e s . s

tran fer i c ll d p lli t i

s s aO of t h i m portant thi g
e o na on . ne e n s,

t he r f ore in co n n ct io n w it h t h e fl ower i for it to p t

e , e ,
s u
78 P L A N T RE L A TI O N S .

F ro . 70
. An a lpi ne willo w , s h wi g stro g
o n a n roo tsto c k de l pi ve o n g ae r a i lb ran c hes
an d roots , an d ca a p b le of l g li fe a d ext ens i
on n ve m igration —A f te r SC B XI PBB .

i t elf i to
s n su ch relation that it s m ay ec re pollination
s u .

B id e es pollination
s ,

which i c ry s ne e ssa

to t h p o d ctio of
e r u n

d
se e th r m t b
s, e e us e

af a
t)r ng m nt for
r a e e
Q
W es d d i
e tri b tion s u .

It alw y w ll for
IS a s e

e d to b catt r d
se s e s e e ,

so a sto b parated e se

l
ly i n m on e a oth r
f o n e

and fro m t h parent e

pl nt Th two
a . e

Afl gr e at ( X t G rn a'l pr? b
F
'

F m 71 . . pe y h wi g th f
o we r o f ts f
on , s o n e ou r se o

fl l ga : k t h p l t g th
o ra or ns ,
lled t he se a s, o e e r ca e le m s in c o n n e c t l on
ca ly

a th
c thx

m ro
pe tal t g t he ca ll d t h c ll
st m
. e s.

th e tw c p l
o e r e e o ro a
W iil th : l 8 fl0W er
— th fore
, e nu s ; g
e us a en . o ar e s ,

h olli
whic t h
ai t e W l m A fter Srn asn un xa e re a re
p
'
co n ln i e o . ,
 SH O OT S . 79

n a t ion and d d i t ib ti s ee -
s r u on .

It i n ce ary to call attention

s e ss

to certain p c liar feat re of e u u s

thi type of tem

s s .

5 6 st ucture —The joint

. r s . s

of t h tem d not pread e s o s

apart that t h pec liar

, so e u

leav k pt clo e together

e s are e s ,

u su ally form ing a ro ette like s -

cl t r ( Fig
us e The e
se e . s

l av are of fo r kin d the

e es u s

lowe t ( o ter m o t ) on ( ind i

s u s es

vid ally p l collectiv ly

u se a s, e

ca ly ) m o tly r
x m ble m all s e se s

foliage leav ; t h next high r es e e

( inn r ) et ( in d ivi d seally p t l u e a s,

collectively ll ) ally cor o a a re u su

the m o t con pic o d licate s s u u s, e

in text r d b rightly
u e l an co

or d ; t h third t ( t m )
e e se s a en s

pro d c t h poll n ; t h
u es e e e

h ighe t ( innerm o t )
s t ( s se oa r

p ) l
e s for m t h pi ti l d p e s an ro

d c th
u e l which e to
ov u es , a re

b co m e
e d The e fo r t
se e s . s u se s

m y not ll b pre n t in t h
a a e se e F ro . 72 . Ag p f fl rou o o we rs o f t h e rose

f am ily
s am flower ; t h m m b er of
e e e s t tll a )
.

s h o
T he
b d p ls
ws
o ne at

t h ree
t h e to p ( P ote n
ro a se a ,

th e m sa t m y b m or or
e se a e e m h uc m ll p ta l lt t i g
s a er e s a e rn a n

wi t h t h m g p f ta m
l bl n d d with
e ss e anoth re on e e , a l g ar e
e ,

pt c l b a i g m
rec e
a

a
d
ro u

e
o

e
s

r n
e n s , an

nu er

form ing t b e rn t ( u s, u s, e c . se e o us s m ll p ls T h
a ca r et al . e ce n r on e

( A le / m ma ) h ws t h t ip f t w
Fig 7 2 7 s . or t h d if
, e
s mal l
le

p l th se l g pe tal
a s,
s o

re e
e

ar e r
s o o

fer nt m em b r m y b m o d i
o e s a e un i ted b l w ta m e o i i gf m
, s e n s ar s n ro

fi d in the gr at t variety of
e e es
th i m f th
e r o d i gl pe
e u rn , a n a s n e

cu l la pi st il T h l w t fl w ( t h
r e o es o er e

wy
.

a s . co mm ppl ) sh w th pals
on a e o s e se ,

A oth r p c liarity of thi pe ta l tam s, an d t h

s t yl es
e n s, ree s

i i g f m th
n e e u s ,

a ll ar s n y pa t of
ro e o v ar r

type f st em i that when t h e

o s t h e
p l u m — A f te F o c us r .
80 P L A N T R E L A TIO N S .

F ro . 78 . Afl o we r o f t h e to bacco pla mple te flo we r, sh o wi ng th e ca ly x n it h

n t : a , a co

its se pals b l e n d e d be low, th e f un ne if orm coro ll a mad e u p of un i t e d pe ta l s , a n d th e

stame n s j u s t sh o wi n g at t h e m ou t h o f t h e co ro ll a t u be b a co rolla t u be spli t o pe n
,

an d sh o wi n g t h e fi ve s ta mens at t ac h e d t o it n ear th e base c a pi s t il mad e u p o f ,

t wo b l e n d ed carpe l s t h e bu l bou s base ( co n ta i n i n g th e o vu l es) be i ng t h e o vary t h e

, ,

l on g stal k li ke port ion th e style, an d th e kn ob at th e top th e st igma —A fte r

-

Sr n a sa u n an a .

la t t of floral l a (
s se e ve s ca rpe ls ) ap p ar t h growth
e of the
, e

stem in length i check s ed an d the cl t r of floral l av

us e e es

F ro . 74 . A gro u p of fl o we r of h are be ll sh owi ng a be ll sh ape d

we r f orms : a, a fl o ,
-

coro ll a co m pose d o f fl ve pe t al s b , a fl owe r o f phl ox s h o wi ng a t ubu l a r c oro ll a

,

wi t h its nve pe ta l s d is t i nct a bo ve an d s harply sprea d i n g c a fl o we r o f d e ad n e tt l e -

f
, ,

sh o wi ng an i rre g u l a r coro ll a wi t h its fi ve pe tal s ormi n g t wo li ps abo ve t h e fu n ne l

form base d , a flower of to ad fl ax sh o wing a t wo lippe d coro ll a, and also a spu r

- -

f
,

ormed b y t h e base o f t h e coro ll a ; e a fl o we r of th e snapd rago n , sh owing t h e t wo

—A fte r G R A Y
,

li ps of t h e cor lla cl
o ose d .
82 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

very com mon for them to branch that the flower appear , so s

i cl te
n uso m e t i m e loo e d pray li k e ometim e m
rs, s s s an s -
, s s co

pact ( Fig 7 5 7 6
se e s. For example the comm n
, , , o

Afl o we r c l uste r f ro m a wal n ut tree .

—A ite r Sr m snu n o s n
'

dandelion flower i really a com pact head of flower s s .

A ll of thi branching h
s in view be t ter arrang m ent for
as e s

polli ation
n or for e d d i tri b tion or
s e for both
-
s u , .

The bject of polli ation and eed d i trib tion will b e

su n s -
s u

con idered
s nder t h e head of reprod ction
u u .
 sn oor s . 83

ST R U CT U R E AND F U N CT I O N OF TH E ST E M .

57 . St e m sThe aerial foliage tem i t h mo t

t ruct ure — . s s e s

f a orable for t dying t e

v tr ct re it i not d i t rte d
s u s rn s u u , as s s o

by it po ition or by being a depo itory for food If

s s s . an

a ctive t wig of an ordinary wood y plan t b e t acro it will cu ss,

F lowe r l
c uste rs of an um e b lli f er ( Slu m) . f
A te r Sm a sn v uo nn .

be een that it i m d p of fo r general region ( Fig

s s a
'

e u u s se e .

( )
1 an o t r pro t ecting
u elayer which m y be tri ppe d , a s

off a thin kin the pid mi ; ( 2 ) wi t hin the pid

as s , e er s e er

m i a zone generally gre n the

s , t ( )
3 an inner zone
e ,
cor ex

of wood or ve el known the ss s, l oi ; ( 4) a as vas cu a r re on

ce ntral pith .

i . l
5 8 D coty ed o d Co if s — So m eti m e the ve el
ns an n er s ss s
 P L A N T R E L A TIO N S .

are arranged in a hollow

cylinder j t in i d e of , us s

the co t x leavi g what r e , n

i calle d pi th in the s

c nter ( Fig e se e .

So m ti m the pith d i e es s

appear i ol d r t m or s n e s e s

part of tem d l av s s s an e es

the t m hollow W h n s e . e

the ve el arrang d ss s a re e

F ro 78 Se ct ion wi across a f
th W y d th
y o u ng t
t “
g o f b ox
I ] is h an e S et

l ve m ore tha a y ar t
. .
.

ld
e h wi
e r, s f o m ng th e our s te re gio n s : a, i s n e , I
pid m i p
e er d by h y b d can incre
s , re rese n te
i d ia m t r
th e ea v o un
ase n e e
ing li w l yli
corte x nd e r
by d d m g w v l
ne ; c, , vascu ar c ;
p.pi th .
a ne e sse s

o t i d of the old In u s e .

the ca e of tr the e addition app ar in cro ction like

s ees s s e ss- se

a erie of concentric ri g d there i

s s ally b t one
n s, a n as s u su u

gro wth period d ring t h year th y oft n c ll d u e l , e a re e a e annua

i g (
r n s Figse e and the g of a tree i oft n e ti mated
. a e s e s

by c o n ting th e m u .

Thi m ethod of a er
s so

taining t h age of a e

tr e i not ab ol tely
e s s u

certain th re m y
, as e a

b e m o r t h an o n e e

gro wth p rio d in o m e e s

year In the ca of
s . se

tr ee s d hr b t h
an s u s e

epi d r mi i r plac d
e s s e e

on t h ol d r part by
e e s

lay r of cork which

e s ,

so m e ti m b eco m es es

ve ry thick d m ake an
i m wi
s
F ro . 79 . Sect on ac ss a t g of b ox e ld e r th ree
y h wi h l i wh ears old , s o ng t re e a n n ua r n gs , o r g ro t
u p the o t r part f u e i l yli d O i r n gs , in t h e v asc u ar c n er . T he rad atin g

W ha t i mm s ly 00
l ( m ) whi h
0B
l ( w ) in es c cros s the va sc u ar re g ion re p

pi h y pi i rese n t t he t ra s , t he r nc pal on e s e xtendi ng

called b k ar .
f m pi h ( ) ro th e t t o th e corte x c .
F ro . 81 . A d a te palm, s h o wi n g th e un bran ch ed c l mnar tru k
o u re d wi t h o ld l eaf
n co ve

bases and wi t h
,
l
a c u s te r o f h u ge ac ti vel t t h t op
ea ves a e ly t h l west po ti ns
, on e o r o

of whi c h h are s o wn . T wo of t h e ve r y h e y f i t cl te rs are al sh wn

av ru us so o .
 sn oors . 87

rangem ent i very d i ff eren t from that fo n d in M

s t yl u on oc o e

don It will be notic d how i m ilar in gen ral appearance

s . e s e

i the ha b i t of the tree fern

s d that of the pal m ( Fig an se e .

6 1 L owe r plan ts
.
— I n the cas e of m o ss plant s and su ch -
,

algae an d fu ngi as develop st e ms the ste ms are very mu ch ,

F ro 82
. . A pal m of t he palmet to ty p e ( f an pal m) , wi th low ste m and a cro wn of larg e
lea ves .

si mpler in con tr ction s u , bu t th y rv the am e g neral

e se e s e

p po e
ur s .

62 . fro m t h work of
Con du ct i on b y the st e m —A si d e e

prod cing l ave and f ni hing m chanical pport t h

u e s ur s e su , e

s te m i a great cond cting r gion of t h plant Thi b

s u e e . s su

jec t wi ll b con i d re d in Cha p

eter X nsd r theeg neral .
, u e e

he d of The N trition of P la t
a u n s .
”

7
F ro . 88 . A grou p of t ro pical pl an t s . To th e l ft
e of th e ce n te r is a t re e fern , wi th its
s enl de c l m ar st m a d c w
r o u n e n ro n of larg
e l ea ve s . The l l
arge - ea ved pl a
n ts t o t he
r ig h t a bananas ( m ocotyl d
re on e on s ) .
 P L A N T R E L A TIO N S .

by n mero thread like proce e

u us -
ss s s preading in every d i c re

tion than by fl t expanded proce a , e

ss s .

It ho ld al o be noted that
s u s as soi l root are b terra s su

nean they are ed often for the us storage of food i t h , as n e

ca e of many bterranean tem

s su s s . Certain pro m inent roo t
type m y be noted follow
s a as s

6 4 S il mot e —
.Th e root p
o h into the gro d with es s us un

g e a t en rgy r e ,

and their b a

orbing s su r

face are s eu

t i ly cover d re e .

O nly the yo ng u

t part of a es s

ro ot y tem s s

ab orb actively s ,

the old r part e s

t r an p o r t i n g s

the a b or b ed s

m aterial t the o

tem and help s ,

ing to gri p the

F ro . p
84. h wi
Boot ti h i h i p i oil T h oil
s o f co rn , s o n g roo t a rs , t e r os tion s . e s
inf wi
re e re n ce

i m i m p hi d
s u rro un d n g pm
to th e gro
ed u il
root i the m o t
ng

t
t ip, an d
eve lo
th e e fl e ct o f

1 , in
th e s s

2 , in w air ; 3, in ate r co m m on root

.
u on e r en t so

ty p b i ng e e

u sed by the grea t m ajority of d plant and fern pla t se e s n s,

and am ong the m o pla t the very i m ple root like pro ss n s s -

c e are mo tly oil r lat d To ch root the water of

e ss s s s -
e e . su s

th e s s s —
oil pre ent it lf either f w t that i wa t r se as r ee a er s, e

that can b e drained away— fil m o f water adhering to o r as s

each oil par t icle oft n call d w t f d h i

s ,
To co mee e a er o a es on .

in contact with thi water not o ly doe the root y te m s ,

n s s s

u sually branch prof ely in every d irect ion b t th yo nge t

us , u e u s

b ranch develop ab ndant ab orbi g hair or t h i

es u s n s, r oo a rs

( Fig
se e which crowd
. i a m ong the oil particle and n s s
 R oor s 91

a b or b s m oi t re fro m th
s u e m the e root hair the b
By s s a

sorb ing rface and hence

su ,

th eam o nt of ab orption
u s ,

i g reatly increa ed
s Indi s .

vi d al root hair d not la t

u s o s

very long b t new one are , u s

con tantly appearing j t

s us

behind the advancing root

tip and the old one are
s, s

as con tantly di ppearing

s sa .

( )
1 Geotr opi sm an d hy
d rotropi sm — Many o t ide . u s

infl ence aff ect root in

u s s

the direction of their

g rowth and ,oil root as s s
F IG . 85 . A ppa ra t us to s h o w the i fl
n u e nce
are e pecially favorabl for
s e
wate r ( hyd pi p
of

ti on of roo ts
ro t ro

T he
sm ) u

en d s
on t h e

( a) of
d irec
the bo x
ob erving the e i fl nce
s s n ue s,

t w pro m inent one

.

ha ve b oo k s f o r h a n g i ng , whil e t h e b ox o m y s a
p yli d t ro g h f wi
b e m entioned
ro pe r is a c n e r or u o re

ne t t i g a d i fill d wi t h d mp
n n s wd t e a sa us
Th i fl . e n u

ence of gra ity or the earth

.

I n th wd t a
e sa pl te d p (g )
us re an eas , v ,
wh ts ( h i k m ) fl t d c d t il
ose roo

t h y me g f m t h d mp
e e r e
.

wd t b t
ro
, ,

e a
rs es en

sa us
un

u
infl enc i very trong
u e, s s

b ac k t w d it —A ft S in directing t h oi l root
,

s oo n t urn o ar . er acn s . e s .

F lo . 86 . A ras p be rry pl a nt, wh o se ste m b e nt d o wn t o t h e so il an d h as

struc k ro o t .
" —A f te r
92 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

A s is well kno w when a eed germ inate the tip that i t

n, s s s o

deve lop the root t rn toward the eart h even if it h

u s s , as

com e from the e d in ome o ther direc t ion Thi re pon e

s e s . s s s

to g ravi t y b y t h plan t i kno wn g tep i m A nother s as eo r o s .

di rect ing i fl ence i m oi t re the re pon e to wh ich i

n u s s u , s s s

A i h
se c t on h th lea f ta l k f ye ll w p nd lily ( N ph a ) h wi g th
t roug e s o a o o -
u r . s o n e

n u me rou s c pi
on s ai pas ag ( ) by m a f whi h t h p t
c uous r s es d wt
s e ns o c e ar s un er a er

are ae ra e t d ; h i t l ha i p j t i g i t t h ai p s g ; t h m h
n e rna rs ro ec n n o e r as a es v, e uc

d a d mparat i ly f w ascular b d l es
,

re d uc e n co ve e v un .

known as ean of thi t h root i di

hy d r otr opi s m . By m s s e s

t d toward the m o t favorab l wat r

re c e s pply in the oil
s e e su s .

O rdinarily geotro pi m and hy d ro t ropi m d irect the root

, s s

in the am e general way and r inforc each other ; b t

s , so e e u

the following ex peri m ent m y b arranged which will a e ,

s e parate the e two infl enc s Bore v ral mall hole in

u es . se e s s

t h b otto m of a b ox (
e ch a cigar b ox ) pended i su as . su s as n

d i t d in Fig re 85 and cover the b otto m with blotting

ca e u ,

ppa er P a.s the root ti psof everal ger m inated seed s s s

94 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

layering by which a tem a bram ble i bent d ow

, s , as , s n

and covered with oil The covered join t trike root d s . s s , an

the p lling follow ( Fig

u A very plain ill tratio s se e . us n

of t h i p lling by root can b e btained fro m many t bero

s u s O u us

plan t T b er b lb root tock etc are ndergro nd

s . u s, u s, s s, .
, u u

str ct re which have been ob erved to b ry them elve

u u s s u s s

deeper and deeper in the oi l Thi i e ff cted by the yo ng s . s s e u

89 . Se c t i on t h ro ug h th e l af
e of a ill w rt ( I mte ) sh wi ng th f u l arge
qu o s s , o e o r air

c ha m b e rs ( a ) th e
, c e n t ra l vas c lau r re gi
on d th any p ly d l p d rt
e ve r oo r e ve o e co ex .

root which they conti e to p t forth Th e root g i p

s nu u . es s r

the oil then contract and the t ber i p ll d a little deep r

s , ,
u s u e e .

The com pact t ber kno wn the Indian t rnip J k i u as u ac -

n

the p lpit h been fo nd to b ry it elf very d e ply d

-
u as u u s e an

rapidly and th i m y be o b erved by tran planting a yo ng

, s a s s u

and igoro t b er into a pot of loo e oil

v us u s s .

( )
3 S i l d g
— I thi connection
o certain oil
an d er s n s s an

ger and the re pon of the root ho ld b e noted The

s s se s s u .

soil m y beco m e poor in water or poor in certain e ential

a ss

m aterial and t hi re lt in an exten ion of the root y

s, s su s s s s
 R O O TS . 95

t e m, if eking for wat r and the e ential m aterial

as se e ss s .

So m eti m e the root y te m b co m e r m arka bly xte iv

s s s e s e e ns e,

vi i t ing a large am o nt of oil in ord er to proc re the

s u s u

nece ary pplie So m eti m t h oil i poor i h at and

ss su s . es e s s n e ,

root activity i int rfere d with In ch ca e it i v ry

s e . su s s s e

co m m on to find t h l av e e es

m a ed again t t h
ss oil th s e s , us

s lightly ch cking t h lo of e e ss

heat .

M o t oi l root al o n d free
s s s s ee

air and when w t r cov r the

,
a e e s

s oil the pply i t ff I su s cu o . n

m any c e th re i as s o me way e s s

by which a pply of fr air su ee

m y b b ro ght d own i to t h
a e u n e

root fro m the part a b o e

s
h h y
i di l
ill w l f
i s v F i fi - 90 . Lon g t u na se c t o n

water ; o m ti m e by larg air

s e h wi h s f h m e
t
s
ro ug

o ng t
a o ung

at t h e
qu
o ur a ir c
o rt ea

a
,

p ag in l av and t m
ass es b h w e es s e s e rs s o n in F ig 89 are . n o t co n

p h h
( se eF ig 8 7 8 8 8s9 90
.
) o m e
, f ,
i l w , p mi s
t in uous
are
assa ge s , b u t t

o u r ve rt ca ro s of
at

ro
t e re

ti m e by d veloping p c ial root

s e h mb s pl e ne n t c a e rs . The ate s of

s t r ct r
u which ri ab ov t h
u es
ll p i se
h m
e e
ce s se a ra t n g th e c a b e rs in
i l w y b m a vert ca ro ve r soo n eco e

wat r l vel e pro m in ntly d d f ll

e , as ddi i e ea an d u o f air. In a t on

hown by the cypr in t h w k i h to t h e or of ae rat o n t ese a ir

s
h mb y i bl
e ss e
c a e rs are ve r se rv ce a in
developm ent of k Th e
e

bli l n ees fl wh . es e na ng th e ea ves to oat en

knee o tgro wth from root

s a re u
h y b k
h y p
s
m
s
t e

parati ve ly
re a o f! an d ca rry t h e co

beneath t h wat r of the ypr

ea v s o re case s .

e e c e ss

s wam p d ri ab ove t h wat r l v l th r ching th

, an se e e e e , us ea e

air and a rating t h root y t m ( F ig

e e It h b n s s e se e . as ee

s ho wn that if t h wat r ri high to flood t h kn

e e se s so as e ees

for y l ngth of ti m t h tr e will d i b t i t d not

an e e e e s e, u oe s

follo w that thi i t h chi f r a on for th ir d v lopm nt

s s e e e s e e e e .

65 W ate r oots
.
— A very d iff ere t ty pe of root i d vel
r n s e

o ep d if it i ex po e d to fr wat
s r witho t sany oil r lation ee e , u s e .

I f a te m i floati g cl ter of whiti h thre d like root

s s n , us s s a -
s

u su ally p t t fro m it and dangle in the wa t r If the water

u ou e .

level i n k so as to bring t h e ti p f th
s s root to the m cky s o e se s u
98 P L AN T R E L ATI O N S .

lant which ordinarily develop oil root if bro gh t

P s s s, u

into proper wat r relation m y d evelop water root For

e s, a s.

in tanc willow or other tream ban k plant m y b

s e, s s s a e so

clo e to t h water that om e of the root y tem enter it

s e s s s s .

In ch c e the n mero l tered root how their water

su as s u u s c us s s

F IG . 98 . An O rc hid , sh owin g ae rial roots .

character Som eti m e root y tem developing in t h oi l

. s s s s e s

m y enter til drain when water root will d evelop i

a e ch s, s n su

cl ter to choke the drain The am b nching o f water

us s as . s e u

root m y b e noticed when a hyacinth b l b i grow in a

s a u s n

ve el of wat r
ss e .

66 A i ts
.
— I certain part of t h tropic the air i
r roo n s e s s

s moi t th at it i
o po i bl f om e plant to b tain s ffi
s s ss e or s s O u
 R O O TS . 99

c ient moi t re from thi o rce witho t any oil relation or

s u s s u , u s -

wat r relation A mong the e plant the orchi d are m o t

e -
. s s s s

n o t ble and they m y b e o b rved in alm o t y gr en

a , a se s an e

ho e us Clinging to the tr nk of tree

. ally i m itated u s s, u su

in the greenho e by ne t of tick th y nd t long us s s s s, e se ou

root which dangl in the m oi t air ( Fig 93

s e s se e s .
,

It i n ce ary to hav o m e pecial ab orbing d conden

s e ss e s s s an s

ing arrang men t d in the e , an

orchi d thi i ally pro

s s s u su

v id d b y t h develop m ent of
e e

a pong like ti
s ab o t the
e- ssu e u

root kno wn the l m as ve a en ,

which gre dily ab orb the e s s

m oi t re of the air E xam ine

s u .

al o Fig 92 95 9 6 97
s s .
, , ,
.

67 Cli i
g g .t — Th e n n roo s . es

root are dev lope d to fa ten

s e s

the plant b od y to o m p s e su

port and d no work of h

,
o a

s orption ( Fig V ery se e .

com m on ill tration m y b e us s a

o b tai ed fro m the ivi

n the e s,

tr mp t creep r etc T he e
u e e , . s

root cling to vario

s p port hid h wi
u s su s,
F 94 An ae rial
ton wall tree tr nk etc lo . . orc , s o ng
s e s, i kl u s, .
, roo ts an d th c eave s .

by n d ing min te ten d ril

se u

like branche into t h cr vic The sw d ( alg ) e e es . se a -

ee s a
e

d evelo p gra pi g tr ct re ex t en iv ly a larg m ajority

s n s u u s s e ,
e

of the m b eing anchor d to rock or to o m e rigi d pport e s s su

b eneath the water d their b odi floating fr The , an es ee .

root like proce e by which thi anchorag i ec r d are

-
ss s s e s s u e

very pro minent in many of the co mmon m arine w d s e a -

ee s

( Fig
se e .

68 P p ts.
— So m e root ro d eveloped to prop
roo s a re

s te m or wid pread ing branche In wam py gro n d or

s e s
-
s . s u ,

in tropi al fore t it i very co mm on to find t h b a e of

c s s, s e s
F ro . 95 . A stagh o m f e rn (H at y ceri wn) , an ae ria l plant Of t h e t ro pics . A bo ut it is a
vine , wh ich h
s ows t h e lea ves ad j us te d l
to t h e igh te d sid e .

F ro . 96 . Se l agi ll
ne a, s h wi
o ng d an g li hi ph
ng r zo o re s an d fi ly d i id d l
ne v e e a ve s .
F lo 98 A pi l f
t ro ca ore s t , s h wi
o ng th e co rd li k h ld f t d l p d b y
-
e o as s e ve o e an e pi

k li k t i gh t ly b d p
. .

phy t e. wh i h p c a ss a ro u n d th e t re e t ru n s e o un ro es .
—
A f tcr
Kn n n na .
 R O O TS 1 03

tree tr nk b ttre ed by ch root which ext end t over

u s u ss su s ou

and beneath the rface and divide the area ab o t the tree
su ,
u

into a erie o f irreg lar cham b er (

s s F ig So m u s se e . e

E m 99
. . A sc re w p in e ( P a n d a mw)
-
, f ro m th e In di an O ce an i
re g o n , sh o wi ng the
p i
ro m n e n t p p root
ro s pu t ou t n ear t h e base .

ti m a t m it h r incline d or with a poorly d eveloped

es s e , e e

pri m ary root y t m p t t pro p root which

s s e pport , u s ou s su

it in the cr w pine ( Fig

, as s A nota ble ca e i
e -
se e . s s
8
1 06 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

that of the banyan tree who e wide preading bran ch e , s -

s s

are pport d by prop root which

su e ometi me very s, are s s

n m ero ( Fig
u us The i mmen e b anyan
se e ally
. s s u su

ill trated are us

e p cially c lti s e u

t d acred va e as s

tre the prop e s,

root b eing s as

i t d in pene s s e

t t i g the oil ra n s .

Th re i record e s

of ch a tree in su

C ylon with 35 0 e

large and
m all prop root s s,

abl to cover a e

vill ge of 1 00 a

h t u s .

69 . P arasit es .

—B e s i d e s th e

root mentioned s

a b ove certain ,

plant develo p s

tJ ik p r oo e

ce e which ss s re

late the m to h t os s .

A ho t i a liv s s

i n g pl a n t o r
an imal pon u

F ro A d d pl p i i wi l w wi
od er
W h
an t
h aras
m t c on a l o t g Th e
l c 8 O e

other plant or
. .

l fl d dd wi
ea ess o will wer d
t n es a b o u t t he o an d se n s ou t

A
,

ki p p d
s uc

Sr ru
wng rocesses

s n u ao xn
an mal l m g
h ich e n e tra te an ab so rb a rt er
i 18 iv

a para i te
.

as s .

The para ite g t it pplie fro m the ho t and m t b

s e s s su s s , us e

r lated to it pro perl

e If the par it grow pon the y . as e s u

surface of it ho t it m t p netrate the b ody to o btain

s s , us e
 R OO T S . 1 07

f ood ppl i e su s .

T herefore pro ,

c e are d vel
ss e s e

o ped which pene

t ate and ab or b
r s .

The m i tletoe and s

dodder are eed s

plant which have s

thi h abit and

s ,

b oth h av e ch su

proce e ( Fig ss s se e s .

1 02 , Thi s

hab it i m ch m ore s u

exten ively devel s

oped howev r in , e ,

a l o w gro p of u

plant k nown s as

the f ngi M any b w d dd

u
A i h wi li i F ro . 1 03 . sec t on s o ng th e v ng con n ect ion
.

ld p whi h et ee n o e r an d a go e n rod u on c it is
of the e para itic w
s p b bi s ( ) gro i n g T h e . e n e trati n g an d a s or n g o rgan It

f n gi l i v e
u pon p h h u
( ) l h as as se d t ro u g th e co rte x c , t he vas cu ar

di i pi h zone an d is so rgan zin g t h e t

plant and ani m als s,

co mmon ill tration b eing the m ildew of lilac leave d

us s s s an

m any other plant the r t of wheat the m t of corn t s, us , s u , e c .

70 . Boot st ru cture .

In the lowe t gro p s u s

of plant ( alg f ngi s ae, u ,

and m o plant ) tr e ss- s u

root are not form d

s e ,

b t v ry i mpl
u e tr s e s ue

t re generally hair
u s,

lik ( F ig
e se e In .

F ro . 1 04 . Se ct io nll us of a li
th ro ugh th e th a ver f rn plant and e d
e -
s s e
w t ( M arch a n tia ) h owi g th h i li k p
or

cesses ( hi id s) which com f m th

r zo
,

d
s n

e
e

ro
a r-

e
e

un
ro

er
plan t however the s, ,

su rf ace an d act as roo ts in grippin g and ab root i c o m pl e x s 8

sorbing I
a ch imne y li k
. i
n pp
pe i g is se en lead i g in to
e o
f ce
th e epid e rm s of t h e u e r su r a
str ct reu d i ff erent
u , so

from the root like pro

-
n n , n

a ch amber con taining ce ll s wi t h ch l oroplas ts

-
.
 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

ce e of the lower gro p that it i regarded t h only

ss s u s s as e

tr e root It i q ite nifor m in tr ct re con i ting of a

u . s u u s u u , s s

to gh and fi bro central axi rro nded by a region of

u us s su u

m ore pongy tr ct re s The to gh axi i m o tly made

s u u . u s s s

p of ve el calle d b eca e they u ss s , so us

e
p p / 0 e cond ct m at rial d i call d the u e , an s e

va c lar axi The o t r m or pongy

1
s u s . u e e s

r gion i the t which cov r e s cor ex , e s

th va c lar axi like a thick kin e s u s s

( Fig se e .

O of the pec liariti of t h ne u es e

root in which it d i ff er fro m the , s

t m i that t h branch co m fro m s e , s e es e

the va c lar axi and b rrow thro gh s u s u u

th cort x that when the latter e e , so

i p l d ff the b ranch are left s ee e o es

attach d to the axi and the c rt x e s, o e

Fm A l i di l
1 05
how the hol
ong
thro
tu
gh which
na
they s s es u

pa e d It i i d nt that wh n ch
, ‘

i h h
se ct o n t ro u g t h e noo t ss . s ev e e su
“
h wi
h ph d
P Of

l
as
root
e
i a b or b i g t h a b or b d m
er " PM “
t h e ce n t ra
s s n , e s e a

wat r with vario at rial

s o ng vas

wm
c u lar ax is t i l ( n n o nn d e d m er s e us e s

of
“V i b e( L
t he
‘ in ol tion ) i r iv d into t h
CO W “
-X I’ OW

th e
de
e pi
s u s e ce e e

rm s ( ) w
de i cort e
x
corte x
thro gh
h ich d isapW t h t m t p e , u i us ass

to the
pea re in t h e o ld e r pa fl s
p mi
a c lar axi to b co d ct d
of
v s u s e n u e

( )
n e n t roo t ca p c
to
th e roo t, and t h e
t l
-
ro
t m 18 8 e '

A nother p c liarity of t h root

.

e u e

i that it elongate only by growth at t h t ip while t h

s s e , e

tm
s e ally contin to elongate o m di tance b hin d
u su ues s e s e

it growing t ip
s In t h oil thi d licat growing t ip i. e s s e e s

prot ct d by a little p of cell known the t p

e e ca s, as roo -
ca

( Fig
se e 1 0 5 ) .
 P L A NT R E L A TI O N S .

72 .Spore vegetative m ltiplic

reproduction —Beside s u a

tion o plant d ev lop pecial reprod ctive b odie

m st s e s u s,

known p and thi kind

asof r prod s ction i known
ores, s e u s

as p p ds t i or eThe pore are

re very ro i m pleuc on . se s s s

b odie b t have the pow r of pro d cing new in d ivid al

s, u e u u s .

There two great gro p of pore d i ff ering from each

a re u s s s,

oth r not at all in th ir pow r b t in the m ethod of their

e e e s, u

pro d ction by the parent plant O kind of por i

u . ne s e s

prod ced by dividing u

certain organ o f the s

parent ; in the oth r e

c e two p cial bod i as s e es

of the parent b len d

together to form the
por A ltho gh th y s e . u e

b oth por for a re s e s,

conveni nce we m y e a

F m mm
c al l t h e fi r t
e n ts o t
k i n d o n alga
s
t0 1 07 F rag a co ( Spi
( F l gs 1 06 :
.

rogy ra ) h d P o rt h i o ns o f t wo t re a s are s o wn ,
s
por e s se e °

b j i d t ge t h by th the cond
.

whi h h c a ve een o ne o er e gro w an d se

i g f c
n ti g t b
o i th
o n n ec pp t h e dn u es n e u er r a
klnd ( F
.

899 8 se e l
g
f u ll
o h w th
r ce f whi ch c
s are t in
s o n, ree o on a
'

egg whil t h c ll m k d a a d it mate

s e e two pecial
e ar e , n s The s
th th d h c ti g m t
h blen d to
of th e o er re a e ac on a n a a e e
b d t ,
o ies
th l w e f whi h will pas t h
o e r o ne o gh th c s rou e

t b
u b l d wi th th ppe
e, en g th r to f
a d fo rm an gge u r on e , n e e O l lIl
‘
e

call d g m t ( a re e a e es se e

Fig 1 07 1 08 s . The e term are nec ary to any

, ,
s s e ss

di c ion of the ex t rnal r lation M o t plant develop

s u ss e e s . s s

b oth por d gg b t th y are not lway eq ally con

s e s an e s, u e a s u

sp i A m o g
c u ou s t h alg b o t h.
por d gg are pro
n m e a
e, s e s an e s

in t ; am ong certain f ngi t h me i tr e b t m any

cu u e sa s u ,
u

f ngi are not known to pro d c egg am ong m o plant

u u e s ss -
s

th pore
e are pros m inent d a b sn d ant b t t h gg i an u ,
u e e s

conceal d d not g n rally notic d W hat h b ee aid

e an e e e . as n s

"
1
I t is re c og n ize d t h a t t h is s po re is re a ll y a fe rt i lize d e gg , b u t in
t he a b se n ce of an y a ccu ra t e si m ple word , t h e t e rm e gg is u se d f or con

ve n ie nc e .
 R E P R O D U CTI V E O R GA N S . 111

of the mo plant i till m ore tr ess -

s s s u

o f the fer plant ; while am ong n- s

the eed plant certain pore ( p l

s -
s s s o

l en
g i ) are
ra n scon pic o ( s u us se e

F ig . b t the egg can b e h u s o

se rv d only by pecial m anip lation

e s u

i the la b oratory
n Seed are n ither . s e

s pore nor egg b t pec liar repro

s s, u u

d ti
uc b odie which the hidd n
ve s e

egg h h lped to prod ce

as e u .

7 3 G rmi ati . Spore

e and n on . s

egg are ex pected to germ inate ;

s

that i to begin the d velopm ent

s,
p i
e

of a new plan t Thi germ ination b y .

mm s
F ro .

od
1 08 .

of a
o rt on

co on
of the
alga

ne d certai ext rnal con d ition

e s n e h wi s, s o n g
y l
prom inent among which are d fi m
i iy y l e
ga
an d
e te s o f ve r

ac t v t ; a
u n e q ua si ze

ve r arge

nite amo nt of heat m oi t r u s ( ) lyi l b l , s u e, on e o is ng in a g o u ar

and oxygen and om eti m e light y

s
m ll
s
ce ll , an d a ve r s a on e is
,
i l h .
e n te r ng th e ce l a not er

Con d ition of ger m ination m y b e

,

s i m il ( ) b i j a s ar o ne a e ng us t

ob erved mo t a ily in connection

s s
ide s
w m ll o u ts e . Th e t o s a

m h h i li k ga e te s ave a r- e pro
with ed I t m t b e nder too d
se s . us wi m f ly u s , ce sses an d can s ree .

howev r that what i call d the

e ,
m ll
i
l
f m
ms e
The
e te s u n
s a

te an d
an d arge ga

ger mination of e d i om thing

or an egg .

s e s s s e

very di ff er nt fro m t h g rm ination e e e

of pore d gg In the latt r s s an e s . e

ca e ger m inatio incl d e t h very s s, n u s e

b gin ing of the yo ng pla t In e n s u n .

the ca e of a e d g rm ination b g n s se ,
e e u

by an gg h b n ch ck d and e as ee e e ,

d g rm ination i it renewal In se e e s s .

other word an gg h ger minated s, e as

F ra . 1 09 wm
. and pro d ced a yo ng plant call d
A gro up o f s i u u e
m ll in g ce
the
s
e m b ryo
A , a spo re o f
and the ger m ination cc

GV m (
'
d ogon tu l ) an a ga ;
,

B, spo res of
( of t h ed i m ply con i t in t h
Uloth ria: an e se s s s s e
“ “
W m (h
an m m
l
contin
0.
ed 8 growth
orse -tai
d the e cap of
°f
u an s e

th e bryo
or

scourin g ru sh
) m .
is .
1 12 P L A NT R E L A TI O N S .

It i e ident that f or s v

the ger m ination of eed s s

light i not an e ential s ss

condition for they m y , a

germ inate in the light or

in the dark b t the need u

of h eat m oi t re and , s u ,

oxygen i very apparent s .

Th am o nt of heat e u re

q ire d for ger m ination u

p ll
varie wi d ely with d i ff er nt s e
( p
F ro .

p whi h d
110 .

p wi ( w)
in e ,
)A
c
m
i
o
ed
en
o
e ve lo s
m e
grain
ger m i
s ore

n gs
ating f ro
t o ass s t
th e
se s, s n

p i by
in its t rans at m ch low r te m p ra
o rt at o n cu rre n ts o f air .
u e e

t re than other E v ry u s s . e

kind of ee d or pore or egg h a pecial t m perat re

s , s , as s e u

range b elow which and above which

,

it cannot ger m inate The two li m it . s

of the range m y be call d the a e

lowe t d highe t point b t b

s an s s, u e

t ween the two th re i b e t point e s a s

of te mperat re for g r m ination The u e .

s am e general fac t i tr i ref rence s ue n e

t the m oi t re
o p ply s u su .

74 . Dispersal of reprod uctive b odi es .

—A m ong the m o t triking xt rnal s s e e

r lation how ver are tho e con

e s, e , s

t d with the d i p r al of por

n ec e s e s s e s,

ga m et an d e d Spore ande s, se s . s

seed m t b e carried away fro m the

s us

parent plant and eparat d fro m , s e

eac h other t of t h reach of , ou e

rivalry for n tritive m aterial ; and u

gam t m t co m e tog ther and

e es us e
F lo A pod o f d re weed
111
blend to form t h e gg Con pic o
. .

e s . s u us ( Lb ilob tu m) o e n ng an d p i
among the mean of tran fer are the s s
p
e x os in g

whi ch
its
are t ran s
pl u me d se eds
porte d by
follo wing . t h e wi nd —A f te r BR A D .
114 P L AN T R E L A TI O N S .

that at l ea t s

f o rt ee n p u e r

cent o f t h . e

eed of y s s an

co ntry u can re

tain the ir vital

ity in wate se a -
r

f o r tw e n t y
eight d ay A t s .

th e or di nary
rate of move
m ent of ocean
c rrent th i u s, s

length of time
wo ld per m i t u

ch eed to su s s

ip
1 18 li h h wi
A m
be tran
d an d e
porte d
ead th e
s

ill o v e r t1
. r e on , s o ng ass

pl m u w d li k f i wi h h i pl m
es , a fe see - e ru ts t t e r u es st a 1 0 11 "

hd
atta c p l e w f to th e— f and mi1e
rece tac e , an d t o all e n oil A ter g s
K a na .

t h m ak i ng us

po i ble a very great range in di trib tion

ss s u .

77 D isp sal o. f p es b y i n — Thier i one of the m o t

s or s s s s

com m on method of tran port s s

ing pore and ed In m o t

s s se s . s

ca pore are ffi ciently

se s s s su

sm all and light to b t ran e s

ported by the gentl t m ove es

m nte of air A m ong the

s .

f ngi thi i a very co mm on

u s s

m ethod o f pore di per al ( s s s se e

Fig . and it i xte ively s e ns

us ed in cattering the pore s s s

of m o plant f m plant (ss -

s, e -
s se e

Fig .and eed pl ant s -

s .

Am ong eed plant thi i s

w
S
-

pl m
l f
p
i s s s on e
F ro . 1 14
ith
. eed - ik e ru ts
f or d is ersal b y
of

air.
m ethod o f pollination the
u es

Af , t er Ka ns a s .
 R E P R O D UCTIVE O R GA N S 1 15

P ro 1 1 5
. . A winge d se ed o f f
Bignon tm—A te r Br a s s s u ao s a .

s por call d pollen grain being catter d by t h wind

es e s s e e ,

an d occa ionally s

f lling pon the

a u

ri ght pot for s

g erm i n a t i o n .

W ith ch an su

age t of tran f r
n s e

the pollen m t us

b v ry light
e e d an

p o w d e ry an d ,

al o v ry b n
s e a u

d ant for it m t
m pl —
us
,
Wi df F lo 1 16 nge ruit of a e Af ter KB B N BB
c o m e d own l
. . .

m o t like rain to b e c rtain of r aching the right place

s e e s .

A m o g th e gy m n n o

p r m ( pi n h m s e s es, e

lock t ) thi i the s, e c . s s

l i m th o d of e xc us vc e

pollinati n and wh n a o ,
e

pine for t i he d d ing es s s

pollen t h air i f ll of e s u

th por which m y e s e s, a

b e carri d to a gr at e e

d t b f r b i g
w—
l S aP c e e o e ? n
P ro W d f i
117 in ge of M A f te r
.

K m
.

d e po te
sad
ru t
O m
.
l
e
si . c c as na
 P L A N T R E L A TIO N S .

report of hower of lph r have

s
“
s s su u

ari from an pecially h vy fall of

se n es ea

poll n that h b n carri d far fro m

e as ee e

so m gy m no p rm for t In t h ca e
e s e es . e s

of pin d t heir n ar r la t i
e s an th e e v e s, e

poll n e
p o as i t d in th ir
re s d i a re ss s e e s

p r l th ro gh t h i by d v lo ping
e sa u e a r e e a

pair of b ro d wing fro m t h o t r a s e u e

co t of t h por ( Fig
a e s Thi e se e . s

sam m th d of pollinatio that i

e e —o n s.

ca ry ing t h poll n por by rr nt

r e e s es cu e s

”a W in ged rm h o,
of i — i al o
a r d by m ny m ono
s s u se a

N a u t il us —A f te r s h a cotyl d on e ch gra ; d by
s, su as ss e s an

many d ch mo t
N a“
t yl d l co e o n s, su as o u r s

co m m on for t tr es ee s

( oak hickory
, ch t , es

n u t,

78 . D i spe r s a l of

seeds b y ai r — Se e d s .

a re ry rar ly light
ve e

eno gh t b carri d
u o e e

by c rr nt f air
u e s o

witho t m pe i lu so e s c a

adapt tion W inga . s

an d pl m of v y u es er

m any d oft n v ran e e y

b a ti f l p tt rn
e u u a e s

a re x e d ingly m
e ce co

m on in conn ction e

with d or d se e s se e

like fr it ( Fig u s se e s .

1 1 5, 1 1 6, 1 1 7, 1 18 .

are dW ings e

ve o l p d b y t h fr it
e e u

O f m apl “ d f es 11 0
F ro no F ru tbasswo d ( Tina m h wl s t h
i of o o n e

d by t h eed l iar wi g f rm d b y a l f —A ft x nnx n

. .

as h , an e s s pec u n o e ea . er n .
118 P L AN T R E L A TIO N S .

light or andy oil ( F ig s s se e .

W hen the work of the a on i ove se s s r,

and th e ab orbing roo tl e t h av s s e

hriveled the plant i ea ily blow s ,

s s n

from it anch orage by a g t of wind s us ,

and i tr ndled along the rface lik s u su e

a light wicker ball the ripe eed , s ve s

el dropping their eed by the way s s s s .

In c e of an ob tr ction ch a as s u , su as

fenc g eat m a e of the e t m ble e, r ss s s u

w d m y often be een lo d g d ee s a s e

again t the windward id s s e

—
.

m‘ w w A f 7 9 Disch arg of pores

t of l h I m any . e s n
h l di h
m
aze

m Af
plant
sc
the
argin g

Bu
d i trib
,”
tionits
of por and s s u s es

eed i not provided for by any of

P

s s s

the m ethod j t m entioned b t the ve el containing

s us , u ss s

them are con tr cted that they are di charged with

so s u s

m ore or le violence and are o m e

ss s

what cattere ds .

M any por ca e e pecially tho e

s e s s, s s

of the lower plant b r t irreg larly s, u s u ,

and with ffi cient violence to thro w

su

ou t por s In the liverwort pe

es . s en

liar cell called l t or j mp r

s, e a er s
“
u e s,
”

a re form ed am ong t h pore and e s s,

when the wall of the por ca i s e se s

r pt r d the elat r are lib rat d

u u e e s e e ,

and by their active m otion a i t in ss s

di charging the pore

s s s .

In mo t of t h tr m o s th e ue sse s e

spore c e op n by p hing ff a
as e s us o

lid at t h apex which expo a

e , se s

delicate fringe of teeth coveri g the w ld b n

F lo 1 23 A pod of i ean

m o th of the like ca Th
. .

u b
u rn - w l se . e se u rst in g t he , t o va ves

i l ly w i
teeth b end in d t of the op n an
h i ou—f e
v o ent

c arg ng
t
th e
ist n g an d

see d s
d is
A te r
pore ca e as they beco me m oi t or
.

s s s Bil AL-
.
 R E P R O D U CTIV E O R GA N S . 119

and are of con iderable e vice

d ry , s s r

i the di charge o f pore

n s s s .

In the co mmon fern a heavy s

spring like ring of cell encircle

-
s s

th e del i cate wall e d pore ca e -

s s .

W hen the wall beco m e dry and s

co mparatively brittle the pring S

straighten with con iderable force s s ,

the delicate wall i ddenly torn s su

and the pore are di charged ( s s s se e

F ig .

Even in t h ca e of the pollen e s

Spore of eed plan t a pecial layer

s s -
s, s

of the wall of the pollen ally -

sac u su

develop a pring like layer which

s as s -
,

a i t in opening wid ly the

ss s s e sac

h wi ng barbe d ap
nee dle, s o

g n to y eld along
i s i p nd ages f g appli g
e or r n .

the l ne of break i
T h e fig re t th l ft i
of the
u

mm
o e

8
e s o ne

In g Af te r Ka m a.

80 Disch arge
. of

eed are generally carried

seeds —W hile s s

away fro m the parent plant by t h agency e

of water c rrent or air c rr nt l u s u e s, as a

ready noted by ani m al in o m e l , or s, s n

tance there i m echanical di charge s s s a s

provided for in the tr ct r of the eed s u u e s

ca In ch plant the witch hazel se . su s as

d violet t h wall of the eed v el an , e s s -

e ss

pre pon the contained eed that ss u s s, so

when r pt re occ r the d pinch d u u u s se e s a re e

F ro . 1 25 t. a m oi t apple e d i d i charged
A f ru it of ou , as s -
s e s s

$ 553; $ 350
b y being pr ed b etween
3
the th m b and e ss u

b
b ar pp finger ( Fig 1 2 1
ed a en d In the to ch se e s .
, u
“8” m“ “ m not a train i developed in t h wall
W 3 e -
s s e
hl im l
d of
of the eed ve el that at r pt re it
o an a s .

fl m u te , p ,
s -
ss , so u u

9
1 20 P L A N T R E LA TI O N S .

su d d enly c rl p and throw the eed ( Fig

u s u The s s s se e .

sq irting c c m ber i
u u nam ed beca e it beco me very
u s so us s

m ch di t nd d with water which i finally forcibly eject d

u s e e , s e

along with the m a of eed A artillery plant co mm on ss s . n

in c ltivation di charge it u s s s

eed with con iderable vio s s s

lence while the detona t ion s

r lting fro m the explo ion e su s s

of the eed v el of H s -
e ss s u ra

p i t the m onkey din cr e a n s,

’
s

q zg mm m g h “
Th e w bell
, are often re
s om arked , n er ,
”

—f
,

th e pp i
gra pp l ng by tr av el r i n tro pi c al
a e nd ages A te r e s

fore t
-
Bil A L .

s s .

81 Di pe . l f
o seed
s b y i
rsa m ls — O nly a f ew ill t
s ra an a us

tion can b e given of thi very large bj ct W ater b ird

s s su e . s

are great carri r of eed which are contained in t h m d

e s s s e u

clinging to their feet and l g Thi m d fro m the b ord er e s . s u s

of pond i al ly com pl tely filled with e d and pore

s s u su e se s s s

of vario plant O h no conception of the n m ber

us s . ne as u

u ntil they are act ally m u co

p t d
u e T h
. following e ex

tract fro m D arwin O igi ’

s r n

o
f p S i ill
ec estrate thi us s s

point
I t oo k in F brua ry t h re e
e
, ,
F 127 f i t f cock l b h wi g
T he ru o e u r, s o n
t a ble spoo n fu ls of m u d f ro m t h re e
lu

d ag s A fte BE L
. .

t h e g appli g pp
r n a en e .
-
r A .

d iff e re n t poin t s be n e at h wa te r ,

on t h e e d ge of a lit t le pon d T h is m u d wh e n d rie d we ig h e d o n ly 6 !

.

o u n c e s I e pt k it c o v e re d u p i n m y st u d y f o r s ix m o n t h s , p u llin g p
u

an d coun t n g i e ac h p la n t as i t g re w t h e p la n t s w e re o f m a n y in d s k ,

an d w r
e e a l to g e t h e r 53 7 in n u m b e r ; a n d y e t t h e v i sc i d m u d w as a l l
con ta in e d in a b re a k fast cu p 1

W ater bird are generally high d tro g

s flier d t h an s n s, an e

seed and pore m y th b e tran port d to the margin of

s s s a us s e s

di tant pond or lake and v ry widely d i per d

s s s, so e s se .

I n m any ca e eed or fr it develop grappling app nd

s s s s u s e
1 22 P L AN T R E L A TI O N S .

plant i k nown polli tio and s, s as na n,

the two hief agent of th i tran fer C s s s

are c rrent of air and in ec t In u s s s .

§ 7 7 the tran fer b y c rrent of air s u s

w noted c h plant being known

as , su s

em ph i l plant S ch plant
as a n 0 ou s s . u s

eldo m prod ce what are generally

s u

recognized tr e flower A ll tho e as u s . s

eed plant which prod ce m ore or

s -
s u

le howy flower however are inss s s, ,

o m e way relate d to the vi it of

s s s
m “ m in ect to bring a o t pollination
f fz
?
a z g:
'
am ” a o l t
b s s u ,

ppli
gra pp d
ng a and are known
en ages . t m ph i l as en o o ou s
“ w ”Bu “
plant T hi relation between i s . s n

sect and flower i

s i mport nt and exten ive that it
s s so a so s

will be tr ated in a eparate chapt r

e s e .
 CH A P TE R VI I .

F L O W E RS A N D IN SE O T S .

83 Insects . The of in ect

as agents of pollinati on — u se s s

as agent of pollen tran fer i very exten ive and i the pre
s s s s , s

vailing m ethod of pollination am ong m onocotyledon d s an

dicotyled on Al l ordinary flower s . ally recognized s, as u su ,

are related in o m e way to pollination by in ect b t it s s s, u

m t not b e
us ppo ed that they are alway cce f l in
su s s su ss u

se c ring it Thi m t ally helpf l relation between fl w

u . s u u u o

e rs and i ect i a very wonderf l one and in om e ca e

ns s s u , s s s

it h beco m
as inti mate that th y cannot exi t witho t
e so e s u

each other Flower have b en m odified in every way to be

. s e

adapted to in ect vi it and in ect have been vario ly s s s, s s us

adapted to flower s .

84 Selp olli atio

. d c o p o lli t i on — Then advantage n an r ss- na

of thi relation to the flower i to ec r pollination The

s s s u e .

pollen m y b e tran ferred to the carpel of it own flower

a s s ,

or to t h carpel of om e o ther flower T h form r i known

e s . e e s

as lf p lli
se ti the latter
-
o na p lli t i
on , In the as cr oss -
o na on .

ca e of cro pollination the two flower concerned m y be

s ss -
s a

u pon the a m e plant or pon di

s ff erent plant which m y , u s, a

be q it d i tant from one another It wo ld ee m that

u e s . u s

cro pollination i the pr f rr d m ethod flower are

ss -
s e e e , as s so

commo ly arrang d to ec re it
n e s u .

8 5 A d v t g t i ect s
.
— The ad vantage of thi r lation
an a e o ns s e

to t h in ect i to ec re food Thi the flower provide

e s s s u . s s

either in the form of t or p lle and in ect vi iting n ec a r o n s s s

flowe m y be divid d ro ghly into the two gro p of

rs a e u u s

n ectar feeding in ect repre ented by b tterflie and m oth

-
s s, s u s s,
1 24 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

and pollen feeding in ect repre ented by the m ero s

-
s s, s nu u

b ee and wa p
s W hen pollen i provi d ed
s s . food t h s as , e

a mo nt of it i far in exce of the nee d of pollination

u s ss s .

T h pre ence of th
e s pplie of food i made known t e se su s s o

the in ect by the di play of color in connection with t h

s s e

flower by odor or by form It h o l d b e ai d that t h

s, , . s u s e

attractio of in ect by color h b e n d o bted r c ntly

n s s as e u e e , as

certain experi m ent have gg ted that o m e of the m s su es s co

m onfl w vi iting i ect

o e r-
color blin d b t r m arkably
s ns s a re -
, u e

keen cented H o wever thi m y be for om in ect it

-
s . s a s e s s,

se e m to b e ffi ci ntly tabli h d that many in ect rec

s su e es s e s s

o g i t h
n ze eir f e d ing gro n d b y the dei play of color u s .

8 6 Suit ab l . d ui t b l in ect s —I t i evi d ent that

e an uns a e s s

all in ect d iring n ctar or pollen for foo d

s s es not it e a re su

able for the work of pollination For in tance the ord i . s ,

nary ant are fond of ch foo d b t th y walk fro m pl nt

s su , u as e a

to plant the poll n d ted pon th m i in gr at dang r of e us u e s e e

being br h d ff d lo t The m o t favorable in ct i

us e o an s . s se s

the flying one that pa fro m flow r to flow r thro gh

, c an ss e e u

t h air e It will b . n th refore that t h flo w r m t not e se e , e , e e us

only c re the vi it f i t abl in ct b t m t g ard

se u s s O su e se s, u us u

again t t h depred ation of n itabl on

s e s u su e es .

8 7 Dange . of self polli t iom Th r

— r i till anoth r -
na e e s s e

pro bl m which in ect pollinating flow r m t olv If

e s -
e s us s e

cro pollination i m ore advantageo to the pla t than

ss -
s us n

s elf pollinatio t h latter ho l d b pr v nt d far

-
n, e s u e e e e so as

po i ble A the tam n d carp l are ally clo to

ss . s s e s an e s u su se

g ther in t h m flo wer t h d ang r of lf pollination i

e e sa e , e e se -
s

co tantly pr nt i m any flower In tho e pla t which

ns e se n s . s n s

have tam en pro d ci g flow r po

s -
plant d carp l
u n e s u n on e an e

prod cing flo wer pon anoth r th r i

u ch d a ger
s u e , e e s n o su n .

8 8 P ob l m of polli n t ion — I m o t in
. r e s t pollinating a n s se c -

flower therefore th re are thr pro bl m ( 1 ) to prevent

s, , e ee e s

se lf pollination 2 ) to ec re the vi it of itabl in ect

-
, s u s s su e s s,

and ( 3) to ward ff the vi it of itabl in ct It o s s u n su e se s .

m t not be ppo ed that flower are nifor mly cce f l

us su s s u su ss u
1 26 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

ou t o f the pollen ac or to be removed from them T h -

s s . e

device ed by flower containing both t m en and carpel

s us s s a s s

to prevent elf pollination are very n mero b t m o t s -

u u s, u s

Of the m m y be incl ded nder the three following head

a u u s

( )
1 P i t i — I the e c e the os on n s as s

p ollen and tig m a are re d y at the a m e s a s

ti me b t their po ition in reference to , u s

each oth r or in r f rence to o m e con e , e e s

for mation of the flow r m ake it e , s nu

likely that the poll n will fall pon the e u

tig ma T h tig ma m y b placed s . e s a e

above or beyond the pollen ac or the s s,

t w m y b e eparate d b y o m e m echan o a s s

ical ob tr ction r lting in m ch of s u , e su u

the irreg larity of flower u s .

F lo . 1 32p . In the flower of the ro e acacia d

A ort ion o f s s an
fl w
t he o ii it relative
e r of
the
an
everal
r s,
ta m n s d s, s s e s an
or fl ag i l The s ng e

the ingl carp l are in a cl ter

.

m
st a h w
en s o n is s e e us , en

p l
b w
s ta n d in g

e ta i h
to t he
clo e d i t h keel of the flower
et ee n

g t
th e
an d
The
s n e .

tigm a i at the mmit of the tyle

r

p l li k yl
t he e ta -
e st e to s s su s ,

th e lf
hi yl
e t
and .
project N ear th eo m what b eyond the
th e
s s e
tO p
i m i h lf
st g
of

at c
pollen
t
ac s st

s
hed d
e
ing
e
pollen
is A l o there -
s s s . s

di
see n e xt e n i often a ro ette of hair
n g to th e or bri
s tl s s, s e s,
i h whi m
r

i
rece v e
g t,
p ll j t b eneath
th e
ch
t h tig
o
a
ust
m en
which act
us e s , s as

p
u on pp its a barri r to t h poll n ( Fig
u er su r e e e se e .

f
pit
ac e .

is j In
The
at
the iri
th e
or
n e ct ar
co mm
u nc
on flag ach s, , e

it on o f p tamen i in a ort of pocket b tw en

t he e tal an d s s s e e
W hil
m
s ta

i i
ta n ng
en
the.

petal
the
d the petal lik
e

n ec tar t h e
ob
tyle whi le an -
e s ,

i b h
nsec t the tigmatic rface i on the top of a
ru s es t he s su s

po
of
l b i le n
mth e
-
p flap or
e ar ng

s ta
h lf w h ich the tyle e d
an d
art
t , s e , s s n s ou

a roof to the pock t W ith ch an

en .

p ll o l d en p is o ged u o n
as e . su
itsb dy
fl w
o ii arrange.
m ent it wo l d
In v s t ing e m i mpo i b le , u se ss
t h e ne x t
i
e n te r n g m for the p oll
t he
o
n to
sta
r
e r an d
ach t
en
h tig m a e e e s un

h mb
c a i ai
er d d ( Fig
th e st g e se e .

m i h lf
be b h
at c s e
— f
ru s e d
In the orchiis apt
d re m
A te r
arka
to
b le for their s,

GR AY . trange and bea tif l flower there s u u s, are

 F L O W E R S A N D IN SE CTS . 1 27

u su ally t w pollen and tretched b etween them i the

o -
sac s, s s

stigm atic rface In thi ca e ho wever the pollen grain

su . s s , ,
s

ar e not dry d powdery b t cling together in a m and

an ,
u ass,

cannot e cape fro m the W itho t being p lled

s t ( sac u u ou se e

F ig .Th ame ort of pollen i developed by thee s s s

m ilkweed s .

m i — I the e ca e the pollen and

( )
2 C t i t t y on secu ve a ur . n s s s

F lu . 1 33 . flowe r of an orch id ( H aberi aria )

A th e compl te flowe is sh wn . e r o ,

wi th th re e se pa l be hi n d and t h ree pe tals in fron t th l w st o e f whic h h as

s , , e o e n o

d l ped a l g stra p shaped port i and a still l nge sp r port io th pe in g

e ve o on -
on , o r u n, e o n

to whi ch is se e n at th base of t h e s trap eA t t h b o t t m f t h is l g s pu r i t h . e o o on s e

necta whi h is re ach e d by th l g p boscis f a m t h Th t wo poll

r, c e on acs f
ro o o . e en s o

th e i gl s n ta m are see
e s i th e ce t
en of th fl w di g i g d wn wa d and
n n n re e o e r, ve r n o r s,

betw th m stre tc h th t igma fa

ee n e es Th e lat io be tw poll e n sacs a d
s sur ce e re n ee n n

rface is m
.

st i gma su c l early h w i 2
o re W i t hi eac h p ll e sac i a m
s o n n f n o n s ass o

e di g b l w i
.

st i c k y po ll e n, na st i k y di k whi c h ma y b e see i
n e o n 1 a d 2
c Wh s , n n n . en

t h e m t h t h ru ts h i p bosc i i to t h e ec ta tu b e h is h ead is agai ns t t h

o s s ro s n ti g n r e s

mat i c s rface a d al s agai st t h di ks W h

,

u n o h n m es h i h ead t h di ks
e s . en e re ov s e s

st i ck fas t and t h po ll n masses a dragged t In 3 a poll n mass ( 0) i

e e re ou . e s

sh wn st i ck i n g t
o eac h e y of a mo t h
o U po i it i g an t h
e fl w t hese p ll n n v s n o er o er o e

masses are th rus t against th e st igmat i c s rface and po lli ati n is eff ec te d — A fte r
.

u n o

GR A Y .
1 28 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

stig ma of the am e flower are not m at re at t h ame ti m

s u e s e .

It i vid nt that thi i a very eff ective m ethod of prevent

s e e s s

ing elf pollination W hen the pollen i being hed t h

s -
. s s e

stigm a i not ready to receive or when the tigm a i read y

s ,
s s

to receive t h pollen i t r ad y to be hed In o m e s no e s . s e

ca e t h pollen i ready fir t in other c e the tig ma

s s e s s , as s s ,

the form r condition being call d p t d y the lat t

e e ro a n r ,
er

p t
ro o gy y T hi ni a very . co m m on m ethos d of s preventin g
lf pollination and i m se -
, s co

m o ly not a ociated with u ss

i reg larity r u .

The ord inary figw t m y or a

b e taken an exam ple of as

protogyny W hen t h e flower . s

fir t op n the tyle b earing s e , s ,

the tig ma at it tip i fo nd s s , s u

l w mw F ( r
o
protr
,“
d ing
0,
fro m o
the like
ed E i
u u rn -

m )
lob i nw s ho flow r while th e fo r
in g protnnd ry I n l th e e u
f w d
.
.
,
h
yl
st
m
s ta e ns are

h ply
e is s d ww dar
ta
t ru s t
m en
t u rn e
are
or

do
ar
r e d d
n
ow, a nd

ar
the
an d
S s cu v ri

b ackw d ar l h into t h t be d not r ad y

I n 2 th e s ty e is t rus t e u an e
f w wi h
,
.

or ard , im i b h t
to
its
hedst
th
g poll
at c
At
ranc es

p i f m e"
.
S en
p
s read i An n sec t in ass ng ro ]
.

om lat r ti m the tyle

.

to 2 will l m i ly
a f os t ce rta n tra ns er po l s e e e s

m
ion f m
—f
as o f
ro m
2
h i
th e s ta
b aring
A te r G R A Y
e n s of
th tig m a W ilt
1 to t e st g e e s s

d the ta m e tra ghten

. .

an s ns s i

u p and p rotr d fro m t h t b In

u tehi way fir t the e u e . s , s

rec ptiv tig ma and aft rward the he d ding polle ac

e e s , e s s n-s s .

occ py t h am e po ition
u e s s .

P rotan d ry i ev n m ore co m m on and m a y ill tration

s e , n us s

can b ob tai e d For xampl the how flower of the

e n . e e, s y s

comm on fi w d or gr at willow h rb wh n fir t op ned

re ee ,
e e , e s e

d i play their ight h d d ing ta m n pro m i ently th

s e s e tyle s e s n , e s

b ei g har ply
n s rved d ownward d backward ca rying
cu an , r

the fo r tig ma lo b e well t of t h w y L ater the

u s s ou e a .
,

stam en b nd a way d the tyle traighten p d ex

s e , an s s s u an

po e it tigm a lob now r c ptive ( Fig

s s s s e s, e e se e .

( )
3 D f i p ill — I the
ere n ce e ca e there
n are t o en n s s s a
1 30 P L A NT R E L A TI O N S .

of the common loo e tri fe E a h flo wer h tame f s s s . c as s ns o

t w length
o which with the tyle m ake po i ble th ree
s, , s , s ss

c ombination O flower h hort tame m iddle length

s . ne as s s ns, -

t m en and long tyle another h

s a s, hort tam en m iddl s as s s s, e

length tyle and long tam en the third h hort tyl

s , s s as s s e,

m iddle length t m en and long ta me

-
I n the e ca
s a s, s ns . s se s

al o the tig m a are intended to receive pollen from t m n

s s s s a e s

P ro 1 86
. . Yucca and P mnub a th e owe r figure to t h e rig t an o
. l h pe ned flower
h p
s o ws t h e y i i i p
e nd en t ovar w th t h e s t gma reg on at its a e x T he u . pp figu t
er re o

i h h p ii h ll i p ll
t h e r g t s ows th e os t on o f P m nuba w en co ect n g o en T he . fig t the u re o

le ft p ese nts a c l us te f ca psu l es f Yucca whi ch h ows th perf

re r r o o , s e oration s mad e
by th l ar ae of P ron uba in escapi g —A f t BI L L r and T a nL n n
e v n er
-
s .

of th eir own length and a tran f r of pollen fro m flower to , s e

fl ower i nece ary s ss .

9 0 Self ponin ati om—I con idering the e three general

.
-
n s s

m ethod o f preventing elf pollination it m t not be

s p s -
, us su

p o ed
s that el f pollination i never
s provided f-
or It i pro s . s

vid d for m ore exten ively th an w once

e ppo e d It i s as su s . s

fo nd that m any plant

u ch violet in ad dition to the s , su as s,

u sual howy in ect pollinated flower prod ce flower that

s , s -
s, u s

are not at all howy in fact do not open and are often not
s , ,

pro minently placed T h fact that the e flower are often . e s s

clo ed hs gge ted for them the name l i t g m

as su s c e s o a ou s
 F L OW ER S AN D l s c rs . 1 31

flo wer I the e flower el f pollinatio i a nece ity and

s . n s s s -
n s ss ,

i fo nd t b e v ry ffective i prod cing eed

s u o e e n u s .

9 1 Y ucca an d P ro ub a —T her can be no do bt al

. n e u , so,

t hat th re i a great deal of elf p llination e ff ected in

e s s -
o

fl ower adapted for pollination by in e t and that the i

s s c s, n

se ct them elve are o ften re pon ible for it B t in the

s s s s s . u

rem arkable ca e of Y and P b there i a definite

s u cca ron u a s

a rrangem ent for elf pollination by m ean of an in ect ( s -

s s se e

F ig . Y cca i a plant of the o thwe tern arid region

u s s u s s

of N or t h A merica and P ron ba i a m oth T h plant d , u s . e an

the m oth are very depende t po eac h other The b ll n u n . e

s haped flower of Y cca hang in great terminal cl ter with

s u us s,

i hanging ta m en and a central ovary ri b bed lengthwi e

s x s s, s ,

and with a f nnel haped opening at it apex wh ich i t h

u -
s s , s e

s t i gma The n mero ov le occ r in line beneath the

. u us u s u s

f rrow
u D ing the day the m all f e male P ron ba r t
s . ur s u es s

q ietly within the flower b t at d k become very active

u , u us s .

Sh travel down the tam en

e and re ting on the open
s s s, s

pollen co p t the o m ewh at ticky pollen with her

-
sac s o s ou s s
‘

f ront leg H olding the little m a

s . o f pollen h r n to ss s e u s

the ovary tand a tride one of the f rrow and pi

, s s s u s, e rc

ing thro gh the wall with her ovipo itor depo it an egg
u s , s s

in an ov l Afte r depo iting everal egg h r n to the

u e . s s s s e u s

apex of the ovary and begin to crowd the m a of pollen s ss

s h h e collected into the f nnel like tigma The e action

as u -
s . s s

are repeated everal ti me ntil many egg are depo it d

s s, u s s e

and repeated pollinatio h been eff ected A a re lt of n as . s su

all thi the flower i pollinated d eed are for med which
s s , an s s

develop ab ndant no ri hm ent for the m oth larv whic h

u u s a
e,

b co m e mat re and bore their way

e t thro gh the wall o f
u ou u

the cap le ( Fig su .

9 2 Securi ng cross pollinati om I v e ry m any way fl w

.
— - n s o

e rs are ad ap t ed to the vi it of itable in ect In h s s su s s . o

taining ectar or polle n food the vi iting in ect receive n as , s s s

p llen on o me part o f it body which will b lik ely to

o s s e

come in ontact with the tigma of the next flo wer vi ited

c s s .
F m 1 87 A l
c um p of lad y lippe s
s
- r s h wi g t h h b i t
o n e a of th e pl an t
—A fte G m o ri
. .

an d th e ge r l st r c t
ne a u u re o f t h e nower . r s .
1 34 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

u po n ppe r s rf c of which the tigma i d lope d

th e u u a e s s e ve .

A the i ect crowd it w y i to thi narro wing ha mber

s ns s s a n s c ,

it s body i d ted by the pollen

s d
us i t vi it the next , an as s s

flower and thr ts a ide the tigmati helf it i apt t

us s s c s , s o

d po it pon it o me o f the pollen pre io ly r eived

e s u s v us ec .

Th tory of pollination i con e tio with the orchi d

e s n n c n s

i till m ore co mplicated (

s s F ig Taking an ord i se e .

nary orchid for ill tration the det ail are follow E h
us , s as s . ac

of the two polle ma e terminate in a tick y di k n ss s s s s or

b tto ; between them extend the co ave ti gm a

u n s nc s su r

fa e at t h bottom of which i the pening i to the long

c , e s O n

t b e like p r in which the nectar i u -

s u s

fo nd S ch a flower i adapted to u . u s

the large m oth with long probo s, sce s

which can reach the botto m of the

t b A the moth thr t it pro u e . s us s s

b i into the t be it head to che osc s u , s u s

the ticky b tton on each ide that s u S , so

when it flie away the e b tton tick s s u s s

to it he d o metim e dire tly to it

fim m
s a , s s c s
“
1323t 0
eye h
d the pollen '
m e are tor s, an ass s n

w )
a W
ay m
of t The e m a e are then ar ied
ha . ou . s ss s c r
“
m m m
A ”9
to the nex t flower and are thr t us

again t the tig ma i the atte m pt to get t h n ctar

s s n e e .

In the l dy lipper ( Cyp ip d i m) another orchid t h

a -
s r e u , , e

flower have a con pic o po ch ( F ig

s s in which u us u se e .

the nectar i ecret d A pec liar tr ct r lik a flap

s s e . u s u u e, e ,

overhang the opening of t h po ch beneath which are the

s e u ,

two anther and be tween the m t h e tigmatic rface (

s, s su se e

Fig . Into th po ch a b crowd it way and b e u ee s s e

co m e im pri oned ( Fig

s sTh nectar which the se e . e

bee o b tain i in the b ottom of the po ch ( Fig

s s u se e .

W he e caping the b
n s m ove toward the opening over
, ee s s

h ng b y the flap and r b fir t again t the tigmatic

u u s s s s su r

face ( F ig se e and then again t the anther receiving

. s s,

pollen it back ( Fig on s A vi i t to another flower

se e . s
 F L O W E R S A N D IN SE CT S . 1 35

will re lt in r bbing ome of the pollen pon the tigm a

su u s u s ,

and in rec iving m ore pollen for another flower

e .

In ca e of protandry s s the co m mon figw t flower , as or , s

in the two condi

tion wil l be vi ited
s s

by the pollinating
in ect d
s , the an as

s h dding tamen
e s s

and rec ptiv tig e e s

m as occ py the u

s a m e relativ po i e s

tion t h pollen b i i p F lu 1 40 A b ee o t a n ng n ecta r in th e ouch of

m — f
.

e
.

Cy pfl ped iu A t e r G IBSO N
f ro m fl ower
. .

on e

will b e carried to the t igm of another It i evident that s a . s

exactly the am e method pr vail in t h ca e of protogyny

s s e e s ,

as th fi w d (e Fig re ee se e .

The H o tonia ( Fig us in which there se e t . a re s a

m en and tyle o f di ff erent length

s s si vi ited by in ec t s, s s s s

w h o e b o d i fill s es

the t b e and pro u

tr de ab ov it In u e .

vi iting flow r of s e s

both kind s on e re

gion of the b ody

rec ei ve poll n s e

fro m the hort t s s a

F IO . 1 41 . pi f mA b eep h esca m nng and anoth r

ro th e o uc of Cy pr i e s, e
mi wi h i m
d
A
m
pod i u
i li l f h
v a nc n g a
, an d

w ll
co

tt e
ng
e
u rtg
in
er
fco n ta ct
m t h
the b e e
e i
t th e st g
co m e in co n
a .

1
‘
l O 11
‘
l 0

wi h
tact t p ll — f long tam n In
th e an th e rs an d re ce ive o en . A te r s e s .

mm “
thi way t h in ect s e s

will carry ab o t two ban d of pollen which co m in con

u s , e

tact with the corre ponding tigm a W h n there are three s s s . e

form of fl ower s m ention d in the ca of

s, as of the e se on e

loo e trife the in ect receive thre pollen band one for
s s s, s s e s,

e ach f the three et of tig m

O s s s as .

93 W ar d ing
. of uns ui t ab l i e ct s — P ro m inent a m ong e ns

10
1 36 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

the n itable in ect which K erner call

u su s nbiddens, s u

g e t are ant
u s s, d a d aptation for red cing their i it
”
s, an s u v s s

to a m ini m m m y b e taken ill tration

u a as us s .

( )
1 H i — A co m m on devic
a rs for t rning b k an t e u ac s,

and other creeping in ect i a barrier of hair on the tem s s, s s ,

or in the flower cl ter or in the flower us ,

.

( )
2 G l d l t i an— I o m
u are ca e a ticky
s ecr e on s . n s s s s

secr tion i ex d d from the rface of plant which

e s u e su s,

ff ecti vely top e s s

the m aller creep s

ing in e ct I s s . n

cert ain pecie of s s

catch fly a ticky -
s

ring gird le each s

joint of the te m s .

( )
3 I sola t i on .

leave of cer The s

plant form tain s

r r ervoir wat e es s

t t h te m abo u e s .

T a cen d ch a O s su

t m therefore a s e , ,

cre pin g i e c t e n s

F IG . 1 42 pi f m p h
A b ee es ca m t cro
ng a
ro erie th e ouc of us ss s s
h —f
.

m
pe d i a bb i i an d ru ng
f ch re rvoir
aga n s t an an t er A te r
SN
, .

O su se s .

G IB O
T a el f rni he a
.

e s u s s

com m on ill tration t h o ppo ite l ave b eing nit d at

us , e s e s u e

th eba e d form ing a

s an ri of c p M or exten ive se es u s . e s

wat r r rvoire fo n d in B ilb gi o m ti m called

e se s a re u er a, s e es

trav l r tr e e who gr at flower cl ter

’
s ee,
”
pro se e us s are

t t d by large re ervoir for m e d b y t h ro ette of leave

ec e s s e s s s,

which cree ping in ect cannot cro s s ss .

( )
4 L t — Thi i a
a exm ilky ecr tion fo n d in
s o m e
s s e u s

plant in m ilkwee d Cao tcho c i a latex cretion

s, as s . u u s se

of ce tain tropi l tr e W hen latex i xpo ed to t h

r ca e s . s e s e

air it t ifi i m m ed iately beco m ing ticky and finally

s ens , s
 CH A P T E R VI I I .

AN IN D IV ID U A L P L A N T IN ALL OF ITS R E L A T IO N S .

F the p rpo of m marizing the general life rela

OR u se su -

tion de taile d in t h pr ce d ing chapt r it will be ef l to

s e e e s, us u

apply the m in the ca e of a ingl plant Taking a m s s e . co

m on se e d plant an ill tration and following it hi tory

-
as us ,
s s

fro m t h g rm ina t ion of the ee d c rtain g neral fact

e e s , e e s

beco m evi d ent in it r lation to t h external world

e s e s e .

94 Ge mi t i o of th
. rd — The m o t o b vio nee d of
na n e se e s us s

the d for germ ination

se e certain am o n t of m oi t re a re u s s u

and he t In ord er to ec re th to the b t advantage

a . s u e se es ,

the d i se e ally very definitely related to the oil either

s u su s ,

u pon i t and cover d b y m oi t r and heat r t aining

e d b i s u e -
e e r s,

or em b d d e d in it A long with the d m and for h at and

e . e e

m oi t re i
s u for air ( pplyi g oxygen ) which i e n
s on e su n , s sse

tial to life T h r l tion which ger m inating ed need

. e e a se s ,

ther fore i one which not only ec re m oi t re and heat

e , s s u s s u

advantageo ly b t perm it a free circ la t ion of air

us , u s u .

9 5 Di ectio o the oot

. f r — The fir t part of the yo ng
n r s u

plantlet to em erge fro m the e d i the tip of t h axi s e s e s

which i to d v lop t h root y t m It at onc appear to

s e e e s s e . e s

b very
e n itiv to t h earth infl ence ( g t p i m) and
se s e e u eo r o s

to m oi t r infl c ( hy d t p i m) for whatever the

s u e uen e ro ro s ,

direction of m erg nc fro m t h e d a c rvat re i devel

e e e se e , u u s

o pe d which d ir ct the tip to ward and finally into the oil

e s s s

(Se e Fig W h
. n t h oil i penetra t ed the pri meary e s s

root m y contin to grow vigoro ly d ownward howing

a ue us , s

a trong geo t ropic ten d ency d for ming what i known

s , an s

as the t p root from which la t eral root ari e which

a -
, s s , are
 AN IN D I V ID U A L P LA NT IN ALL OF I TS R E L A TI O N S . 1 39

mu ch m ore infl enced in d irection by other external u

e e pecially the pre ence of m oi t re A a r le

c a u s s, s s s u . s u ,

th e soil i not perfectly nifor m and contact with diff erent

s u ,

su b tance in d ce c rv t r
s s d a re lt o f the e and
u s u a u e s, a n as su s

o ther ca e the root y te m m y beco me very intricate

u s s, s s a ,

which i extre mely favor s

a b l e fo r ab or b ing and s

g ripping
96 . Directi on of the ste m .

AS oon the te m tip

s as s

i extricated fro m the ee d

s s ,

i t e hibit
x en itivene to s s s ss

the light infl ence ( h li t u e o

ro p i m
s ) b eing g, i d ed i u n

a general way toward the s

l ight ( F ig 1 4 3 )
se e . a .

D i r ct i on to war d
e th e s

light the o rce of the i

m
, s u n

fl n nn nn n poken of s tre a ? f i t s a:
S n
“ i

p osi t i h eliotropi
ve m m si ( ) ,
whi h as e e rge n ce o f the ax s r c is to

di ting i h d from d i
s u s e re c

t ion away from the light whi h ( ) b m , in c t h e roo t 1 h as e en so e

wh d l p
c alled g t i h l i t ne a ve
mb y ( )
e
d l pi o ro_
m
e
at

r o
e ve o

h is
ed ,

e ve o
an d th e s te

n g a cu rve
of th e
pre
P i sm I f th e m ain i p y p lli 3X 3 l arat or to u n g ou t th e se e d ea ve s

contin e t develop it u s (o
yl d )
i ly f f m
h w y
,
wi
pl co t

le t
e

e n t re
on s . E s o e the
th e
ou ng

se e d
an t

th its
to h w t h P
ree ro ,

t
c on l n u e s S o
( ) di i ls il
O SI m
“

roo t r e xte n ng n to th e so , its s te

tive heliotropi m trongly ( ) s s

—f
fi l ( ) h i
,
h e rec t ,

zo n ta lly s prea d
an d its rs t e a ves c or

b t the b ranche m y how

A te r ST a A s s u n u E R .

u s a S

every variation f o m po itive to t r heliotropi m s r a n s ve r se s

t hat i a direction tran ver e to the dir ction of t h ray

s, s s e e s

of light In o m e plant cert ain tem

. s tolon s s s, as s s, ru n

ner etc how trong tran v r e heliotropi m while other

s, .
, s s s e s s ,

s tem root tock etc how a trong tran v r e g t

s, as s s, .
, S s s e s eo

ro ism
p .

97 . Direct i on of foliage l e aves.

—The g n ral d ir ction o f
e e e

foliage leave s on an erec t t s em is tran ver ely heliotropic

s s
1 40 P L A N T R E LA TIO N S .

if nece ary the part of the leaf or the tem it el f twi ting
ss , s s s s

to allow the blade to m e thi po ition The danger of as su s s .

the leave hading one ano t her i red ced to a min im m by

s S s u u

the elongation of internod t h piral arrang m nt hort e s, e s e e , S

i g and changing direction pwar d

en n or lo b ing u s, .

T hi o tline the general n tritive r lation t h roo t

s u s u e s, e s

F IG . 1 43a . Ge rm ii n at o n o f d
t h e gar e n bea n, S h wi
o ng th e a rc h Of th e se e dli n g s te m

b
a o ve gro un d it p ll
, s u on th e se e d to i
e x t r ca te t h e co t yl e d o n s an d pl l
u mu e, an d

th e fi l na s tra igh t i g en n of the ste m an d ex p i

ans on O f t he y ou n g l ea ve s —A fte r
A TK I NS NO .

an d leav b eing favorably plac d for ab orpt ion d the

es e s , an

latter al o favorably placed for photo ynth i

s s es s .

9 8 P l in g of fl ow m
.
— The p rpo e of the flower e m
ac e u s s s e

to b e erve d b e t by expo e d po ition and con eq ently

s s s s s, s u

flower m o tly appear at the xtr m itie of t m and

s s e e s s e s

b ranche a po ition evi d ently favora ble to pollination and

s, s

seed di per al The flow r th expo d

s s . very m e s us se are co

mo ly m a e d or if not the ingle flo w r i apt to be large

u ss , , , S e s

an d con pic o The vario d vic for protec ti g

s u us . us e es n nec

tar and pollen again t too gr at m oi t re and the m ore s e s u ,

 CH A P T E R IX .

TH E STR U G G L E F OR E X ISTE N C E .

1 00 Defin ition
.
—The
phra e tr ggle for exi tence s s u s

h co m e to m ean far plant are concerne d that it i

as , SO as s , s

u sually i mpo i ble for the m to ec re id al relation and

ss s u e s,

that they m t enco nter nfavorable con d ition T h

us u u s . e

proper light and heat relation m y b e di ffi c lt to obtain s a u ,

and al o the proper r lation to food m aterial It ofte

s e s . n

happen al o that con d ition once fairly favorable m y b

s, s ,
s a e

com e nfavorable A l o m lti t d of plant are trying

u . s , u u es s

to tak e po e ion of t h am e con d ition A ll thi lead

ss ss e s s . s s

to the calle d tr ggl and v tly m ore plant fail

so -
“
S u e,
”
as s

than cc ed B fore con i d ering the organization of plant

su e . e s

societie it will b e h l pf l to con i d er om of the po i ble

s, e u s s e ss

change in con d ition s d the ff ect on plant s, a n e s .

1 01 D . of w t —Thi i pro b a bly the m o t m

e cre ase a er . s s s co

m factor t fl ct at in the en iron m ent of a plant

on o u u e v .

A long the b or d er f tr am and pon d d in wa m py

s O s e s s, an s

place t h variation in the wat r i very noticeable b t the

s, e e s ,
u

sam e thing i tr f oil in general H owever the change

s ue O s s .
,

chiefly ref rre d to i that which i per man nt d which

e s s e , an

co m pel plant not m erely to ti d ov r a d ro ght b t to

s s e e u , u

face a p rm anent d cre in the wat r pply

e e ase e su .

A ro n d the m argin of pon d

u very co mm only een s s are s

fri ge of
n s ch pla t b lr h
su cat tail flag reed n s as u us e s, -
s,

gra e t ss s, tan d ing in hoal wa t er A th e plant

e c .
, s S . S es s

grow clo e tog th r i lt f o m the lan d i entangled by the m

s e e ,
s r s ,

and pr ntly it acc m lat to ch

e se extent that thereu u es su an

i no m ore tan d ing water and t h water

s s pply for the , e su
 TH E STR U G G L E F OR E x IST E N O E . 1 43

b u r he and their a ociate h permanently decrea ed

l us s ss s as s

b low the favorable a m o nt

e In thi way certain lake u . s

m argin grad ally encroach pon the water and in

s u u , SO

d ing the water

o pply i permanently di mini hed for m any
su s s

p l ant Bys the

. a m e proce m aller la k elet are
s grad ally ss, s s u

b eing conv r t d into b og and t h b og in t rn into d ier

e e s, e s u r

g ro n d u d the e nfavora
, an b le change in wat r
s p ply
u are s e su

a m enac to m any plant e s .

The operation of m al o hav b een ry eff ctive in s an , s , e ve e

d im ini hing the water s pply for plant D rainage which su s .

,

i s xten iv ly practice d while i t m y m ake the water

so e s e , a

su pply m ore favorabl for the plant which m d cere s an e s I re S,

tainly m ak i t very nfavorabl for m any other plant

es u e s .

The clearing of fore t h a i m ilar r lt The fore t s s as S e su . s

s oil i rec ptive and retenti e in r ference to wat r and i

s e v e e , s

s o m ewhat lik a great ponge tead ily pplying the tream

e s ,
s su s s

wh ich drain it The re moval of t h fore t d e troy m ch

. e s s s u

o f thi power The water i not hel d and grad ally doled
s . s u

ou t b t r he
, u ff in a flood ; hence the tr a m which
us s O , s e s

drain the cleare d ar a are alternately flood ed d d ried p e an u .

Thi re lt in a m ch l total pply of wat r available

s su s u e ss su e

for the of plan t u se s .

1 02 D se of li ght —I t i
. e crea v ry co mm on to b erve s e O s

tall rank vegetation hading low r form

, d erio ly s e s, an s us

interf ring with the light pply If t h rank vegetation

e su . e

i rather te m porary the low plant m y l arn to pr cede or

s , s a e e

follo w it d avoi d the had ing b t if the ov r h ad ing

, an SO s u e -
s

vegetation i a fore t growth had ing b eco m e p rm anent

s s , s s e .

In t h ca e of d eci d o tree which d rop their l ave at the

e s u us s, e s

clo e of the growing a on nd p t t a fr h crop i the

s se s a u ou es n

s pring there i an in t erval in t h arly pring b fore the

, s e e s , e

le ve are f lly d evelope d d ring which low plant m y

a s u , u s a

s ec r a good expo re to light ( Fig

u e In chsu se e . su

place fin d an a b ndance of pring flower b t lat r

s on e s u s s, u e

in the e on the low plant b eco m v ry carc Thi

s as s e e s e . s

e ff ective over had ing i not comm on to all fore t for

-
S s s s,
F m 1 44
. . A common p
s rin g pl an t ( d og toot
-
h whi ch grows in dec id suo u

f o res ts . T he l arg e mo e tt l d le a ves an d t h e con s pi cuo us fl owe rs are se n t ra pidly

b th e su fa f
a o ve r ce bt
ro m t h e asu bu l b ( o t i t h l ft l w
e rra n e n see u n e e o e r corn e r),
wh e re are al so se e n d i ssected t so me pe ta l s an d stamens an d t h pisti l
ou e .
1 46 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

amo nt of dam age to plant M any b rrowing ani mal

u s . u s

attack bterranean part of plant and interfere erio ly

su s s, s us

with their occ pa t ion f an area u O .

V ario protective adaptation again t ch attack hav

us s s su s e

been pointed t b t thi bject pro bably h been m ch

ou , u s su as u

exaggerate d The occ rrence of hair prickle thor

. u s, s, n s,

and piny growth pon m any plant m y di co rage the

s s u s a s u

attack of ani mal b t it wo ld be ra h to a m e that

s s, u u s ssu

the e protection hav been d evelope d b eca e of the danger

s s e us

of ch attack O of the fam ilie of plant m o t m

su s . ne s s s co

p l t
e ely protect d in thi way i t h e great cact fa m ily s s e us ,

chiefly inhab iti g the ari d r gion of o thwe te n U nited

n e s s u s r

Stat esand M exico In ch a r gion cc lent vegetation . su e su u

i at a pre m i m
s d it i do b tl u tr e that the arm or of
, an s u e ss u

thorn and b ri tl red ce the amo nt of de tr ction

s s es u s u s u .

In ad dition to arm or the acrid or bitter cretion of , se s

certain plant or certain part of plant wo ld have

s s s u a

tend ncy to ward ff t h attack of ani m al

e o e s s .

1 06 P l t i l y
. I t i evi d ent that there m t be
an r va r .
-
s us

rivalry a mong plan t i occ pying an area and that tho s n u , se

plant which can m o t n arly tilize i d ntical cond itio

s s e u e ns

will b the m o t int n riv l For exam ple a great m any

e s e se a s .
,

yo ng oak m y tart p over an area and it i evident

u s a S u , s

that t h in d ivi d l m t com into harp competition with

e ua s us e S

one another d th t b t f w of th m cc d in tabli h

, an a u e e su ee es s

ing th e m lve p rm an ntly Thi i rivalry between i

se s e e . s s h

d i id l of the a m e kind b t o m other kind of tree

v ua s s u s e s,

as the be ch m y co m e into comp t ition with the oak and

e , a e ,

anoth r for m of rivalry will appear

e .

A a con q ence of plant rivalry the di ff rent plant

S se u , e s

which finally cce d in taking po e ion f an area are

su e ss ss O

apt to b d i i m ilar d a plant ociety i

e ss ally m ade p , an s s u su u

of plan t which r pr nt wi d ly d i ff ere t r gion of t h

s e e se e n e s e

plant kingd o m It i om eti m ai d that any well d

. s s es s e

ve ol p d plant ociety i an pito m e of the plant kingdo m

e s s e .

A fam iliar ill tratio f plant rivalry m y b e ob erve d

us n O a s
 TH E STR U G G L E F OR E X I STE N CE . 1 47

in th ca e of what are called w ed

e s E very one i f “
e s . s a

m i l i ar with the fact that if c ltivated gro nd i neglected u u s

th e s e nde ira ble plant will invad e it vigoro ly and eri

u s s us s

o u s l y a ff ect the develop m ent o f plant nder c ltivation s u u .

1 07 A daptati on — W hen the c h ange m ntione d a b ove

. s e

oc cu r in the environm ent of plant to ch extent s su an as

t o m ake the conditio for living very nfavorabl one ns u e,

o f t h ree thing i likely to occ r a d aptation m igration

s s u , , ,

or de tr ction
s u .

The change in condition m y co m e lowly eno gh and s a S u ,

ce rtai pl nt m y b abl to en d re it long eno gh to

n a s a e e u u

a d j t the m elve to i t
us S ch an adj t m e t m y involve
s s . u us n a

c h a ge in t r ct re and pro b ably no plant are pla tic

n s s u u , s s

en o gh to adj t them elve to extrem d d d en change

u us s s e an su s

whic h are to b e co mparatively p r m a ent There are e n .

plan t s, such the co mm on cre which

as m y b e call d ss, a e

a m phi b io which can liv in the water or t of it witho t

u s, e ou u

change of tr ct re b t thi i en d ranc rath r than

s u u ,
u s s u e e

ad aptation M any plant how v r can pa

. lowly into s, e e , ss S

d i ff erent condi t ion ch d ri r oil d n er had e etc s, su as e s ,

e s S , .
,

an d corre ponding change in their tr ct r m y b noted

s s s u u e a e .

V ery f t en howev r
O ch plant are given no o pport nity
,
e , su s u

to adj t the m lve to the w condition

us sethe area i s ne s, as s

apt to be invad e d by plant alread y b tter ad apt d W hile s e e .

adaptation m y b regard d a real re lt f chang d con

a e e as su O e

d it i on s,it wo ld m to b e by no m an the co m m on
u se e e s on e .

1 08 M ig ti on
.
— Thi i a v ry co mm on r lt of
ra s s e e su

changed condition P lant m igr t tr ly ani m al s . s a e as u as s,

tho gh of co r e their m igration i fro m g n rat ion to

u , u s , s e e

generation It i evi d n t however that m igration cannot

. s e , ,

be niver al for barrie f vario kin d m y forb id it

u s , rs O us s a .

In general th e barri r r pr nt nfavor ble con d ition

, es e s e e se u a s

for living If a plant ar a with good oil i rro d ed by

. e s s su un

a terile area the latt r wo ld form

s , ffici nt barrier to e u an e e

m igration from the for m er P lant of t h lowland co ld . s e s u

not cro m o ntain to e cape from nfavorable condition

ss u s s u s.
1 48 P L A N T R E L A TIO N S .

To m ak e mig ation po i ble therefore it i nece ary f

r ss , , s ss or

the condition to b e favorable for the migrating plan t i

s s n

s om e di rection I n the ca e of b lr he cat tail flag . s u us s, -

s,

etc growing in t h hoal wat r f a lake m argin the

.
, e s e O ,

b ilding p f oil ab o t them re lt in nfavorable con

u u O s u su s u

d it i on sA a con eq ence they m igrate f rther into the

. S s u ,
u

l ake I f the lake happen t be a mall one the filling p

. s o s ,
u

proce m y finally obliterate it and a ti me will co m e w h en

ss a ,

su ch form b lr he and flag will find it i m po i ble to

s as u us s s ss

m igrate .

In glacial time very many arctic plant m igrated o th s s s u

ward e pecially along the m o ntain y tem and m any

, s u s s s,

alpine plant m oved to lo w r gro nd W hen war mer con

s e u .

d it i re t rned m any plant that had been driven o th

on s u , s s u

ret rned toward the north and the arctic and al pine plant
u s ,
s

retreated to the north and p the m o ntain The hi tory u u s . s

of plant i f ll of m igration com pelled by chang d con

s s u s, e

d it i and per mitted in vario direction I t m t be

on s us s . us

re m e mbered al o that m igration of t en re l t i c h ange

, s , s su n s

O f tr ct re
s u u .

1 09 D t ct i on —. P ro b ab ly thi i by far the m o t

e s ru m s s s co

m on re lt of greatly chang d condition E ven if plant

su e s . s

ad apt the m elve to change d condition or migrate th ir

s s s, , e

s tr ct re m y be chang d that they will e m lik q it

u u a so e s e e u e

d i ff erent plant I n thi w y old form grad ally d i a ppear

s . s a s u s

and new one take their place s s .

1 50 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

color It h bee tated that thi green color i d t

. as n s s s ue o

th e pre ence of a coloring m a t ter known

s hl h
p y l l as c or 0

(se e T h two gro p m y bee pok n f therefor u s a s e O ,

e,

as ( ) g
1 p l t and
r een ( ) p
2 l t w i
an st h t h l h
p y ll an s ou c or o .

The pre ence of chloroph yll m ake it po i ble for the plant
s s ss s

containing it to man fact re their w food t of ch u u o n ou su

material water oil m a t erial

s as d ga e , For thi
s , an s s . s

rea on green plant m y b ntirely indep n d e t f all

s , s a e e e n O

oth er living thing far t h ir food pply i conc rned

s, SO as e su s e .

P lant witho t chlorophyll however are

s u nabl to , ,
u e

man fact re foo d

u t of
u ch m aterial and m t o btain
ou su s, us

i t alrea d y m an fact r d in the b odi u of o ther plant or

u e es s

ani mal For thi rea on th y

s . d epen d ent pon other
s s , e are u

living thing for their foo d pply j t are ani mal It

s su , us as s .

i evident that plan t wi t ho t chlorophyll m y b tain thi

s s u a O s

food pply ither fro m t h living b odie of plant and ani

su e e s s

m al in which ca e th y
s, call d p i t or th y m y
s e are e ar as es , e a

O b tain it from the b ta c d riv d fro m t h b odi su s f n es e e e es O

plant d ani m al in which ca

s an they called p
s, se a re sa ro

p yh t For
es exa
. m pl the r t which attack t he, wh at us s e e ,

and i fo nd pon t h l av
s u d t m of the li ing plant
u e e e s an S e s v ,

i a para ite ; while the m o l d which often d v lo p on tale

s s u e e s s

bread i a aprophyte Som e pl nt wi tho t chlorophyll

s s . a s u

can live eith r para ite or apro phy t e whil other are
e as s s s s, e s

alway one or t h other By far t h larg t n m b er of

s e . e es u

para it s d aprophyt
e s an belong to t h gro p f low plan t
s es e u O s

call d f ngi d wh n f ngi

e u , an ref rr d to it m t be e u a re e e ,
us

u n d er t ood that it m an t h greate t gro p f plant with

s e s e s u O s

ou t chlorophyll .

1 1 2 P h oto y n th esia —The n t ritive proce

. s in green u s se s

plant the am e in oth r plant and i add ition there

s a re s as e s, n

i in gr
s plant the pec liar proce known ph t y
een s u ss as o os n

th i (
es s In plant wit h foliage leave t h e are
Se e s s, es

the chief organ for thi work It m t b e re m e mber d s s . us e ,

however tha t leav are not nece ary for photo ynthe i
, es ss s s s,

for plant witho t leave s ch lg u perfor m it Th s, su as a ae, . e

 TH E N U T R ITIO N or P L AN TS . 1 51

e ss e n tial thing i green ti e expo ed to ligh t b t in thi

s ssu s , u s

b i f acco n t an ordinary le fy plant gro wi ng in the oi l

r e u a s

wi l l b e con idered s .

A the leave are the active tr ct re in the work o f

S s s u u s

p h to
o ynthe i
s the raw m aterial nece
s s, ry m t be b ro gh t s ssa us u

to t h em I n a general way th e m aterial s are car b on di

.
, es

ox i d e d water The g exi t d ifl d th ro gh the

an . as s s
’
u se u

a t m o phere and
s i in contact with the leave
, I t al o
SO s s . s

o c c u rs di olved in the water of the oil b t the g

ss ed s ,
u as u s

is b orbed fro m the air by the leave

a s Th pply of s . e su

w t er on the other hand in oil related plant i btained

a , , s -
s, s O

f ro m the oi l The root y te m ab orb thi water which

S . s s s s s ,

th n a cend the te m and i di tri b ted to the leav

e s s s s s u es .

( )
1 A t f w t — The
sce n water doe t
o m ov p a er . s no e u

w rd thro gh all par t of the te m b t i re tricted to a

a s u s s ,
u s s

ce r t in definit region Thi region i ea ily recognized

a e . s s s as

t h woody par t of te m
e Som eti m ep rate trand of s s . es s a s s

w od looking like fi b e
o , m y be e r nning lengthwi e rs, a s en u s

th ro gh the tem o m eti m e the fibro trand are packed

u s s s us s s

so clo e together that they form a com pact woody m

s ass, as

i n hr b and tree In the c of m o t tr e w wood i

s u s s . ase s e s ne s

m ade ach year t h ro gh which t h wat r m ove

e ,
H ence u e e s .

th very comm on di tinction i made b twe n p w d

e s s e e sa -
oo ,

th ro gh which t h water i moving and h t w d which

u e s , ea r -
oo ,

the wat er c rren t h abandoned J t how the water

u as . us

as cend thro gh the e woo d y fib r pecially in tall tree

s u s e s, e s s,

i a m a t t r of m ch d i c
s e ion d canno t b e regard du s u ss , an e as

d finit ly kno wn In any even t it ho ld b e re m m bered

e e .
, S u e

th at the e woo d y fi b er are not l ike the open vein

s d s s an

a rterie of ani m al bodie

s d no ci c lation i po i ble s, an r u s ss .

The e am e woody t ran d

s s een branching thro gho t s s a re s u u

the leave forming t h s,called v i y te m d it i evi e se - e n s s , an s

d ent th refore that th y for m a contin o

, e , ro te fro m e u us u

root to leave
s s .

It i ea y to dem on trat t h a cent of wat r in the

s s s e e s e

s te m and the path it t ke by a i mple experi m ent If

, a s, s .

11
 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

an active tem b e t and pl ng d in t o water tained with

s cu u e s

an anilin color called eo in the a c nding water will tain

e s ,
!
s e s

it pathway
s A ft r o m e ti m e ection thro gh the te m
. e s s s u s

will how that t h w t r h

S trav l d pward thro gh it e a e as e e u s u ,

and t h tain will poin t t the r gion of the te m ed in

e s ou e s us

t h m ove m en t
e .

In g neral therefore the c rb on d ioxide i ab orb ed

e , ,
a s s

dir ctly from t h air by t h leav

e d the wat r ie h e e s, an e s a

s orb d by the root fro m t h oil and m ov pward thro gh

e e s ,
es u s u

th te m into the leav

e s A int re ting fact ab o t the e es . n e s u s

raw m aterial i that they are very co mm on wa te prod ct

s s s u s .

Th y w t prod ct b ca in m o t lif proc e they

e a re as e u s e u se s e -
e ss s

cannot b e tak n to pi c d d The fact that they

e e e s an u se .

b e d in photo ynthe i can e us s s s

ho w t h t it i a very s s a s re

m arka ble lif proce e ss .

( )
2 C h l l t — H aving oro as s
p .

b t ine d o m e knowle d ge of O a s

the raw mat rial ed i e s us n

F IG m m
1 45 phyll ll f m p
So
h t
e
y t h i
eso
and thce
ir s ro
O OS n e S s’ e

o rc n ce ary to
. .
. .

t h e le a f w of t
F i tton ia , sh o lu g ch loro s u e s, I Is e ss

co i d r t h plant m achinery ns e e

arrang d for t h work I the working l af c ll it i

e e . n e e s s

di cov red t h at t h color i d t t h pre nce of v ry

s e e s ue o e se e

s m all gr n b o d i known chlo ophyll bo d i or hl

ee e s, as r es c or o

p l t (
as s Fig T h con
se e i t of t h living
. b tance e se s s e su s ,

known protopla m d t h gr as t i c ll d chloro

s , an e ee n s a n a e

phyll th refor h chloropla t i a l iving b o d y ( pl tid )

e e , e ac s s as

S tain d g n It i i th e chloropl t th t t h work f

e re e . s n es as s a e O

p hoto ynth i i d on
s I or d r th t
es s th y m s
y work i t e . n e a e a

i n c
s ary for th m to btai a ppl y of n rgy fro m
e e ss e O n su e e

s o m e o t id o rc d th
u s o rc d in at r i
e s u e . an e s u e u se n u e s su n

light T h gr n t i ( chloro ph yll ) e m t b

. e ee d in
s a n s e s o e u se

ab orb ing t h
s c ry rgy fro m nlight d the
e ne e ssa ene su , an

T he co m m o n e r g rad e s o f re d in k a re u su a ll y sol u t io n s O f e osi n .

 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

h ydrate t h nitrogen s, lph r and other nece a y

e , su u , ss r

additional l m ent b eing b tain d from oil b tanc

e e s O e s su s es

di olved in the wa t r wh ich i ab orb ed d convey d

ss e s s an e

to the leave s .

1 1 3 T a pirati o —T h water which i ab or b e d by t h

. r ns n . e s s e

root d pa e to the leave i m ch m ore ab nd ant t h a

s an ss s s s u u n

i ne d ed in t h proce of photo ynthe i

s e It ho ld b e
e ss s s s . s u re

m e m bered that the water i not only e d a raw m ateri l s us as a

for food m an fact re b t al o act a olven t of t h oil

u u , u s s as s e s

m aterial d carri th m i t o t h pla t The water i

s an es e n e n . n

exce f the m all am o nt d in food man fact re i

ss O s u u se u u s

giv n ff fro m the plant in the form of water vapor t h

e o , e

proce b ing alread y r f rred to t pi t i (

ss e e e as ra n s ra on se e

1 1 4 Dig ti o —C r b ohy d rat

. es d prot i d m y ben . a e s an e s a re

gard d e prom inen t ty p f plan t food which green

as es O

plant are able to m an fac t re The e food

s tran u u . s s a re s

ported thro gh the plant to region wh re work i going

u s e s on ,

and if th re i a great r pply of food than i needed f or

e s e su s

the working r gion the exc i t or d p in ome pa t e s, e ss s s e u s r

of t h plant A a r l gr n plant
e . able to m fS u e, ee s are a n u ac

t r m ch m or food than th y
u e u and it i pon thi ex
e e u se , s u s

c that oth r plant d ani m al live In t h tran fer f

e ss e s an s . e s O

foo d thro gh the plan t c r t in chang

s u oft n e a es a re e n e c es

sary For x m pl tarch i in ol bl and hence cannot

. e a e, S s s u e,

b e carrie d a b o t in ol tion It i n c ary to tran form

u s u . s e e ss s

it into gar which i ol ble Th chang m ade to

su , s s u . e se e s,

facili t ate t h t ran f r of foo d repre nt d ig t i

h dm
e s e s, se es on .

11 5 A im ilati o
.n — W h n foo d in o m for m h
ss e s e as re ac e

a working r gion it i org iz d into t h livi g b tance

e ,
s an e e n su s

of t h plant known e p t pl m , d the protopl m as ro o as , an as

b il d t h plant t c t r Thi pro

u s e of organizi g t h
s ru u e . s c e ss n e

foo d into t h living b t anc i known e i m il t i su s e s a s a ss a on .

1 1 6 R e pi tion .
— The form ation f foo d their d ige
s ra O s, s

tion d i m il tio an all pr p r tory to t h proc of

a ss a n a re e a a e e ss

r pira t ion which m y b call d t h

es , of a i m ilated a e e e u se ss

foo d The whole working pow r of t h plant d epend

. e e s
 TH E N UT R I TI O N OF P L A N TS .

up on re piration which m an the ab orption of oxyg n by

s ,
e s s e

the proto pl m the b reaking down of protopla m d t h

as , s , an e

giving ff of carbon dioxide

O and water wa te T h i m as s s. e

F IG 1 46 T he common Nort h e rn pi tch pla er nt T he h ollow lea ves , eac h wi t h a h d oo

f
. . .

an d s wln g , form a rose t te , ro m th e ce n te r of whi ch arise th e fl w

o tal k
er s s .

f
A te r Kxn x a a .

portance of t hi proc m y b r liz d when it i r m em

s e ss a e ea e s e

b er d that th re i the a m n d i
e w living
e it s s e ee n ou r o n , as

i e ntial for al o to br a t h i oxygen d a “ ”

s sse us s e e n , an as

re lt w breathe t c rb on d ioxid and water Thi

su e ou a e . s

b reaking down or oxidizing of protop la m relea e the s s s

1 56 P LANT R E L A TIO N S .

power by which the work of th plant e is carried on ( see

117 . Summary of arize the

life prom
- —To su m m nu

t rit ive lif e proce e in green plant therefore ph t y

-
ss s s, , o os n

th i m an fact re carbohydrate es s u u s s,

the material ed bei g carb on s us n

d ioxide and water the work b ing , e

done by the chloropla t with the s

id f ligh t ; the m f t a f O a nu ac u re o

p t i d e t h e e car b ohydratero e s us s s s,

and al o b tance containing s su s s

nitrogen lph r etc ; d ig t i , su u , . es on

p t the in ol ble carb ohydrate u s s u s

and the proteid into a ol ble s s u

for m for tran fer thro gh the s u

plant ; i mi l t i convert thi a ss a on s s

food m aterial i t o the living b n su

tance f t h plant pro t opla m ; s O e , s

p i t i i the oxidizing f
resthe ra on s O

protopla m which enable the s s

plant to work oxygen being h , a

orbed and car b on dioxide and s ,

water vapor being given ff in O

the proce ss .

1 18 . P la nts with out chlorophy ll .

the life proce — R e m e m bering -

sse s

gre n plant it i descri b e d u nd e r e s, s

evid nt that plant with o t chlo e s u

1 47 .h pi h h ll cannot
Sout
do
ern
the work of
tc er
ro
pl h w
an t, s f olf m p y
in g t h e u n ne or

wi
an d pi h n ge d photo ynthe i Thi mean that
tc er , an d the s s s . s s
hi h wi h
o ve rarc ng i they cannot man fact re carbo
ood t trans n

p — f
u u
ce n t s o ts A t er KB B N BB
hydrate and th at they m t de
. .

s, us

pend pon oth er plant anim al for thi i mportan t food

u s or s s .

M hroo m
us p ff ball m o l d m il d w r t d odder
s, u -
s, u s, e s, u s s, ,

corp e plant beech d rop etc m y b e taken ill tr

s s, s, .
, a as us a

tion f ch plant
s O su s.
1 58 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

swallowed by ani mal s . o e comm on ill tration are

S m us s as

follow s :

)( 1 P i t ch erhe e plant
p la n ts the leave for.m —In t s s s

t be or rn of vario for m which contain water d

u s, u s, us s, , an

to which in ec t are attracted and drowned ( Fig

s s se e .

A pi t c h er plant com m on thro gho t t h So thern State u u e u s

m y be taken
a a type ( Fig as The leave se e . s are

Shaped like lender h ollow cone and ri e in a t ft fro m

S , s, s u

the wam py gro nd S u .

The m o th of thi u s

conical i over u rn s

arched and haded S

b y a hood in which ,

are tran l cent pot s u s s,

l ike m all window s s .

A ro nd the m o th u u

of the ar e u rn

gl an d w h i c h s, Se

crete a weet liq id s u

( t ) and nectar n ec a r ,

d rop form a trail s

d own t h o t ide of e u s

the In i d e j t u rn . s ,
us

b elow the im of the r

i a glazed zone u rn , s ,

mooth that in ect so s s s

cannot walk pon it u .

w h wi
A h bi
sun -d e Below the glazed
, s o n g rose tte a t of 2 011 6
h l
th e in sect -catc in g
another o e ea ves .
1 8 z n ,

thickly t with t ifl se s
"
,

d ownward pointing h air and below thi i the liq id in

-
s, s s u

the bo t to m of the u rn .

If a fly i attract d by the nectar drop pon thi c rio

s e s u s u us

leaf it nat rally follow the trail p to th im of the

, u s u e r u rn ,

w h ere the nec t ar i ab ndant If it atte mpt to de cend

s u . s s

within the it lip on t h glazed zone and fall into

u rn , S s e , s
 1 59
'

TIIE N UTR IT I O N o r P L A N TS .

the water and i f it at t e m pt to e cape by crawling p the

, s s u

S ide f the
s O the thicket of downward poin ting hair
u rn , -
s

p revent If
s i t
. eek to fly away fro m the i
s m it flie s r , s

t owar d the tran l cent po t in t h hood which look like

s s u s s e ,

the way of e cape t h direction of en t ranc i in the

s , as e e s

s had ow of the hood P o nding again t the h d t h fly . u s ee , e

f all in t o the t b e
s T h i So thern pitcher plan t i known
u . s u s

T wo le aves of a sun -d e w T he on e h t has its gland l h airs

t o th e rig u ar

l ft h w
.

f lly expan ded th

u e on e to t h e e s o s h lf f t h h i
a o b di ng i w d i th e
e a rs en n ar , n

positi n ass u m d wh e
o e n an i t h
n se c b as ee n ca p t e d —A ft
ur Ka m a er .

as a great fl y catcher and the rn -

ft well pplied ,
u s a re O en su

with the decaying bo d i of the e in ect es s s s .

A m ch larger Californian pitch r plant h

u till m or e as s e

elaborate contrivanc for attracting in ect ( Fig es s s se e .

( )
2 D — The d ro era
r ose ra are co mm only
. known s s as

dew and grow in wampy r gio the l ave form

su n - s,
”
S e n s, e s

ing m all ro ette on the gro nd ( Fig

s s In one
s u se e .

for m the leaf blad e i ro nd and the m argin i b et by s u ,

s es

prom inent bri tle like hair each with a glob lar gland at
s -
s, u

it tip (
s F ig se eShorter gland bearing hair are
.
-
s
 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

scattered al o over the inner rface of the blade Th e e

s su . s

gland excrete a clear ticky fl id which hang to them in

s , s u , s

drop like dew drop If a mall in ct b eco m e entangled

s -
s . s se s

F m 1 51 P l an ts of D iond h i
o , s ow n g t h e rose tt e h ab i t of th e l ea ves wi t h te rminal
ft
. .

tra s, p and the e rect fl o we ri n g s te m —A er KE R N E R .

in t h t icky d rop the hair b gin to c rve inward and

e s , e s u ,

pr tly pr
e se n it victi m d o w pon the f c of the
e s se s s n u su r a e

blad In the c of l rg r in ct v ral of the m arginal

e . ase a e se s, se e

hair m y join tog t h r in hol d ing it or t h whol blade

s a e e , e e

m y b eco m e m ore or le rolled inward

a ss .
 CH A P T E R XI .

P L A N T S O C IE TI E S : E C O L O G I CA L F A C T O R S .

1 20 . Defin iti on the previ o

of plan t socie ty .
— Fr o m us

ch apter it h bee learned that every com plex pla t i

s as n n s

a com bination of organ and tha t eac h organ i related in s, s

s om e pecial way to it environ m ent It follow therefore

S s . s, ,

that the w h ole plant m ade p of organ h old a very m, u s, s co

plex relation wi th it environ m ent The te m d e man d s . s s

certain thing the root other thing and the leave ti ll

s, s, s s

other T ati fy all f the e d em and

s . O s s far po ible O s s, so as ss ,

the whole plan t i d elicately ad j te d s us .

The earth rface pre n t v ry diver e condi t ion in re f

’
s su se s e s s

erence to plant life and plant are gro ped according to

, as s u

th e e condition thi lead to defini te a ociation of plant

s s, s s ss s s,

tho e adapted to the am e general con d ition being apt t

s s s o

live together S ch an a ociation of plant living together

. u ss s

i
n S i m ilar con d ition i a pl t i ty the con d ition for
s s an s oc e , s

bid d ing other plant It m t not b e nder tood that lls . us u s a

plant aff ecting the am e condition will b e fo nd living

s s s u

together For exam ple a m ead ow of a certain ty pe will not

.
,

contain all t h kind of gra e a ociat d with that type

e s ss s ss e .

Certain gra e will be fo n d in one m eadow and other

ss s u ,

gra e will b e fo nd in other meadow s of the am e type

ss s u s .

Very clo ely relate d plant generally do not live in t h

s s e

s am e ociety their rivalry i apt to b e int n e Clo ely

s , as s e s . s

related plant are likely to occ r however in di ff erent

s u , ,

s ocietie of the a me type A plant oci ty therefore m y

s s . s e , , a

contain a wi de repre entation of the plan t kingd o m from

s ,

plan t of low rank to tho e of high rank

s s .
 P L A N T SO CI E T I E S : E CO L O G I CA L F A CTO R S . 1 63

efore con idering om e of the comm on ocieti it i

B s s s es, s

n ece ary to note som e of the condition which determi ne

ss s

p lant ocietie s Tho e t h ing in

s the
. environ m ent of the
s s

p lant which infl ence the organization o fu a ociety are s

k nown l gi l f tas eco o ca a c or s .

1 2 1 W te r —W ater i certainly one o f the m o t im

. a . s s

p or t ant conditio in the environ m ent ofnsa plant and h , as

great infl nc in determ ining the organization of ocietie

ue e S s .

I f all plant are con idered it will b e noted that the am o nt

s s , u

of water to which they are expo ed i exceedingly variable s s .

At extr m are tho e plant which are co mpletely

on e e e s s

su b m erg d ; at t h other extre m e are tho e plant of arid

e e s s

r egion which can btain very littl water ; and b etween

s O e

the e extreme th re i very gradation in t h amo nt of

s s e s e e u

available water A m o g t h m o t triki g adaptation of

. n e s s n s

plant are tho e for living in the pr e ce of a great am o nt

s s es n u

o f wa ter and tho e f or g ar d i g again t it lack

,
s u n s s .

O of t h fir t thing to con ider in connection with

ne e s s s

an y p lant ociety i the a m so nt o f water pply s It i not u su . s

m erely a q e tion of it total ann al a m o nt b t of it

u s s u u , u s

di tri b tion thro gh the year I it pplied om ewhat

s u u . S su s

u niformly or i ther alter ating flood d dro ght P The

, s e n an u

n at r of the water pply i al o i m portant A there

u e su s s . re

su r fac channel or bterranean channel or doe t h

e s su s, s e

whole pply co m e in the form of rain and now which

su s

f all pon the area ?

u

A nother i m port ant fact to con i d r i connection with s e n

the water pply h to d with the tr ct r of the oil

su as o s u u e s .

Th re i what m y b calle d a wat r level i oil and it i

e s a e e n s s, s

i m portant to note the de pth of thi level b eneath the s su r

face In o m e oil it i very near the rface in other

. S s s s su s,

su ch andy oil it m y b e om e di tance b neath the

as s S s, a s s e

su r face .

N t only do the a m o nt of water

o d the d epth of the u an

water level hel p to det r m ine plant ocietie b t al o the e s s, u s

su b tance w h ich the water contain

s s Two area m y have s . s a
1 64 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

the ame am o nt of water and the ame water level b t

s u s , u

if the b tance di olv d in the water di ff er in certai

su s s ss e n

partic lar two entirely d i tinct ocietie m y re lt

u s, s s s a su .

1 22 H t — The gene al tem perat re of an area i im

. ea r u s

portant to con ider b t it i evident that di ff erence of

s ,
u s s

te m perat re are not local di ff erence in the wat r

u SO as s e

su pply d therefore thi factor i not i mportant in the

, an s s so

orga ization of the local a ociation of plant called ocie

n ss s s, s

ti i the water factor

e s, a s s In the di tri b tion of plant . s u s

over the rface f the earth however the heat factor i

su O , , s

pro b ably m ore i mporta t than the water factor T h range n . e

of te m perat re W h ich the plant kingdom

u a whole can , as ,

en d re d ring active work m y be tated in a general w y

u u a s a

as fro m 0 to 5 0 C that i fro m the freezing point o f

° °
. s,

water to 1 2 2 Fahr There are certain plant which

°
. s can

work at higher te m perat re notably certain alg gro wing u s, ae

in hot pring b t they m y b e regard ed exception It

s s, u a as s
.

m t b e re m e m b red that the range o f te m perat re given

us e u

i for plant actively at work

s d doe not incl de the t m
s , an s u e

p t which
e ra u re m any plant are a b le to end re in a pecially s u s

protecte d b t very inactive con d ition For example m any

u .
,

plant f the tem perate region end re a winter te m pera

s O s u

t r which i freq ently lower than the fr ezing point of

u e s u e

wat r b t it i a q tion of end rance and not of work

e , u s ues u .

It m t not b e ppo ed that all plant can work eq ally

us su s s u

well thro gho t the whole range of te mperat re given for

u u u ,

they d iffer wi d ely in thi regard Tropical plant for i s . s, n

stance acc to m ed to a ce tain li mit d rang of high t m

, us r e e e

p er
a t cannot
u re ,work contin o ly at the lower te m pera u us

t re For ac h kind f plant there i what m y b e called

u s. e O s a

a zero point b low which it i t in the hab it of working

, e s no .

W hile i t i i m portant to note the general te m perat re

s u

of an area thro gho t the year it i al o nece ary to note

u u , s s ss

it d i tri b tion
s s Two region m y have pre mably the
u . s a su

sam e am o nt of heat thro gh the year b t if in the one ca e

u u , u s

it i iformly di tri b t d and in the other g eat extre m

s un s u e , r es
1 66 P LA N T R E L A TI O N S .

1 23 .
— The
oil factor i not m erely i mpo t ant t
Soil s s r o

con ider in connection with tho e plant dir ctly related

s s s e

to t h oil b t i a fact for all plant

e s , u it d etermine
s or s, as s

the b tance which the water contain There are t w

su s s s . o

thing to b e con idered in connection with the oil nam ely

s s s , ,

it chem ical co m po ition

s d it phy ical properti P s an s s es . er

hap the phy ical propertie are m or im portant from t h

s s s e e

s tandpoint of oil related plant than the chemical m

s -
s co

po ition altho gh both the che mical d phy ical nat re

s ,
u an s u

of the oil are b o nd p together that they n d not be

s so u u ee

con i d ered eparately here T h phy ical propertie o f the

s s . e s s

s oil which are i m portant to plant are chiefly tho e which

, s, s

relate to the water pply It i alway i mportant to d su . s s e

termine how recep tive a oil i D oe it take in water s s . s

ea ily or not ? It i al o ece ary to determine how

s s s n ss re

t
en ti it i ; it m y receive water readily b t it m y not
ve s a , u a

retain it .

For co v nience in or d inary fi ld work with plant

n e e s
,“
s oil m y be di ided ro ghly into i cla e ( I) k
s a v u S x ss s r oc ,

which mean olid ncr m bled rock pon which certain

s s u u , u

plant are able to grow ; ( 2) d which h m all water

s sa n , as s

capacity that i it m y r ceive water readily eno gh b t

, s, a e u , u

doe not retain it ( 3) lim il ( 4 ) l y which h great

s e so c a , as

water capacity ; ( 5 ) h m which i ich in the prod ct u u s, s r u s

of plant and ani m al decay ( 6) lt i l in which the water sa so ,

contain vario alt and i generally poken of alka

s us s s, s s as

line The d ivi ion i a ro gh way indicat both the

. se s s n u e

s tr ct re of the oil d i t che mical compo ition N t

u u s an s s . o

only ho ld the kind of oil on an area be determined

S u s s ,

b t t heir de pth i an i m portant con ideration

u It i s s . s

v ry co mm on to fi d one of the e oil overlyi g another

e n s s s n

one and thi relation b tw en t h two will have a very

, s e e e

i m portant e ff ect For in tance if a and oil i fo nd. s , s s s u

lying over a clay oil the re lt will b e that the and oil s , su s s

will retain far m ore wat r than it wo l d alone If a h m e u . u us

s oi l in one area overlie a and oil and in another r s s s . a ea

 P L A N T SO CIE TIE S : E CO L O GICA L F A CTO R S . 1 67

ove rli a clay oi l t h h m will di ff er very m ch in the

es s , e u us u

tw o cas s e i ref rence to water n e .

Th oil cover ho ld al o b con i d ered Th co mmon

e s s u s e s . e

So il ver are ow fallen leave

co s d living plant
sn It , s, an s .

will b notice d that all the

e cov r tend to di m ini h the se e s s

lo ss o f heat f ro m the oil well the acce of heat to s , as as ss

th e il In other word a good oil cover will very m ch

so . s, s u

di m i i h the extreme of tem p rat r A ll thi ten d to

n s s e u e . s s

i r e t h retention of water
nc e as e .

1 2 4 L ig t h — I t i know tha t light i e

. ntial for thes n s sse

pe liar work of green plant H owever all green plant

cu s .
, s

c ot have an q al am o nt of light and o m e have

an n e u u ,
s

l r ed to live with a le am o nt than oth r W hile

ea n ss u e s .

no harp line can b e drawn b etween gr en plant which

s e s

u se inten e light and tho e which

s le inten e light
, s u se ss s ,

w e til l recognize in a general way what are called light

s

p l an st and h d p l t W know that

s a e cert ain plant an s . e s

are chiefly fo nd in it ation w h re they can b e expo ed

u S u s e s

freely to light and th at other plant , a r le are fo nd s, as u , u

in hady it ation
s S u s .

Starting with thi i d ea we find that plant grow in s , s

s trata In a fore t ociety for example the tall tree p

. s s , ,
s re

r ent the high t trat m ; b elo w thi there m y b e a

es es s u s a

t at m of hr b then tall herb then low her b then

s r u s u s, s, s,

form lik mo e and lichen growing clo e to the gro n d

s e ss s s s u .

I n any plant ociety it i i mportant to note the n m b er of

S s u

th e trata It m y b e th at t h high t trat m had

es s . a e es s u S es

so d en ely that m any of the other trata

s t r pre ented s are n o e s

at all A ill tration of thi can b e o b tain d fro m a

. n us s e

den e b eech for t

s es .

1 2 5 W in d — I t i generally k own th t wind h

. ad y s n a as r

ing e ff ect d therefore it increa e the tra piration of

, an , ,
s s ns

plant and tend to i mpoveri h th m in water Thi factor

s s s e . s

i e pecially con pic o

s s in region where there are pre
s u us s

vailing wind ch near the coa t aro n d the great

s, su as se a- s , u

lak e and on the prairie

s, d plain In all ch region s an s. su s

12
1 68 P L A NT R E L A TIO N S .

the plant have been co m pelled to adapt them elve to th i

s s s s

lo of water and in om e region the prevailing win d

ss s s s ar e

so con tant and violent that t h force of t h win d i t el f h

s e e s as

infl enced the appearance of the vegetation giving what i

u ,
s

call d a characteri tic phy iogno my to the area

e s s .

The e five factor have b een elected from a m ch larg

s s s u er

n m b er that m igh t b e en m erated b t they m y b

u u , u a e re

garde d am ong the m o t i m portant one It will b

as s s . e

notice d that the e factor m y b e combined in all ort s s a s s

of way that an al mo t end l

s, so erie of comb ination s e ss s s s

see m to b e po i ble Thi will give o me idea to t h

s ss . s s as e

po i ble n m b er of plant ocieti for they m y b e

ss u s e s, a as

n m ero
u are the comb ination of the e factor
u s as s s s .

1 26 T h g ea t g
.
p f so c i
e t i s —
r I t i po i b le t
rou s o e e s ss o re

d c t h very n m ero ocietie to three or fo r gr at

u e e u us s s u e

gro p For co veni nce the water factor i chiefly ed

u s . n e , s us

for thi cla ificatio It re lt in a convenient l ifi

s ss n . su s C ass ca

tion b t one that i pro ba bly m or or le art ficial The

,
u s e ss i .

sel ction of any one factor from a m ong the many for the
e

p rpo e of cla ification never re lt in a very nat ral

u s ss su s u

cla ification whe the co m bi ation of factor d et rm ine

ss n n s e s

the gro p H ow v r for g neral p rpo

u . e the e ,al e u se s, u su

cla ification on t h ba i of wat r pply will b e ed

ss e s s e su us .

O n thi ba i th r s three gr at gro p f ocietie

s s e e a re e u s O s s,

as follow s

( ) y p g
1 H d h t — The na m erOm ean wat ear pla t and s e n s,

su gge t that ch oci ti

s s at that xtrem e of the water
su s e e s a re e

su pply where it i ry ab n d ant S ch pla t m y grow s ve u . u n s a

in t h water or in very wet oil b t i any event they are

e , s , u n

expo e d to a larg a m o nt of wat r

s e u e .

( )
2 X h
p y t — T h na m
er o e m an d ro
es .th plant e e s
“
u s,

an d gge t t h other extre m of the water pply Tr e

su s s e e su . u

xerophyt expo d to d y oil d d y atm o phere

e s a re se r s an r s .

( )
3 M h
p y t — B etw n
es o t h t w extre mese of
. the wate ee e o s r

su pply there i a g at m id d le region of m edi m water

s re u

su pply d plant which occ py it are known m o

, an s u as es
 CH A P T E R XI I .

H Y D R O P H YT E S O CIE TIE S .

1 27 . ydrophyte are related to

Ge n eral ch aract er . H s

ab n d ant water ither th ro gho t their whole tr ct re

u , e u u s u u

or in part of th ir tr ct re It i a well known fact th t

e s u u . s -
a

hy d rophyt are am ong the m o t co m opoli t an of plan t

es s s s,

an d hy d rophyte ocietie in one part of the world loo k s s

very m ch like hydrophyte ocietie in any other region

u s s .

It i prob able that the ab ndant water make the co di

s u s n

tion m ore niform

s u .

It i iden t that for tho e plant or plant part which

s ev s s, s,

are b m rge d the water aff ect the heat factor by di min
su e , s

i h i g the extr m e
s n It al o a ffect the light factor in
e s . s s , so

far t h light m t pa thro gh the water to r ach t h

as e us ss u e e

chlorophyll containing pa t -
light i d i m ini hed in r s, as s s

inten ity by pa ing thro gh the wat r Before con ider

s ss u e . s

ing a f w hy d rophyte ocietie it i nece ary to note the

e s s, s ss

pro m in t hy d rophyt ad apt tion

en e a s .

1 28 A d aptatio s
.
— I or d r that the ill tration m y be
n n e us a

as S i mpl po i bl a co m plex plant co mpletely expo ed

e as ss e, s

to wat r i l cte d for it i evid nt that the r lation of a

e s se e , s e e s

swamp pla t with it root in wa t er d it te m and leave

n , s s an s s s

expo d to airse complicat d A n m b r of adaptation

, are e . u e s

m y b not d in co n ction wi t h t h
a e e b m rged or floating
n e e su e

plant .

( )
1 Th i w ll d p id m i
n — -
I thea ca ofethe oil e er s . n se s -
te

lated plant t h wa t r pply com e m ainly fro m the oil

s, e e su s s ,

an d t h root y t m i con tr ct d to a b or b it
e s s e I the s s u e s . n

ca e of the water plant d er con i d eration however t h e

s un s , ,
 H Y D R O P H Y TE SO CI E TIE S .

whole plant b ody i expo ed to the water pply and there s s su ,

fore ab orption m y tak place thro gh t h whol

s rface a e u e e su

rather tha at any partic lar region ch t h root In

n u su as e .

order that thi m y b e d o e how v r i t i n c ary for s a n , e e ,

s e e ss

the epider m i to h ave t hi wall which i lly not the

s n s, s u su a

ca e in e pid rm i expo d
s e s se

to the air wh re a c rtai , e e n

am o nt of protection i
u s

neede d in t h way f e O

thickening .

( )
2 R oots mu ch r ed u ced

or —
wa n t i ng I t . m u st be
evi d en t that if water i s

b eing ab orb ed by the s

whole fre rface of t h e su e

plant there i ,
t s no so

m ch n ed for a pecial
u e s

root regio for b p n a sor

tion T herefore in ch
.
, su

water plant t h root y s e s s

t m m y b e m ch
e a u re

d d or m y ev n d i p
u ce , a e sa

pear en t ir ly I t i ften e . s O

retain d ho wever to act

e , ,

as a holdfa t rath r th n s , e a

as an ab orb nt organ for s e ,

F rag me n t O f a commo n sea wee d
m o t water plant a chor
s s n (F u cus ) , s h o w ngi the b dy wi t h f k i
o or ng

the m elv to o m e p
s es s su
b i
ran c h n g an d b l dd li k
a e r- e air c av i ti es .

f
A te r L U E R SSE N
po t r .
.

( )
3 R e d u cf
t i on the or d i o wa ter -
con d u ct i ng t is s u es .
— In
nary oil re late d plant
S t only i
-
ab orb i g roo t y s, n o s an s n s s

t m nece ary b t al o a con d cting y t m to carry the

e ss , u s u s s e ,

wat r ab or bed fro m the root to the l av

e s d l where s e e s an e se .

It h alr ady b n no t d that thi con d cting y t m take

as e ee e s u s s e s

the for m of woo d y tran d It i evi d nt tha t if water

'

s s . s e

i bein g a b or b e d by the whole

s rface of t h pl t the
s su e
°

an ,
1 72 P L A NT R E L A TI O N S

work of cond ction i not exten ive or definite

u s So s , an d
therefore in ch water plant the woody b ndle are
su s u s n ot

so prom inently develope d in land plant as s .

( )
4 R d t i f m h
e i l
uc t i —
onI the ca
o e ec a n ca ssu es n s Of

ord inary land plant cer tain fi m ti e are developed

s, r ssu s so

F IG . 1 54 G ui tweed ( Sa rg assum) , sh wi ng th t h ll d lfl
o e a us i nt
ere n t iate d o s t e m- l ik e an d

b l dd li k n t —A tt B ENNE TT
.

l af li k p i
e -
e l
o rt o n s, a n d a so t h e a e r- e oa a .
‘
er an d M UR R A Y .

that the pla t m y m aintai it form The e pporting

n a n s . s su

ti e r ach th ir c l m ination in uch form

ssu s e e tr eu s s as e s,

where m a ive bo d i are abl to ta d pright It i evi

ss es e s n u . s

dent that i the water there i no ch ne d for rigid p

n s su e su

porting ti e the b oyan t power f water help to

ss u s, as u o s

support the plant Thi fact m y b e ill trat d by taking

. s a us e
1 74 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

like bodie ( Fig 1 5 3 s The e float are e y m

se e s .
, s s v r co

m on am ong certain of the eaweed and are fo nd am ong s s, u

higher plant th t ic laria or bladderwort which

s, as e u r u s s,

have received their nam e from the n m ero blad d e d u us rs e

ve ol p d i connection wi t h th ir bodie (
e n Fig e s se e .

1 29 Th t wo g.rou ps of soc
e i ti es — Th hy d rophyt e e e so

i ti
c e m y be p t into two great divi ion
es a u T hy d s s . ru e ro

p yh t are t
es h o e in w hich the content
s and te m perat re o f s u

the water are favorable to plant acti ity ; while h

p y t i v xer o c

hy d phy t ro are tho e in which the content and tem per

es s s a

t re of the water are nfavorable to plant activity and the

u u ,

str ct re of the plant are ad ap t e d to red ce tran pir tion

u u s s u s a ,

re embling in thi feat re the tr c t re di played by t h

s s u s u u s s e

tr e xerophyte (
u s se e

I TR. UE H Y D R O P H Y TE S .

A . F ree- s wi mm ing s oci et i es .

1 30 . Defin it ion —
the e ocietie there i the large t
In s s s s s

expo re to water and no relation at all to the trient or

su ,
nu

m c h anical
e pport of the oil the plant being completely
su s , s

su pported by the water They m y b e eith er b m erged . a su

or floati g d they are free to m ove either by l m

n , an oco o

tion or by water c rrent T w pro m inent ocietie are u s

. o s s

select d typ e as es .

131 Th p lan kt on
.
— Thi terem i ed to de ignate t h s s us s e

m in t organi m b oth plant and ani m al which

u e s s, s s, a re

fo nd in the water The plankton i co m po ed of indi

u . s s

vid l invi i ble to t h naked eye b t taken together they

ua s s e , u

repre nt an enor m o organic m a

se The plankton ocie us ss . s

tie are e peci lly well repre ent d in the colder oceani
s s a s e c

water b t they are t ab nt fro m any water Am ong

s, u no se s .

the m o t prom inent plant in the e ocietie are the dia

s s s s s

to m D iato m
s . m in te plant of vario for m and ll
s are u s us s, a

have a wal l very f ll of ilica Thi make the ir bod ies u s . s s

 H Y DR O P H Y T E SO CI E TI E S 1 75

e xt r e m ely e d ring and th erefore diato m are ften fo d

n u , s O un

in
g reat depo it in the rock i o m
s e ca es f or m ing the s, n s s s

wh le m ao of roc k A ociated with the diato m

ss . ss s are

n u m ero oth er plant and ani m al form

us s .

1 32 P o d ocieti es —The word pond i

. n s ed to indicate s us

t g nant or low moving water In ch wat r free

s a S -
s . su e s

s wi m ming plant of all gro p are a ociated s O f co r e u s ss . u s

th alg are well repre e ted b t even t h highe t plant

e a
e s n ,
u e s s

a r e r pr e e

se n t d by the e

d u c k we e d m
wh ich
very a re

c o m mo l y u

se e n in the
f rm of m all
o s

g r ene di k s s

floating on the
su rface f the O
h h F IG w ( m )
1 56 A se ct ion t roug t h e b od y of a d uck ee d Le na

water W l h
. . ,

, h wi l lC p ( ) whi h ms o b y ng t h e air s ac es a c ak e it uo an t, t he

t h e y fr q t i i ( ) i m pl l or p
g k n r of the s e d a n g in g roo t , an d th e oc e ts

) f m whi h
e ue n
( w l s and whi h I ro c ne p an ts b ud o ut , an d in c

Iy W ith fl w ‘
CO V GI o e rs are d e ve lope d .

gr at m ae sse s

( se eFig It ho
. ld be b erved that the
s floating andu O s

su b m erged po ition re l t i a d i ff erenc in light relation

s s su n e -
s .

T h floating for m m y b e r gard d

e light form b eing
s a e e as s,

expo ed to the greate t am o nt of light Th bm erge d

s s u . e su

for m are hade plant and the had ing beco m e greater
s S s, S s

as the d pth of the water i greater It m t not b p

e s . us e su

po ed that bm erged plant can live at any depth for

s su s ,

soon a li mit i reached beyon d which the light i not

s , s

inten e eno gh to enable plant to work

s u s .

It h b een noticed that thi co m plete water hab it h

as s as

aff ected plant in many way For in tance the d ck

s s . s , u

weed are related to land plant with root te m and leave

s s , s , s,

b t th y have lo t the d i ti ction b etween te m and leaf

u e s s n s ,

and the b ody i merely a flat leaf like di k floating po

s -
s u n
1 76 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

the water with a few root dangling from the nder ide
, s u S ,

or with no root t all ( Fig T hi am e d c k

s a se e . s s u

weed al o how o me intere ting m o d ification in i t hab

s S s s s s s

it f reprod ction
s o Altho gh relat d to plant which p
u . u e s ro

d ce flower and m ake ee d the d ck weed have al m o t

u s s , u s s

lo t the power o f prod cing flower and when t h y d

'

s u s, e o

prod ce them eed are very eldo m formed In oth r

u , s s s . e

word the ordinary m ethod of repro d ction e m ploye d

s, u

by flo weri g plant h b n m ore or le abandone d

n s as ee ss .

R e placing thi m ethod of repro d ction i a great power

s u s

of vegetativ propagation Fro m the d i k like b ody of

e . s -

the plant other di k li k e b odie b d t and thi b d s -

s u ou , s u

d ing contin ntil a l rge gro p f di k m ore or

u es u a u O s s,

l connect d with each other m y be for me d T he e

e ss e , a . s

plant al o form wha t are k own

s s winter b d —well n as u s

protected b d like bodie which ink to the b otto m of

u -
s s

the pond when the floating plant are de t oyed and s s r ,

r main prot ct d by the m cky botto m ntil the water

e e e u u s

b co me warm ag i in t h next growing ea on

e a n e s s .

In exam ining the pond ocietie therefore attention s s, ,

Sho ld be paid to the fl ating form and the b m erged

u o s su

form and al o to the varying depth of the latter It will

s, s s .

al o be noted that the l av of floating form are m

s e es s co

p arat i ly broa
ved while tho e of b m erged f or
, m are s su s

narrow .

B . A n chor ed soci et i es .

1 33 De finition
.
—The e a
ocietie fixed to the oi l b t s re s s s u

with bm erg d or floating leave In thi ca e there i

su e s . s s s

still great expo re to water b t there i al o a definite oil

su , u s s s

relation Two prom inent ocietie are elected from thi

. s s s s

gro p for ill tration

u us .

1 34 R k ocietie —The term rock i

. oc s ed in thi con s . s us s

n ec ti in a very general way m eaning i m ply o m e fi m

on , s s r

su pport b en e th the water it i j t likely to be a tick

a s us as s
F IG . 1 58 . A na t ura l , b ut n ear ly
lily pad may b e seen
overgro wn l ily po d n . The s

ii gm
r s n l b v t h e wat wh th y thi ck t T h f res t g wth in
o re o r ess a o e er e re e are es e o ro

d i p b bly tam rack ( la h ) w mp I t i t b t iced th at as

.

t h b ck g
e a ro u n s ro a a a rc s a s o e no

d l s it wat it i b i g i d d by t h
.

t h lily p
e on ose s dg
er d g ss e n n va e e coarse se e an ras

g wt h f a w m p m
ro O B tw
s th
a lily p d d t h f t i
- oo r . w mp
e een e on an e o re s s a s a

t hi k t
c At l e t f di t i t i t i a
e as our
p t d i t hi
s i w A fi fth is
nc soc e es re re re se n c n s v e

p b b ly p
. .

ro a te d i t h f m f pl
re rese n t f th d w mp t y p
n e whi h f rm a
or o an s O e ree -
s a e, c o

tra i t i
ns b tw onth lily p e d d t h w m p t hi ck t
ee n e on an e s a -
e .
 a nor n m SO CI E TI E S . 1 79

be oticed that t h hab it of anchorage dem and the

n e s

d e ve lopm ent of pecial organ of att ch m ent which s s a , u su

a lly t ake t h for m of root like tr ct r often a iated

e -
s u u e s, ssoc

wi t h cker li k e di k A ociate d with t h anchoring

su -
s s . ss e

s t ru c u t re i often a d evelopm ent of floa t which i

s s s, s es

p ec a i l ly charact ri tic of eaweed ena b ling

e the worki
s g s s, n

b d y to float fr ely in t h wat r (

o Fig 1 5 3
e It i e e se e s .
, s

i d nt that wh il f wi mm ing for m m y b e itable

'

ev e e re e - s s a su

f or s a t g ant water anchor d form

n b tt r a d apt d for
s, e s are e e e

m ov ing wat r Th refore wh re th re are c rrent of

e s . e , e e u s

w t r or wave actio
a e , the a chor d form pre d o m inate n ,
n e s .

Th ab ility t liv in m oving wat r

e o d oft e i tho e e s, an en n s

th t b eco m e violently agitate d h it ad vantage to the

a , as s

p l an t in t h m ore ra pidly
e renewed food m aterial In ch . su

a it ation fr e wi mm ing for m wo ld oon b e trand ed

s u e -
s s u s s

or d i po ed of i q iet r wat r
s s n u e e s .

In the e of t h m arin eaweed there i an i ter t

e as e e s s s n es

i g r lation b etween the depth of t h wat r

n e d t h color e e an e

o f the plant W hil the fre h wat r alg are pr vailingly

s . e s e ae e

gr en it will b r m m b r d that th pr vailing color of

e , e e e e e e e s

t h alg e of t h ea hore
a
e b rown ed ds T h b row s a re an re . e n

oft n p e i to o m e had of y llow and t h d m y

asse s n s s e e , e re a

m rg into p r ple or viol t b t in g

e e u r l t h t w ty p of e ,
u ene a e o es

c lor m y b e cal l d b rown and d It h b n oticed

o a e re . as ee n

th at the b rown form fo n d at l d pth than t h d s a re u e ss e e re

f rm
o that in a g r l w y ther are t w zon of d i
s, so
‘

ene a a e o es s

t ib t i
r u relatio t d pth t h d zon b i g t h low r
on 1 11 n o e ,
e re e e n e e

o n e an d the y llo w zon t h pper J t what thi m e

e e e u . us s an s

i th
n conom y of the plant i not cl r b t it h b
e e s s ea ,
u as een

su gge t d that the y l lo w d t h d co lor a i t the

s e e an e re s ss s

chlorophyll i it work whic h i m or or le int rf r d

n s , s e ss e e e

with by t h d i m i i hed inten ity of t h ligh t pa ing

e n s s e ss

th ro gh u water se a .

1 36 L . il i ti s
oose — Thi phra iso d m r ly to
soc e e s se s u se e e

contr t with rock oci ti r f rring to the fact that the

as s e e s, e e

anchorage i not merely for m chanical pport b t that

s e su ,
u
F m .“ 50 —
.A grou p of pon d weed s . T h e st e ms are su s ta i n e d in an e rec t pos i ti o n by
th e wat e r, and t h e n a rro w l ea ves are e x posed to a li gh t wh ose i n te n s i t y is d imin
ishe d b y p assi ng t h ro u g h t h e wate r.
— A fte r Kn o wn .
 H Y DRO P H Y TE SO CI E TI E S . 1 83

t he o re ponding change of form on the am e in d ivid al

c r s s u

th e b m erged leave are very nar ow or divi d ed into

su s r ,

ve ry narrow lobe while the floating one are broad s, s

( F
se e i g The relation
. of t h plant to the water e ,

t h ere f ore h determined the leaf form The ad vantage

, as .

o f the floati g habit of leave i not m erely a b etter rela

n s s

ti n t light b t the carbon dioxide ed i pho to ynthe i

o o , u us n s s s

an d the oxygen ed in re piration m y b e o b tained fre ly

us s a e

f ro m the air rather than f ro m the water I t will al o be

, . s

no ticed that the e wat r pla t ally en d their fl ower

s e n s u su s s

t the
o rface indicating that ch a po ition i m ore f
su , su s s av

c rable for the work of the flower tha a bm erged po ition n su s .

A y ociety o f thi type will f rni h a b ndant m aterial for

n s s u s u

o b e vation and it i p rhap the m o t val able type o f

s r , s, e s, s u

so ciety for t dy that h b een mentioned far

s u as so .

0 . Swamp soci e t ies .

1 36 De fini tion
.
—In swam p societies the plants are roote d
in water or i oil ric h in water b t t h t m b earing
, n s s , u e s e s

t h leave ri e above t h
e rface A m ong the hydrop h yte
s s e su . s,

s wamp plan t are le t expo ed to wat r and the tem

s as s e , as s

an d it leave are expo ed to the air th re i no

s s ch d s , e s su re no

t ion of the root y t m and of cond cting and m echanical

s s e u

ti e in the other hydrophyte A l o the pider m i i

ssu s as s . s e s s

not thin and there i no dev lop m ent of float to increa e

, s e s s

the b oyancy H owever the root m t b e aerat d and

u .
, us e ,

h air cham b er and pa ageway

e n ce ab nd ant Thi s ss s are u . s

a eration of the root y te m reache a very high d v lop s s s e e

m ent in ch wam p tree su the cypre I cypr wamp

s s as ss . n e ss s s

th called knee
e so -
ab ndant and they fo nd to s are u , are u

b e pecial gro wth fro m t h root y te m which ri ab ove

s s e s s , se

the rface of the water b oth for b racing d to ad m it air

su , an

t the root (
o Fig It h s b e n hown that if
se e h . as e s su c

s wamp are flooded ab ov t h level of the knee m any of

s e e s,

t h tre e killed In ordinary ca e the air i adm itted

es are . s s s

18
F ro 1 81 po d weed pla t Th pl an ts are
Be ! grass ( Vallianer ia ) , a co mmon n n e

b
. . .

d
an ch o re f li d
an d t h e o age is s u me rge T he
c p l b i g fl wers a e car ied to
. ar e -
ea r n o r r

th face
e su r l g t l k whi ch ll w a ia b l de pt h of wat T h tamen
on on s a s a o v ar e er . e s

b a in g fl wers re ma i
e r o b m ged as i di cat d ear th l ow l ft c er t he
n su er , n e n e er e orn

flowers b k i g aw y a d ris i g to t h face wh re th y float and efl ect p llina

,

rea n a n n e su r e e o
—
,

tion A fte r Ka m n aa .
 P L A NT R E L A TIO NS .

tail Th i reg lar arrangem ent i zone is oft en

cat - s . s u n s so

inte fered with ho wever that it i not alway vident

r , , s s e .

The reed wamp ocietie have b een call d the pioneer

-
s s s e s

of land egetation for t h detrit

v collect abo t them
, e us s u ,

P ro . 1 68. A wamp frin gin g th e low sh ore of a l ak e or a s l ugg i sh stream T h e

reed s , .

pl ant s are tall an d wand l ike and all are mon ocotyl s Th re e types are p rominent,
-
, .

t h e re e d grasses ( t h e ta ll est ) t h e ca t tail s ( at th e ri gh t ) an d th e bu l rus h es ( a grou p

-

stan di n g ou t in d e e pe r water n ear th e m iddl e of t h e fri n g i n g gro wt h )

, ,

T h e pl an t
in th e fore g rou n d at t h e e x tre me righ t is t h e arrow l eaf ( Sag i tta rta ) recognize d
.

—A ft
,

by its h aracte ristic l ea

c ves . er K am a .

the water b ecom e m ore d m ore h allow til finally s an s , un

the ree d plant are co m p lled to m igra t into d p r w t r

s e e ee e a e

(se e In thi way m all lak d po d m y b es s es an n s a

c om pletely reclai m ed and b co m convert d fir t into , e e e s

o dina y wam p
r and finally into wet m eadow In tances
r s s, s . s
 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

form s a ociated with edge and gras e m y a y widely

ss s s s s a v r

in di ff erent ocietie ( Fig s s .

In al mo t all wamp m oor there i a lower t at m f

s s -
s s s r u o

v egetation th an that form ed by the edge T h i low r s s . s e

t at m i m ade of cert ain wamp mo e wh ich grow i

s r u s s ss s, n

v ery den e ma e Towa d th north where the te m pe r

s ss s . r s e , a

t re con d ition are not favorable for the edge t at m

u s so s s r u ,

it m y be lacking al mo t entirely d only the lower m o

a s , an ss

strat m left In the e ca the wamp m oo become

u . s se s s -
r s

little m ore t han a great bed of m o and it i in ch ss, s su c on

d it i that peat m y be form ed

on s a .

1 39 Swamp t hi k t s —Swa m p t h icket are ver clo ely

.
-
c e -
s y s

a ociat ed with wam p m oor and

ss do btle de ived s -
s, are u ss r

from them If a wamp m oor with it edge trat m and

. s -
, s s s u

mo trat m be invad d by hr b or low tree it b com

ss s u , e s u s s, e es

a wamp thick et It will b e noticed that the e hr b and

s -
. s s u s

tree are of very ni form typ b eing mainly willow alder

s u e, s, s,

birch e etc S ch willow and alder thicket are ery m

s, . u s v co

m on in high latit de u s .

II X E R O
. P H Y TI C H Y D R O P H Y TE S .

A F . r esh- wa ter soci et ies .

1 40 .
—
Sphagnum moora The
phagn oor i a ve y -
s um m -
s r

pec liar t ype of wamp ociety It

u a ed b eca e the
s s . is so n m us

comm on bog or peat m o known phagn m gi e a ss , as s u , v s

pec liar ta mp to the wh ole area Sphag m are large

u s . nu s ,

pale m o e who e lower part m y d i and who e pper

ss s, s s a e, s u

part con t in e to live and p t t new bra che

s u that a u ou n s, so

de e t rf i for m ed I walki g over ch a b g the m o

ns u s . n n su e ss

t rf eem pringy and o meti m e tremble

u s s s to g , s s s so as su

ge t t h nam e q aking b og The e are the great peat

s e
“
u .
”
s

form i g b og It i intere ting to know wh at condition

n s . s s s

k eep the wa m p m oor plant st of t h phag m moor -

s ou e s nu -
.

The plant of the phagn m m oor em to be entirely dif

s s u -
se

fe t fr om th o e o f the wa m p m oor altho gh the a m o n t

re n s s -
,
u u
 H Y DR O P H Y T E SO CIE TIE S .

of wat e r i approxi mately the am e N t only

s th s . o are e

plant di ff erent in the phagn m moor b t they are not

s s u -
, u so

n m ero
u d with the exception of the m o
u s, an , do not ss,

g row den
so ely It i tosbe notice d that
. creeping plant s s

are ab dant and al o m a y form which are k no wn to

un , s n s

obtain their food material alread y m an fact re d and there u u ,

fore are aprophyte s Certain kind of e d ge d gra e

s . s s s an ss s

are fo nd b t generally not tho e of the wamp m oor

u ,
u s s -
,

while heath and orchid are e pecially ab ndant It i in

s s s u . s

the e phagn m m oor al o that the c rio form of car

s S u -
s, s , u us s

i
n v orou s plant are developed am ong which t h pitcher
s , e

pla t dro er and dion a have b een de cri b ed In

n s, s as, a
e s s .

con idering thi trange coll ction of for m it i evident

s s s e s, s

th at there m t be o m e pec liari t y in t h food pply for

us s u e su ,

the heath and orchid are notorio for their partial p

s s us sa

ro h
p y t i ha b it
c and the carnivoros, plant are na m ed us s so

beca e they capt re in ect to pplem ent their foo d p

us u s s su su

ply The fact al o that the pec liar phagn m m o e

.
, s ,
u s u ss s ,

r ather than the m o e of the wam p m oor are the pr val nt ss s s -

, e e

one indicate the ame thing

s, s s .

I t h been di covered that the wa t er of the phagn m

as s s u

m oor i very poor in t h food m aterial w h ich are a b ndant

s e s u

in the wat r of the wam p m oor Ther i a pecial lack

e s -
. e s s

of t h m aterial which are ed in the m an fact re of p

e s us u u ro

t id and hence th i proce i erio ly int rfered with

s a, s ss s s us e .

I t i nece ary ther for to o b tain proteid alrea d y for m e d

s ss , e e, s

in animal or in other plant Thi will acco nt for th

s, s . s u e

nece ity of th aproph ytic hab it and of the carnivoro

ss e s ,
us

habit d for the ph agn m m o e which can nd re ch

, an s u ss s e u su

condition O f co r it al o acco nt for the excl ion

s . u se , s u s us

of the characteri tic plant of the wam p m oor s s s -

.

A nother pec liarity in connection with the phagn m

u s u

m oor a ide fro m it poverty in foo d m aterial i the lack

, s s , s

o f t h low plant form ( b t i ) which i d ce decay

e se s a c er a n u .

Bacte ia are v ry m in t plant

r om of which
e activ u e s, s e a re e

a g e t
n s in proce e o f decay and when the
ss s e are a b ent , s s
1 90 P L A N T R E L A TIO N S .

decay i checked A a con eq ence the phagn m moor

s . s s u , s u -

water are trongly anti eptic th at i they prevent d e y

s s s s, ca

by excl ding c rtain bacteria It i a well know f act that

u e . s -
n

bod ie of m and ani mal which have b ecome bm erged

s en s su

in phag m b og m y not decay b t have bee fo nd

s nu -
s a , u n u

pre erved after a very long period Thi will al o indic te

s . s s a

why ch b og are e pecially favorable for peat form tio

su s s a n.

The e two type of moor therefore m y be contr t d

s s s, , a as e

as follow T h wamp m oor i rich in plant food and i

s : e S -
s , s

characterized chiefly by gra y plant the phagn m m o ss s s u -

or

i poor in food m aterial and i characterized chiefly b y

s , s

Sphagn m m o u It will b e noted that peat m y b e for m e d

ss . a

in connection with both of the e moor b t in t h wamp s s, u e s

m oor the plant for m cannot be d i ting i he d i the peat s s u s n ,

as they have b een more or le di organized thro gh de ay ss s u c ,

wh ile i t h peat of the phag m m oor the plant form

n e s nu -
s

are well pre rved The peat of the wamp m oor al o

se . S -
, s ,

yield a gre t am o nt of h for the wam p m oor i rich

s a u as , s -
s

in oi l m at rial whi l the peat of the phagn m moor

s e s, e s u -

yield very li t tle h

s as .

1 4 1 Swamp f o ests
.
— I t w noted that the pecial type r as s s

of hr b or tree g ow th a ociat d with t h wam p m oor

s u r ss e e s -

con d ition are wi llow al d r birch etc In t h am e

s s, e s, e s, . e s

way there i a p c liar tr e type a ociated with t h

s e u e ss e

Sphagn m m oor It i very co mmon to have a phagn m

u -
. s s u

area occ pi d by tree u d the area b co me a wamp

e s, an e s s

for t rath r than a phagn m m oor The chie f tree

es ,
e s u -
.

type whic h occ pie ch co dition i the conifer typeu s su n s s ,

pop larly known t h The wa p fore t

°

u g m as e e ve r re e n s . S s s,

therefore with a phag m m oor fo ndation are m ade p

, s nu -
u , u

of larche certain hemlock and pine j niper etc and

s, s s, u s, .
,

toward t h o th the cypre com e in ( Fig

s e s u ss s se e .

T h larch i a very co m m on wa m p tree of the

e s orthern S n

region wh re ch an ar a i co mm only calle d a tama

s, e su e s
“

rack wamp ( Fig

s The larch fore t are apt to
se e . s s

be in the form of mall patche while t h larger wamp s s, e S

1 92 P L A NT R E L A T I O NS .

for t are m ade of den e growth of he mlock pine t

es s s s s, s, e c .

In th den e t of the e fore t the hade i

e s s com pl te s s s s s so e

that th ere m y be very few a ociated plant occ rring i

a ss s u n

strata between the phagn m m o and the tree In the s u ss s

’

larch fore t however the ndergrowt h m y be very de

s s, , u a n se .

B Salt wa ter
.
-
soci eti es .

1 42 . M angrove certainly the m o t ig

sw amps —Thi s is s v

orou sof the alt water ocietie M angrove wam p cc r

s -
s s . s s o u

along flat tropical eacoa t where the water are q i t s s s, s u e .

F ro . 1 66 . A man grove f ore s t ad van c n g i i nt o the watch —A f te r Sc n m p a n .

The mangrove i a tre of c rio habit which adva e

s e u us , nc s

slowly t into the water and extend back landward

ou s s as

low wood or thicket ( Fig 1 6 6

s The whole
s Se e s .
,

su rro n d ing appear forbi d ding for the water i l ggi h

u s , s s u s

and m cky covered wi th c m rich in bacteria and with

u , s u , ,

b b ble con tantly breaking pon the rface fro m decay

u s s u su

i g m atter beneath the wat r

n T h e m an g o e h the p e . r v as e
1 92h P L A N T R E L A TIO NS .

c u liarit
y o f ger m inating i t eed while till pon
s s the t e s s u re ,

SO that e mbryo hang from t h tree and then d rop li k

s e s, e

p l mu b b b into
o s the m ck beneath where u t h ey tick fa t , s s

and are i mmediately in a condition to e tabl i h t he m el e s s s v s .

In the e mangrove wam p the pec ie are few and t h

s s s s s , e

adaptation chie fly in the way of developing vario ki d

s us n s

of holdf t for anchoring i the ncertain oil and l

as s n u s , a so

vario device for ca ry ing air to the bm erged pa t

us s r su r s .

1 4 3 Beach marsh es and

. m ead ows —The alt m ar he s s s

and m eadow nea the e oa t are very well k nown Th y

s r s ac s . e

lie b yon d the reach of ord inary fl ood tide b t the wat r
e , u e s

are bracki h I the e mar he and m eadow occ r ce t i

s . n s s s s u r a n

ch aracteri tic al t water gra e and edge S ch form

s s -
ss s s s . u s

being the do minan t ty pe gi e the general app arance of v e

a coar e meadow Th di ff erence between a ma h d

s . e rs an

m eadow i i m ply a q e tion o f the am o n t of wat r

s S u s u e .
1 94 P L A N T RE L A T IO N S .

may occ r ffi ciently for the life proce e b t th t it

u su -
ss s, u a

m ay not be wa tef l s u .

T h reg lation of tran piration m y be acco mpli h d

e u s a s e

in t w general way It will be re m embered that t h

o s . e

am o nt of tran piratio hol d o me relation to t h

u s n s s e

amo nt of leaf expo re or expo re of green ti e

u su su ss u .

Therefore if the am o nt of leaf expo re be di m ini he d

, u su s ,

the total am o nt of tran piration will be red ced A noth er

u s u .

g neral way for reg lating tran piration i to pro t ct

e u s s e

the expo ed rface in om e way that the water do

s su s so es

not e cape ea ily In a word therefore the gene al

s SO s .
, ,
r

m etho d i to red ce the extent of expo ed

s rface or t o
u s su

protect it It m t be nder tood that plant do not di ff er

. us u s s

fro m each other in adopting one or the other of the e s

m ethod for both are very comm only ed by the am

s, us s e

pla t n .

A d apt a t ion s .

1 45 . Complet e desi ccati on —S m

o e plant have a very s re

m arkable power of co mpletely drying p d ring the dro th u u u

period and then reviving pon the ret rn of m oi t re

, u u s u .

Thi po wer i trikingly ill trate d among the lichen and

s s s us s

mo e o m e f which can beco me dry that they m y be

ss s, s O so a

cr m bled into po wd er b t revive when m oi t re reache

u , u s u s

the m A gro p of cl b m o e pop larly kno wn

. u u ss s, u as re s

u rre cti plant ill trat thi am e power Th dried

on s,
”
us es s s . e

up ne t like bso d ie -
of the e plant are co m m onsin the s s

m arket d wh n they are plac d in a b owl of water they

s , an e e

ex pand and m y rene w their activity In ch ca e it can

a . su s s

ha dly b ai d that there i any pecial ff t on the part of

r e s s s e or

the plant to re i t d ro th for it eem to yield co mpletely

s s u , s s

to the dry cond ition and lo it m oi t re The power s se s s s u .

Of reviving aft r b eing co m pletely dried

, e t i an ff et ou , s O s ,

however for protective tr ct re

, s u u s .

1 46 P e iodi c r
. e d ucti of u face
r — I region of p riodi on s r n s e c
 x E R O P R Y TE SO CI E TI E S . 1 95

d rou th it i very m s co

m on for plant to s

d i m ini h the expo ed

s s

su rface i a very de n

c ided way In ch . su

cas s e there i what s

m y b e called a peri
a

o d ic rface decrea e
su s .

F or exam ple ann al ,

u

p l ant r m arkably
s e

d i m ini h their exs

p o e d
s rfacesu t the a

p erio d f dro th b
O y u

b eing repre ented s

o nly b y well p -
ro

t ec t d ee d e Thes s .

whole expo ed s su r

f ace f t h plant
o e ,

root tem d l ave

, s , an e s,

h as di appeared and
s ,

the eed pre rve t h e

s se s

p l ant thro gh the u

dro th u .

L ittle le re mark ss

a ble i the call d s SO - e

geophilo ha bit In us .

th i ca e the whol of
s s e

the plant rface su ex

p o d
se t the airO d i s

a ppear and only s,

u ndergro nd part u s,

su ch b lb t
as u s, u

b er t per i t (
s, e c .
, s s se e

Fig 45 46 6 6 6 7
s.
, , , ,
F ro 1 88 T he b l od
o roo t ( Sa n gu i n a ria ) s h wi
o ng
6 8 , 6 9 , 7 0, 7 5 , 1 44 , bt
.
.
,

the su e rran ea n ro o t s t oc k se n di
ng l ea ve s an d

1 68, A t th e re fl o we r ab o ve f
t h e su r ace —A f t e r A T x i N SO N .

14
 1 96 P L A N T R E L A TIO N S .

t rn f t h moi t ea o
u o e s s s n

the e ndergro nd p rt
s u u a s

develop new expo ed s

sur face I n s ch ca e s . u s s

it m y be aid that ata s

t h co ming of the d ro th
e u

the plant eek a b s s su

terranean retreat .

A little le decrea ss se

of expo ed rface i s su s

shown by the d cid o e u us

habit It i known th t. s a

certain tree and hr b s s u s,

who e bodie rem ain

s s

expo d to the dro th

se u ,

shed their leave and s

th very greatly red ce

us u

the amo nt of ex po re u su

with the ret rn of moi u s

t re new leave are p t

u , s u

forth It will be. re

m arke d in t hi connec , s

tion that the am

, s e

habit erve j t well s s us as

to bridge over a period

of cold a period of as

dro th and perhap

u , s

they are m ore familiar

in connection with t h e

cold period th an in con

n ec ti with the dro th
on u

p riod
e .

F ro 1 69 pi
T he S r ng

—Wll l le
. .

b auty ( ammo ia)

e n . t i on of surface .

s h wi g bt rra ea
o

t u ber li k-
n su

es e
e n

n
n

t m se di g l a f a d nowe bearin g
n e n r-
the hab t abov have to i s e

st e m b e th e s rface —
a ov Af t r A m m so n
u e . do with reg lar dro th u u
1 98 P L AN T R E L A TIO N S

evident that ch a po ition avoid expo re of the le

su s s su a f
surface to the noon ray b t obtain for the e am e s, u s s s su r

face the m orning and evening ray If the e plant

s s . s s a re

develope d in t h hade the co mpa hab it doe

e s , ss
”
s n ot

T wo com ass p pla ts T h t w fl gu es t

n . e o r o the l ft re presen t th sam plant
e e e

( Silph i um) v e i w d f m th
e ro t d f m th
e eas an ro e so u th T h t w figu es t th
e o i gh tr o e r

f L a t uca —
.

re pre se nt the sa m l at i p i tio f th l

e re ve os ns o e e ave s o c A ft K l a
. B er .

appear ( The profile po ition i a very common

se e s s

one for t h l av of A tralian plant a fact which g iv

e e es us s, es

m ch of the v getation a pec liar appearance

u e A ll the u . se

po ition
s ervicea bl in d i m ini hing the lo of water
s a re s e s ss ,

which wo ld occ r with expo re to m ore int n e light

u u su e s .

1 49 M til .l es — A ltho gh in m o t plant the m at r

o e e av u s s u e
 x ER O P IIY TE SO CI E TI E S . 1 99

lea ve are in a fixed po ition there

s ce tain one who e s , ar e r s s

lea ve able to perfor m m ovem ent according to the need

s are s .

M tion h b een made already of ch fo m

en as O li su r s as xa s

(se e who e leave change their po ition readily

s in s s

ref r nce to ligh t M otile leave have been developed m o t

e e . s s

ex t n ively am ong the L g mi w t h family to which

e s e u n os , e

F IG . 171 . T wo twi gs i t i pl ant T h o e to th le ft sh ows t h e n me ro s

o f a sens ve . e n e u u

sma l l l ea fl ts i t heir x pa d d p
e n it i th o
e t th
n e igh t h w th g e t l y
os on e ne o e r s o s e r a

re d ce d su f ace
u th leaflet fold d t ge t h t h mai l eaf b ch ha i g
r , e s e o e r, e n ran es v n

app hd
roac an t h e
e a d t h e mai n l ea f st a l k h a i g b
o ne o r, n t sh a ply d w ward s - v n en r o n
—A ft ST M E BU BG BB
.

er .

b elong pea etc In thi family the called

s, . s are so -
“
se n

sit i plant ve which have received th eir pop lar nam e

s,
”
u

fro m their en itive re pon e to light well t other

s s s s as as o

infl ence ( Fig

u The acacia and m i mo a form
s se e . s s

are the mo t notabl en itive plant and are e pecially

s e s s s, s

d evelop d in arid region e The leave are ally very s . s u su

large b t are m ch branched t h at each leaf i m

, u so u s co

po ed f very n mero m all leaflet E ach leaflet h

s o u us s s . as
2 00 P L A N T R EL A TI O N S .

the power o f independent m otion or the whole leaf m y ,

a

m ove If there i danger fro m expo re to dro th om e

. s su u , s

of the leaflet will be b erved to fold together ; in a e

s O s c s

F ro . 1 72 . A h eath plant ( E rica) , sh owin g low , b shy growth an d small lea

u ves.

the dang r i prolong d m ore l fl t

e s e , ea e s will fol d tog ther ;
e

an d if the dang r p r i t t h rfac e e s s s, e su e of xpo r will b

e su e e

still f rth r r d c d ntil t h whole

u e e u e , u e
p lant m a y have it s

l ave co mpletel y fol d d

e s p In thi e u . s way the amo nt ofu
 P L A N T R E L A T ION S .

F ro . 1 74 . T wo Sp i
e c es o f A ch ille a on di ff e ren t so il s . T he on e to t h e l ft was g w
e ro n

in di r er co n di ti on s an d s h o ws an a b d
un an t d e ve ol pm e nt o f h ia rs— A ft
. er

Se m n r s n .

extr m of l f r d c t ion h b n r a h d by t h cact

e e ea e u as ee e c e e us

plan t who l a s, f fol iag i co rn d hav

se e v e s, SO ar as e s n ce e ,
e

di app ar d ntir ly d t h l af work i d one by the

s e e e e , an e e s
 XE R O P H Y T E SO CI E TI E S . 2 03

su rfa o f the glob lar cylin d rical or flattened t

ce u , ,
s e ms ( se e

1 51 . H fi ry covefi nga —A covering of hairs is an e ff ective

su n screen and it i ve y comm on to find plant of xerophyte
, s r s

region characters

i t i lly hairy (
s ca se e

The hair s

are dead tr s ue

t re and wi thin
u s,

th m there i air
e s .

Thi ca e the m
s us s

to reflect the light ,

and hence to p a

pear wh ite or
nearly T hi so . s

refl ction f light

e O

by the hair di m i s n

i he the amo nt
s s u

which reache the s

working region o f
the plant ( Fig se e .

1 5 2 30dy hab it
. .

— Besi d e s the va

i
r ou s d vice f or e s

di m ini hing ex s

p or
os u re l af e su r
w pl i
face d he e an
m ) h wi
nc
mm
i m
(F
l
ro .

sel
1 75
n
. T
s o
o an ts o f a co o n sco ur n g rush

n g t h e eff e c t o f e n v ron ent th e

E gu g .

I W ate
, o n g,

I O 88 O b h h i 1
'
w m l m phy un ra n c ed o ne av n g gro n in nor a e so te

e n m erat d b ove
u e
di
f mh i
i a
w
h b hy b hi
,
(
m
phy
l d co n t on s : t h e s ort , us ran c

t h e d un es
n g, o re s en

te con d i
er

the W hole h b t f
or a v ng gro n on xero
i )—f a wl O t on s . A t e r Co L zs .

t h plant m y m
e a e

p h i t
as ze h a m e p rpo e s In d y r g ion it i to b u o b rved se . r e s s e se

that d warf gro wth pr vail that the plant s whol e , so as a e

doe t pre ent

s no ch an xpo r to t h dry air in
s su e su e e as

region of gr ater moi t re ( Fig

s e A l o th p o s u se e . s e r s
2 04 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

trate or creeping habit i a m ch le e xpo ed one in ch s u ss s su

region than the er ct hab it In the ame m anner the very

s e . s ,

characteri tic ro ette hab i t wi t h it cl t r of ov rlapping

s s ,
s us e e

leave clo e again t the gro nd tend to d i m ini h lo

s s of s u , s s ss

wat r thro gh tran piration

e u s .

O of the m o t com m on re lt of x rophytic con d ition

ne s su s e s

u pon b ody hab it i the development of thorn and piny s s s

F ro . 1 76 . Y o un g pl an ts o f E uph orbi a splen d em , s o w n g a d e ve h i l pm

o e n t of t h orn s
c h i
aracte r s t ic o f th e pl
an ts o f d ry re g on s i .

proce e A a con eq nc t h v g tation of dry r gion

ss s . s s ue e, e e e e s

i charact ri tical ly pi y
s I m any ca
e s the piny p s n . n se s se s ro

c can b m ad to d velop in t o ord inary t m or l ave

e sse s e e e s e s e s

in t h pr enc of m ore favorabl wat r con d ition It i

e es e e e s . s

prob abl th r for t hat ch tr ct r r pr t r d

e, e e e, su s u u es e e se n e ue

tio i t h growth of c rtain region ca d by t h favor

ns n e e s, u se e un

able co d ition Incid ntally th thorn d pi y pro

n s . e e se s an s n

ce pro b ably of gr at ervic a prot ction to plant

sse s a re e s e as e s

in region where veg tatio i pec li rly expo ed to the

s e n s u a s
2 06 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

the cell that wh , so en

the light i very inten s se

they move to the m ore

s haded depth o f t h s e

cell and when it b

, e

come le inten e they

s ss s

m ove to the m ore ext r e

nal region of the cell s

( Fig
se e T h . e

s tomata or b reathing ,

pore which are de el

s, v

oped i the epid rm i n e s,

are al o great reg lato

s u rs

of tran piration h s , as as

been mentioned already

( se e

1 54 . W ate r reservoirs .

—I n xero
h
p y t e s at

tention
m t b u S e

red luce d h yb h — f
eaves and given not
t orn ran c e s . A ter
m m u
only to the
reg lation of tran piration b t al o to t h
u s , u s e

s torage of water it i r ceiv d at rare inter

, as s e e

val It i v ry co mm on to find a certain

s . s e re

gion of the plant b o d y given o r to thi work ve s ,

for m ing what i known water ti e In s as ssu .

m a y leave thi wat r ti

n s e m y be di tin
s e ss u a s

g i
u s h d froem the ordinary working cell b y s
F m
b eing a gro p of colorle cell ( F ig
.

u 1 83 ss s se e s .
, l f
ea of t raga

1 84 ,
In plant of the drier region leave s s s
n

i al :
i ti “

m y becom e thick and fl hy thro gh acting

u
a es u df d l f:
ce ea

as wa ter re ervoir in the ca e of the agave

s s, a s s ,
M
h
6 and th e
l i ke
ed m etc Fle hy or cc lent lea t o rn -
“ ”
s u s, . s su u ve s
“D r u m
are regarded adaptation of pri m e impor
as s m u m .
 xE R O P H v T E SO CIE TIE S. 2 07

t an c e in xerophyti c condition In s .

t h c cte plant the pec liar tem

a us s u s s

h ave beco m e great re ervoir of s s

m oi t re s u T h glob lar b ody m y

. e u a

b tak n to re pre ent the m o t

e e m s s co

p l t
e e an wer to thi genera
s l pro b le m s ,

as it i the form of body by which

s

th lea t am o nt of
e s rface m y be
u su a

ex po e d d the greate t am o nt of
s an s u

w ter torage ec re d
a s In the c es u . as

o f fle hy leave s d fle hy bodi s anit s es

h as lo g b en noticed that th ey not

n e

on ly contain wat r b t al o have a e , m u m s F ro . 1 . A f rag eu t o f b ar

great power of b y h wi
re
e rr , s o ng th e th o rns .

m a “ h as “

taining it P lant
.

col lector have fo n d g eat diffi c lty in s u r u

dryi g the e fle hy form o m of which n s s s, s e

ee m to b e able to retain their m oi t re i

s s u n

d efinitely even i the drie t condition , n s s .

1 5 5 X ophyt i st uct u re —The adap . er c r

t ti given ab ove are general ly fo nd

a on s u

in plant growing in d ro th condition s u s,

d th ey all i m ply an ff t to d i m ini h

an e or s

tran piration It m t not b e ppo e d s . us su s ,

however that only plant living in , s

dro th on d ition how the e ad apta u c s S s

tion S ch adaptation r lt in wh at s . u s e su

i known th x rophytic tr ct re
s as e e s u u ,

d ch a tr ct r m y appear even
an su S u u e a

in plant growing in hydrophy t con d i s e

tion For example the b lr h grow s .

, u us s

in hallow water and i a pro min nt s , s e

m e m b er of of the hy d rophyt ocie on e e s

F re . wi
1 81 m
. tie ( § 1 37 )
T g of co d y t it h
s a rem ark
se e an e as
m l
th e
on h w
— f ab ly
th orns
xerophytic
oc u st, s o in g
A te r
tr ct re Thi i prob s u u . s s

K m a ably d to the fact that altho gh it

a. ue u
208 P L A N T RE L A TI O N 8 .

tand in the water it te m i exp d s s s s s ose

to a h eat which i often inten e s s .

The ordinary prairie ( § 1 6 9 ) i se e s

incl d d am ong m e ophyte ocieti u e s s es

on acco nt of the rich well water d u ,

-
e

oi l ; and yet many of the plant s s ar e

very xeroph ytic in tr ct re probably s u u ,

on acco nt of the prevailing dry win d u s .

T h ordinary phagn m b og ( e s u -
s ee

or peat bog i incl d d -

, s u e

am ong hy d rophyte ocieti It h s es . as

an ab ndance of water and i not u , s ex

F ro . ll f m l f po e d to blazing heat
1 82 . Ce s ro th e ea in the ca e s , as s
of

li h
ill w (
a

iki
qu ) of the b
o rt
lr he or to
Isoetesdrying wind
.
u us s, ,
Th e
ll f m di i
ce s
g t is str
ro th e in
ng the
the
rec t o n o f
ca e of prairi plant ; and as s e s

l i
on e ill
oo k n g at
y t it plant how
th ea xerop h ytic
us tr e s s S s ue
i
frat
wh di at
on

hl
.m
t re
anae th e
T i
I f it b e
h i fo ndc
to
so
b e d
o ro
e
pro b u . s s u ue, a

h m bly to a lack of certain i m portant oil

.

plas tsdi i b str u te t e

, s
lse ves h h h
t ro ug
m ateria l
t he s al
s
w ll
.
lo ce as ln th e ce ll to
It i evi d ent therefore that xero
,

lf
th e e li h t . I f th e g t be s , ,
i hl pl
n te n se ,
hytic
th e
tr c
ct re
o ro
are not
as ts
nece arily
m o ve w ll t o th e p a an d as
s u u s ss

m p i i
su e confin d to xerophytic it ation It
os t on s less ex e S u s .

p d ose , ll i probably tr e that ll ocietie which

as ln t h e ce to
s u a s s
i h
th e r g t
how xerophytic tr ct re belong to
.

s s u u s

gether m ore nat rally u

than d the ocietie o s s

wh ich are gro pe d u ac

cor d ing to the water

supp ly .

Soc iet ies .

att mpt will b e

NO e

m ad e to cla ify the e ss s F m 1 88 A sec ti o n t h rou gh a Be on ta lea f sh ow

. .
g ,

very n m ero oci in g t h e e pid i

e rm s ( ep) a o ve a n d e l o w the b b
u us s e
wate r s to rage t i ss ue ( we) a o v e an d e o w and
-
b bl
tie b t a f w pro m
s, u e t h e cen t ra c l hl orophyll wel co me ) .
21 0 P L AN T R E L A TI O N S .

into one another I t i very common to find t h d ne

. s e u s

om itted in th rie and to have t h b eache pa grad

e se s, e s ss u

ally into t h andy fi eld e s s .

The beach ociety i ally q ite ch aracteri tic and in

s s u su u s ,

g eneral it i a poor flora the

s beac h being characteri tically , s

bare The plant which grow in ch condition are apt to

. s su s

occ r in t ft or are creeping plant It i evident that

u u s, s . s

F ro . 1 88. A rock cove red wit h liche n s.

whil the water m y em to b e ab n d ant it di app ar

e a se u , s e s

q ickly
u that plant m t adapt th m elve to a dry
, so s us e s s

condition of t h oil which i poor d with littl or no

e s , s an e

acc m lation of h m
u u A t the a m ti m e the xpo re
u us . s e , e su

to inten e light i extrem Thi co m b ination re lt in a

s s e . s su s

poor d i play of ind ivid al and of pecie H ere d there

s u s s s . an

along b each where p cial condition have favored the

e s, s e s

acc m lation of h m d n e vegetation m y pring p

u u u u s, e s a s u ,

b t it ho ld not be conf e d with the

u s u d inary b each type us or .
 P L A N T R E L A TIO N S .

d ne ocietie are bjected to ve y pec liar

The u s s su r u con

d it i D ne are b illow of and that hav b een devel

on s . u s s s e

oped by prevai ling wind and in m any ca e they are con s, s s

ti lly changi g their f or m and are freq ently m ovin g

n ua n u

F ro 1 88 A san d yfil p h i p
e d t y e , s o w n g th e d e ve lo me n t of vege t at o n u on an O ld i p
f f
. .

b each i
T h e veget at on is low, o te n t u ted an d e at e, e n g co m ose ch h li k b i
e -
p d hi fl y
b y
.

of gras ses , b
ea r e rr ( A rctostaph y los ) an d H u d son ia I n t h e b ackg ro un to d
b
.

h if f
t h e ri g t is a con e r ores t , and e t wee n it an d t h e old e ac h is see n a e n se mass b d
of b b y y h
e ar e rr , a ve r c aract e r s t c ea t i i h hp f i h
lan t , an d orm ng e re w at is ca e d a h ll
tra s i t i o
n n zon e b
et ween t h e be ac h a d t h e fores t —A ft r C W L s s
n e O .

landward ( Fig The m oving d n ho ld b e

se e . u es S u

di ting i h d from t h fixed o

s u s wh r t h billow form i
e e n e s, e e e s

retaine d b t the d n h ve c a e d th ir m otion I the

,
u u es a e s e . n

ca e of the active d ne a p c liar type of v g tation i de

s u s e u e e s

m d dan A i to b e expected the flora i very canty and

e . S s ,
s s ,
21 4 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

h as two rem arkably d eveloped character Th plant s . e s a re

what are know and binder that i the ndergro d

n as s -
s,
”
s, u un

str ct re b co m e extre m ely d evelo ped reaching to gr t

u u s e , ea

d i tancs horizontally and vertically

es that one i alway , SO s s

su rpri d at the ext nt of the n d rgro d y t m Thi

se e u e un s s e . s

wid earching for wat r r lt in giving t h plant a dee p

e s e e su s e s

anchorage in the hifting oil and at the am e ti m e h lp S s , s e s

to p v nt t h hifting A oon eno gh f the nd

re e e s . s s as u O sa

b in d r hav e ta bli h d th e m elve a h ifti g d ne b eco m

e s e s s e s s, S n u es

a fix d one A noth r charact ri tic th at m t b e trongly

e . e e s us s

d velo p d by the e plant i the ab ility to grow p thro gh

e e s s s u u

the a d aft r they have be n eng lfed Th plant of t h

s n e e u . e s e

Shifting d ne are of t en b ri d the d ne hift and

u s u e as u S s,

u nl t h b rial h b too deep they are able to conti e

e ss e u as een ,
nu

their develop m ent ntil leav m y b expo ed to the air u es a e s .

In thi way pla t have often develo ped a len gth of te m

s n s s

which i f b yond anything th y a t tai when g owing in

s ar e e n r

ord inary con d ition s .

Th andy fi l d ocietie are re pre ente d by a m ch

e s e s s s u

m ore ab n d ant flora than the b ach or the d ne oci ti

u e u s e e s,

the g n ral c h aracter b eing t ft d gra e and l w hr bby

e e u e ss s o s u

growth ( Fig s se e .

1 5 8 Sh bb y h th —T h
. hr b by heath are very
ru ea s e s u s

charact ri tic f t h m or northern region and

e s O clo ely e e s, are s

r lat d to t h an d y fi ld ocietie Th h ath oil i pt

e e e s e s s . e e s s a

to b a mixt re of coar and or gravel d rock with

e u se s , an ,

an occa ional d po it of h m s d wo ld b e regard d

e s u u s, an u e

in g n l ea teri le oil The flora of the hr bby

e ra as s s . s u

h ath how well mark d trata t h pper one bei g th

e s S s -
e s , e u n e

l w hr bby plant of the h ath fa m ily m o t pro m in nt

o s u s e ,
s e

am ong which are h ckle b erri and bearb rrie ( Fig u es e s se e .

Th lower trat m i m a d e p of m o e and ii s u s e u ss s

ch n A branch ing lich n

e s . lly poken of the e ,
u su a s as
“
r ind er m o
e often occ r i i mm n e patche on
e ss ,
”
u s n e s s

su ch heath W hile the e hr bby heath occ r m o t

s . s s u s u s

exten ively towar d the north m all ar a howing the

s s , s e s S
21 6 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

s am e general ch acter are comm on in al mo t all t m pe ar s e r

ate region s .

1 5 9 P lai —U nder thi head are incl ded gre t a e

. us . s u a r as

in the interior of continent where dry air and wind s,

prevail The plain of the U nited State extend fro m

. s s

ab o t the one h ndredth m eridian we tward to the f oot

u u s

hill of t h R ocky M o ntain Si m ilar great area

s e u s . s a re

repre ent d by t h teppe of Siberia and in the interior of

s e e s s ,

all continent The e r gion have been regarded em i

s. s e s as s

d e ert area b t they are fo

s d for the m o t part to b
s, u un s e

far fro m the real d ert condition They are cert inly es s . a

area of com parative dryne on acco nt of the dry win d

s ss, u s

which prevail .

Taking the plain of the U nited State a type a very s s as ,

charact ri tic plant phy iognomy i pre ented (

e s F ig s s s se e .

In general there i a m eadow like expan e b t the , s -

s , u

veg tation i m ch m ore par e than in m eadow and i

e s u s s s, s

m ch m ore den e than in d

u rt The two characteri tic
s e se s . s

plant form are the b nch gra e that i gra e which

s u ss s, s, ss s

grow in gr at t ft ; d l w grayi h hr b p d mi
e u s an o s s u s, re o

ue ntly age b r h U n d er the helter of the age br h

s us .
”
S s us

or other b h form m any low herb cceed in gro wing

us s, s su .

In ch area the growing ea on i very hor t d ring

su s s s s S , u

which ti m e the v getation look vigoro and fre h ; b t e s us s u

d ring the re t of the year it i very d ll In o m e pa t

u s s u . s r s

t h plai i dry
e o gh to perm it the growth of the prickly
n s en u

p ar cact ( Op t i ) which m y take po e ion of

e us un a , a ss ss ex

t n ive ar a ( Fig
e s e s se e .

U al ly th re are two re t perio d d ring the year

su e s s u ,

develop d by t h m m r dro th and t h winter cold A

e e su e u e . S

a con eq c the plant f the ar a are partly pring

s uen e, s O e s

plant which are apt to b e very bri lliant in flower ; d

s, an

partly t h l t r d e p root d form O ver ch area the

e a e , e -
e s . su s

tran portation of eed by the wind i very prom inent

s s s s , as

t h force of the wind

e d the free d o m of it weep make an s s

p o i b
ssle very wide di trib tion It i in c h are a t h a t s u . s su s
F ro 1 92 T wo pl an t s of t h e gian t cact us N ote t h e fl u te d cl msy b
u ran c hi n g, l f
ea

b di
. . . ,

l es s o es i
g ro w n g f rom t h e roc yk il
s te r e s o
, il h
c t i ti
arac e r s f
c o cac t us d ese rts .

Ce rta i n d ry gro u n
-
d g asses
r an d lo w, s h bby pl
ru an ts wi t h ma l l l
s ea ves may b e see n

in th e f o re rou n
g d .
220 P L AN T R E L A TI O N S .

th e t mbleweed habit i pro minently developed Ce t i

u s . r a n

l w and den ely branching plant are lightly roote d i

o s s n

t h e oil s that at the clo e of their growing period t h y

, so s e

a re a ily proo t ed by the wind and are rolled to g r t

e s u ,
ea

F ro . 1 94. f
Tree-lik e y uccas ro m th e arid re gions of A frica sh owing
, th e y numer
ver

ous th ick an d poin te d sword lik e l eaves

,
-
.
 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

di t nce W here o m e barrier ch a fence lie a ro

s a s. s , su as , s c ss

the track of the wind the e t mbleweed m y acc m lat , s u s a u u e

in great m e T hi t mbling over the face re l t

ass s . s u su r su s

in exten ive catt ering of eed ( Fig

an s s s s se e .

The prairie char cteri tic of the U nited State are

s, so a s s,

regard ed by o me b elonging t the plain Th y cer

s as o s . e

t i ly are clo ely r lated to the m in origin b t can hardly

a n s e , u

be regarde d being incl d ed in xerophyte condition

as u s, as

the condition of water pply and oil are characteri tically

s su s s

me ophyt
s nd er which head th y will be co idered
e, u e ns .

1 6 0 Cact . dese rt s — I p ing o thward

us the n ass s u on

plain of the U nited State it i to be not d that t h con

s s, s e e

d it i b eco me m ore
on s d m ore xerophytic and that the an ,

b nch gra e d age br h pec liar to the tr e plain

u ss s a n s us , u u s,

grad ally m erg into the cact de ert which repr en t

u e us s , es s

a region who e condition are interm ediate between t

s s ru e

plain and tr d ert ( Fig

s ue In the U nit d Stat
es s se e . e es

thi characteri tic de rt region begin to app ar in We t

s s se s e s

ern Texa N w M exico A rizona d So thern California

s, e , , an u ,

and tr tch far d own i to the M exican po e ion Thi

s e es n ss ss s . s

va t ari d r gion h d eveloped a p c liar flora which con

s e as e u ,

tain m o t highly pecialized xerophytic for m The

s s s s . va

rio cact form m y b e taken m o t characteri tic

ns us s a as s s ,

and a oci te d with the m

ss a the agave and t h y cca are s e u s .

N t only are t h a d ap t atio

o for ch cking tran piration
e ns e s

an d for r taining wat r of t h m o t extr m kin d b t

e e e s e e , u

there i al o d v lope d a re m arkable ar mat re It i evi

s s e e u . s

d ent tha t ch cc l nt b odisu the plant pr ent

su u e e s as se s es

m ight pe dily d i app ar thro gh the attack

s e sf a i m al e u s o n s,

wer it not for t h ar m or of pin

e d b ri tle and rigid s e s an s es

wall St dy Fig 38 39 4 0 1 9 2 1 9 3 1 94
s . u s. , , , , ,
.

1 6 1 T opical dese ts
. r — I ch x rophyte con r n su a re a s e

d it i reach the gr ate t extre m in the co mbination of

on s e s e

m axi m m heat and mini m m wat r

u pply I t i e iden t u e su . s v

that ch a co m bination i l mo t too d i ffi c lt for plant

su s a s u s

t o e d u re
n That th very canty vegetati on i d u t l ac k
. e s s e o
2 24 P L A N T R E L A TI O N S .

of wat er and not to lack of proper m at erial in the oil i

, s s , s

s ho wn by t h fact that where water doe occ r oa e

e s u s s ar e

developed in which l x riant vegetation i fo nd

,
u u s u .

T h de ert which exten d fro m E gypt acro A rabia m y

e s s ss a

b e regarded a typical one It i to b noted that the

as . s e

vegetation i can ty that the oil i the con pic o

s so s s s s u us

feat re d really give the characteri tic phy iogno my

u , an s s s

( se eFig A c cordingly
. the appearance o f the de ert s s

will d pen d pon whether the de ert oil i rocky, or of

e u s s s

s m al l tone or g avel (
s in the D e ert of Sahara ) or of
s, r as s ,

red clay or of t h d ne type A i to be expected ch

, e u . s s , su

vegetation d oe occ r i of the t f t and b nch type

as s u s u u , as

developed by certain gra e or of the low irreg lar b h ss s, u us

type ( Fig se e .

In the So th A frican de ert certain rem arkable plant

u s s s

have been noted which have attained a ce tain am o nt of r u

protection thro gh m i micry rather than by m ean of arm or

u , s ,

as in the ca e of the cact form Som e of the e plan t

s us s . s s

re e mbl the ord inary tone lying ab o t pon the de ert

s e s s u u s .

W ith the tropical d rt ho ld not be con f ed ch e se s S u us su

ar a tho e abo t t h D ead S or in the D eath V alley

e s as s u e e a,
’
s

in So thern California
u the barr nne of the e area i , as e ss s s s

d ue to the trongly alkaline oil and therefore they belong

s s s,

to the halo phyt area e s .

1 6 2 Thi k t —. Th xerophyte thicket i the m o t

c e s . e s s

s trongly develop d of all thicket growth M ention h e s . as

b en m ad of willow and alder thicket in hydroph yte con

e e s

d it i b t the e are not to b co m pared in real thicke t

on s, u s e

charact r with t h xero phyte thicket T he e thicke t

e s e s . s s

a re e p cially d ev lope d in the tropic and b tropic and

s e e s su s,

m y be d cri b ed
a growth which
es craggy thorny
as s a re s , ,

and i mpen trabl W ar m i g peak of the e thicket

e e . n s s s s as
“
the n cce f l att mpt of N at re to form a fore t
u su ss u e u s .
”

E vidently t h con d ition are not q it favora ble for for

e s u e

es t d velop m ent
e d an ext n ive thicket i the re lt
, an e s s su .

S ch t hicket are well develope d in T exa where they

u s s, are
F ro . 1 98 . A xe ro phy te con i fe fo
r res t in t h e moun tains . T he p c lia
e u r co n i f hab i t
er

of body is i
re co gn ze d , t h e t rees fl nd ln g f oo t h ld
o in th e i of
cre v ces ro cks i
or n

are as o f roc k d eb ri s.
 X E R O P H YT E SO CI E T I E S . 22 7

spo k e n of hapar l T he e ch aparral are notably

as C ra . s s

co m po ed o f m e q it b he acacia and m i mo a o f vari

s s u us s, s s s

ou s s or t and other p lan t Si milar thick et i A frica and

s, s . s n

A us t r l ia are f req ently poken of

a b h or cr b
u s as
“
us
“
s u .

In ll of the e ca e t h thicket h
a s the ame g neral type
s s e as s e ,

an d p obably repre ent one o f t h m o t forbidding a ea

r s s e s r s

for t vel
ra .

1 6 3 F o est s —The xeroph y te fore t

. r ocietie m y be s s s a

rou g hly characte ized nder three gene r l head u ra s

( )
1 C if on f t — T he e
er ou sfore t are ver y
or es s co m m on s s s

in erophyte cond ition to the north d al o in the m ore

x s , an s

t
s er ile region toward the o th ( F ig 1 98 to
s s s u se e s .

T h ey are generally poken of evergre n fore t altho gh

s as e s s, u

th e nam e i not d i tinctive Th e fore t

s s of ever l . es s s are s a

ty pe s, ch tr pine fore t in which pine

su as ue th s s, s are e

p revailing tree d the hade i s t dann e ; the fir d S s no e s an

h m lock fore t which are relatively dark

e s s, d the m ixe d an

f r t i which ther i a mingling of vario

o e s s, n e conifer s us s.

I n su ch fore t the oil i ft n very bar

s s s d ch nd er s O e e , an su u

g row t h doe as occ r i largely co

s m p o e d of
u
p rennial s s e

plant M any characteri tic hr b with fle hy fr it

s . s s u s s u s oc

c u r, s u ch h ckl b erri b earb rri j nip r t It

as u e e s, e e s, u e s, e c .

will b e note d that i th for t a characteri tic ad apta n e se es s s

tion to x rophyte con d itio i t h d v lopm ent of n dl

e ns s e e e ee e

leave which are not only narrow th pr enti g a m all

s, , us es n s

expo re of fac b t al o hav h avy wall which

su su r e, u s e e s,

f rther pr vent exc ive tran pirati on

u e s e ss s .

( )
2 F li g f o t — The
a e m ore charact
ores s ri tic o f se are e s

tropical d b tropical xerophyte region Ill tration

an su s . us s

m y be
a b tai ed fro m the e caly pt
O n a characteri tic u u s, s

A tralian fore t tree the live oak

us s leander etc I t , s, O s, .

will b noticed that in th e ca e the leave are not

e es s s s so

narrow the needl of conifer b t are generally lance

as es s, u

S haped d ti ff and leathery indicating heavy wall to

, an s , s

red ce tran piration

u s .

( )
3 L e fl fo t a— I J ava
ess and other oriental
res s .re gion n s

16
F ro . —A xe rophy t e c on i f r fo
e re s t i n t h e C um b l d M
e r an i
ou n t a n s of T e n n essee
f t h ld
.

T he tab l m
e o un ta i n pi n
es nu d oo o s i c
n ices
re v of k
t h e roc s .
 X E R O P I IY T E SO C I E T I E S . 2 31

a re a of d y naked oil are o meti m e occ pied by fore t

s r s s s u s

gro w t h which ho w no develop

s m ent o f leave the
s tree lik s, -
e

for m ap pearing contin ally b are

s The oriental l afle u . e ss

tre e f o m i m o tly a U r i Bord ering the G lf of

s s a sa a r n a . u

C l ifornia both i M xico pro per and in L ower California

a ,
n e ,

t h re are leafle for t co m po ed of vario kind of giant

e ss es s s us s

cac us t ( Fig known the cardon fore t The e

se e . as s s .
”
s

l fl for t r p nt the mo t extr me xerophyte condi

ea e ss es s e re s e s e ~

t i n occ pied by pl nt for m which m y be regarded

o s u a s a as

t r e
e s .

1 64 Salt t eppe s — I
. addition to the xerophyte ocie
s n s

tie en m erated b v i which the water tho gh canty

s u a o e, n u s

i fr h the t w f l lowing m y be con idered

s es , o The oil o a s . s

an d air are rel tiv ly d y in ordinary xerophytic condi

a e r , as

t ion b t the w t r i m ore or le

s, u at rated with com mon
a e s ss s u

sa l t or alkaline lt T h al t te ppe are interior arid sa s . e s s s

wa te wh ich p b b ly mark the po ition of old ba in

s s, ro a s se a s s .

In the U nited St t of t h m o t exten ive of the alt a e s on e e s s s

s et ppe i in t h G r t Salt L ake ba in ( Fig

s s e It ea s see .

i here t hat m m b r
s f the cheno pod fa m ily are e pecially
e e s o s

a t ho m e ch gr ewood , su b ligh t a mphire t c

as e as s, se a s, s s, e .
,

for m o e th n y t h r plant have they learned to end re

r a an o e s u

su ch extre m ly f v ab le condition An ex t en ive alka

e un a or s . s

line wa t i t h U it d St ate i that known the B d

s e n e n e s s as a

L an d which t r t h over certain port ion o f N e bra ka

s, s e c es s s

an d D akot d in which the wat r are trongly alkaline

a , an e s s .

1 6 5 Salt d alk l i
. d s rt s — I t he e area the water
an a ne e e n s s

su pply r ch it m i i m m and th erefore the water h

ea es s n u , e

co m e t t d wi th th characteri tic alt f the oil

s sa u ra e e s s s o s .

N wor e co m b i
O ti sfor plant acti ity can be i m agined
na on v

th n t h co mb i t i
a f m ini m m wa t er
e d m axi m m
na on O u an u

sa lt I c qs .
ch area are al mo t if not b
n o n se u e n c e , su s s , a so

l t ly d v i d f v g t ation A ill trat ion the xten

a e , e o o e e . s us s, e

i d rt f t h D d S region and the D eath Valley

s ve e se o e ea ea
’
s

ni So th r n C li f o i m y be cite d
u e a rn a a .
P ro 208
. . Al pi n h owi
e vege tation , s ng the low st at u re , d ense growt h , an d co n spicu

Ona fiowe u .
—A f t e r K a ns as ,
 M E SO P H YT E SO C IE T IE S . 2 35

Th e e new ocietie have been form ed by the introd ction

s s s u

of we d and c lt re plant
e s u u s .

1 6 7 Th tw g
o o .
ps of oc ie ti e
es — Two very pro m inent r u s

type of ocietie are incl ded h re nder the m e ophyte

s s s u e u s s,

altho gh they are probably di tinct fro m

u another as s on e as

are the m e ophyte and xerophyte ocietie O gro p i

s s s . ne u s

com po ed of low veg tation notably the co m m on gra e

s e , ss s

an d herb ; the other i a higher woody vegetation

s m s , co

po ed
s f hr b and
o tree The s m o t
u characteri
s tic type s . s s s

un der ea h one of the e divi ion are noted follow

c s s s as s .

A . Gras s and her b soci et i es .

It ho ld not be inf er ed fro m thi title that mo t

s u r s s

gr e are not herb b t it i convenien t to con ider

ass s s, u s s

gra e and ordina y herb for m eparately

ss s r s s .

1 6 8 A rct i a d alpi
. a pet s — The e are d en e m at of
c n ne c r s s s

low vegetation occ rring b eyond fore t growth in arctic u s

regi on and ab ove the tree li mit in h igh m o ntain The e

s, u s . s

carp t like growth are a notable f at re of ch region

e -
s e u su s .

In ch po ition the growing ea on i very hort and the

su s s s s s s ,

tem perat re i q ite low at ti me e pecially at night It

u s u s, s .

i e i d ent therefore th t there m t b e provi ion for rapid

s v , , a us s

growth and al o for preventing dangero rad iation of

, s us

heat which might chill the active plant b elow the point of
,

sa fety It i f rther evident that the hor t a on and the

. s u s se s

l w t m perat re for m a co mb ination which pr vent the

o e u e s

gro wth of tree or hr b or even tall herb beca thes s u s, s, u se

sea on i too hort for them to reach a protecte d condition

s s s ,

and their m ore expo ed yo g tr ct re are not in a po i s un s u u s s

tion to with tand the daily fall of te m perat re

s u .

The e carpet of v g tation are notably fr h looking

s s e e es -
,

in d icating rapid growth ; green in d icating an ab n d ance ,

u

of chlorophyll and great activity thick they , as are

m o tly perennial dev lop d fro m a b ndant n d ergro

s s, d e e u u un

st ruct ure ; low n acco un t sf th h o t e a on a d l w

, o o e s r s s n o
F un . 204 pl t f
Two an s k o ( Il l i th m m)
a roc -
h win g t h ff ct of low
ro se e an e u s o e e e

h b it
.
,

g d
ro u n d anlpi ca di t i
ne T h
on l w on s
g d pl
. t ( ) h w e opo -
ro u n an a s o s an en a ,

a d el
n g t d t m wi t h
on a e s e m pa t i ly l ge a d w ll se p ate d l
s co ra ve Th ar n e -
ar ea ves . e

sa m pl e t i alpi
an n di t i i d w t t h m
n e co n o ns l i b d mag ified in
s ra n o e sa e sca e n an n

y h t d mp t h b i t bei g in t i ki g c n t t wi t h th at f t h e low
,

c th, e ve r s or an co ac a n s r n o ras o

g d
rounr r ne— Aufte B n an z
a r o .
 M E SO P H Y T E SO C IE T IE S . 2 39

t o th e fore t region of Illinoi and Indiana ( Fig

s s s se e .

T h p irie i rega d e d by o m e
e ra a x rophyt e area and t h i
s r s as e , s

i a at al concl ion when one xa m ine only the tr

s n ur us e s s ue

t u re sof the plant which occ py it I t i certainly a tr n s u . s a

s it i area b t ween the plain of t h W e t and the tr e

on e s e s u

m e oph y t ic area of the E a t and there i a general tr n

s s s , s a

s itio from the more xerophytic we ter prairie to t h

u s n s e

m re m e ophytic ea ter prairie

o s M oreover in the ea t s n s .
, s

e rn pa t of the prairie region there i locally every g d a

r s ra

tion b etween t h trongly m e op hy t ic ty pe of the low gro nd

e s s u

to t h more xerophyt ic type of t h high gro nd

e e u .

The vegetation of the prairie in general i co mpo e d s s s

of t fted gr e and perennial flowering her b U f t

u ass s s . n or u

na e t ly m o t of t h nat ral prai ie h

, s di ppeared to be e u r as sa ,

repl ced by far m and the characteri tic prai ie form are
a s, s r s

not ea ily een The flowering her b are oft n very t ll and
s s . s e a

coar e b t with brilliant flower ch s pecie of ter

s , u s, s u a s s as ,

goldenrod ro in wee d indigo plant l pine b h clover etc

, s -
, ,
u , us , .

T h m o t chara teri tic of the e for m

e s ho w th eir xero
c s s s s

phytic adapt tion by their rigidity d ro ghne

a s an u ss .

The origin of the prairie h long been a vexed q e t ion as u s ,

wh ich h ally taken the for m o f an inq iry into the

as u su u

con d i t ion which forbid the growth of fore t P rai i e are

s s s . r s

s m —
at lea t of two kind So e are d ph i that i they are s . e a c s,

d ue to local oil condition S ch p airie are character

s s . u r s

i t i of the ea ter pr irie region and even appear in cat

s c s n a , s

t e red patche thro gho t the fore t region

s far ea t u u s as s as

O hio K ent cky etc

, They are probably be t explained
u , . s as

repre enting old wamp area which at a till more ancient

s s s, s

ti m e were pond or lake All the prairie of the Chicago

s s . s

area are e idently e d aphic b eing a ociated with former

v , ss

exten io of L ke M ich igan O ther prai ie are lim t i

s ns a . r s c a c

that i they are d to general cli m atic condition S ch

s, ue s . u

prairie are characteri tic of t h we tern prairie region

s s e s ,

m erging in t o the plain and are m ore p zzling than the s, u

ed phic p airie
a Am ong the everal explanation g
r s . s s su
 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

p rpo e of the artificial pa t re b t the m eadow tendency

u s s u , u

i ho wn by the com ing in of perennial weed The inva

s s s.

s ion of pa t re by weed gge t m a y intere t ing q e

s u s s su s s n s u s

tion A the weed nat ive or for igner ? A they

s . re s s e s re

F lo . 207 . A j ip h t h i te rs p d wi t h p
un er ea n e rse as t u re s . T h e g ro wt h s of j u n ipe r a re

ve r yd e n se , e x cl udi g ll t h
n g t ti
a o e r ve e a o n , an d t h e grass or pas t u re are as a re t oo
d ry to f o r m re a l mea d ws —A fte C w n
o . r o n s .

an al or perennial ? W hat i the relative cc of the

nu s s s su e ss

di ff erent invader and why are o m e m ore cc f l than s, s su e ss u

other ? A t dy of pa t re will al o reveal t h f c t that

s s u s u s s e a

there i great di ff erence in the vegetation of m ow d and

s e

grazed pa t re The am e e ff ect s u noted when nat ral

s . s s are u

m eadow are ed for grazing

s us .

B . Wood y soc ie t i es .

The e ocietie incl de the vario hr b and tree a o

s s s u us s u ss

i ti
c a of m e ophyte area a ociation entirely di t inct
on s s s, ss s s

fro m the gra and h erb ocietie ss s s .

 M s so r n vr s socxs rl s s
'
. 24 3

1 71 .
—The m e ophyt e th ick et
Thick et s not s s are so

a b ndant or i m penetrable
u the x rophyte thicket as e s .

T h ey ee m to be d eveloped
s ally forer nner of fore t u su as u s s

ve g t tio
e a An ill n tra t ion
. of t h i f act m y be
us obta i ne d s a

b y noting the cce ion of plan t which appear on a su ss s

l ared area
c e A fter ch an area h b een cleared of it
. su as s

t r ee s, by c tting or by fi it i overr n by herb which

u re , s u s

d velop r pidly fro m the eed

e a So m eti m e the e herb are s s s s
—
.

t ll
a and with h o w y flower the s call e d fir weed or s, as so e-

g r t
ea w illow her b Following t h e herb ocietie
. there i a s s s

g ra d al inva
u ion o f coar er her sb and hr bb y plant s s s u s,

f or m ing thicket and finally a f ore t growth m y appear s, s a

a gain .

In arctic and alpine me ophyte region the wil low i s s s

t h e great thic k et plant often covering large a ea b t in , r s, u

te m perate egion w illow th icket are con fined to tream

r s s s

b ank and b oggy place b i g the charac teri tic hydro

s s, e n s

phyte thicket form .

The pland and fl d plain m e ophy te thic k et of t m

u oo - s s e

pe at e region are d ifl
r t in character
s For example e re n .
,

the pland thick et of the N orther State very com monly

u n s

contain hazel birch and a pen d o m inant plant ; while

s , ,
s as s

the fl d plain thicket i apt to cont in in ad dition to

oo -
s a ,

the e prom inent g owt h of haw and wild crab apple

s ,
r s s - s .

In thi m e region p re th ick et fre q ently occ r that

s sa — u s u u

i thicket in which a ingle for m i the prevailing type

s, s s s ,

as p re hazel thicket on pland or p re haw thick et on

u s u s, u s

fl d plain
oo -
s .

In the So ther State the plant en m erated above u n s s u

m y not be the characteri tic m e ophyte t hicket plant

a s s s .

For exam ple in K ent c ky and Tenne ee the d om inant

,
u ss

th icket plan t are pe r i m m on loc t redb d and s s , us ,

u ,

a fra
s ssa s .

1 7 2 F rest s o
o . f t e m p e rat e r eg i on — D ecid o f ore t u us s s

are e pecially characteri tic of te mperate regi on The

s s s .

decid o hab it that i the habit of hedding leave at a

u us , s, s s

17
2 44 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

cert ain period i an adaptation to clim ate I the t m

, s . n e

perate region the adaptation i in re pon e to the wint r

s s s s e

cold when a a t red ction of delicate expo ed f i

, v s u s su r ace s

nece ary I n tead of protecting delicate leaf tr t re

ss . s s uc u s

from the evere cold of winter th e e plant have f rm ed

s , s s o

the habi t of dropping them and p tting t w l a e u ou ne e v s

when the favorable ea on ret n s s ur s .

It i in tr ctive to otice how diff erently t h conifer

s s u n e s

( pine s t ) a, d the
e c decid
. o t
n ree ( oa k maple etc ) h v u us s s, s, . a e

an wered the proble m of adaptati n s o

to the cold of wi t er Th conifer n . e s

have protected their leave giving s,

the m a mall rface d hea y s su an v

wall I thi way prot ction h s . n s e as

been ec red at the expe e of s u ns

working power d ring the ea on u s s

of work R ed ced rface and . u su

thick wall are both ob tacle to s s s

leaf work O the other hand . n ,

the decid o tree ha e devel u us s v

ped the working power of thei O r

leave to the greate t extent gi ing s s , v

F m . 208 . i h A h
sec t on
t h e m larget
r
ro ug
f e expo re and
th e
su ac su
b ase h h
o f a iea f o f orse -c es t n u t

pre parin g w co mparatively delicate wall

h u og “ t h e e nd It s .

°f w ” i
" m i
W ng
t o f the q e tion to protect
“ 38 0 A s ou u s
l pl ( ) l
ate h as d e ve
ch am o nt of rface d r ng
c ea vage 3

opd we bet woo ee n th e d , b un ,

su an u su u i

ly hi h
f
d ie ( 6 ) an d t h e
f
the winter and hence the d id
s u r ace . P re a
, ec u
e nt

an d o
t s re a c
w
n ly y mm the
es
I a b
th e
t
ood
T l e “
are
s u r ac e ,
f ave
,
d ou s ]
.

I . ) con I e rs
'

f as te n s t h e m the ann al re e wal of leave b t

leaf to t he st e .
u n s, u

lo e in working power ; t h de s e

c id u ou stree m t renew their lea e an ally b t gain

s us v s nu , u

greatly in working power .

It ho ld be re marked that leave d not fal l beca e

s u s o us

they are brok en ff b t that in a cert ain en e it i a o , u s s s

proce of growing ff O ften at the ba e of the leave

ss o . s s,

where the eparation i to occ r a clea age region i

s s u , v s
24 6 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

The red hade however do not ee m to hold any ch

s s, , s su

relation to the di organization of chloroph yll The ds . re

colori g m atter appear

n a t ain in t h cell p that s as s e sa , so

what might b e called the at mo phere of the active cell i s s

su ff ed with red
us Certain experi m ent pon plant color
. s u s

have indicated that the pre ence of the red color lightly s s

incre e the te m perat re by ab or b ing m ore heat Thi

as s u s . s

h gge ted that the red color m y be a ligh t prote

as su s a s o

tion to the living b tance which h ea ed work ing su s ,

as c s

and which i in danger of expo re to cold If thi be

s su . s

tr e it m y be that the am e explanation will cover t h

u , a s e

ca e of the red fl h
s con pic o in b d and yo ng
us so s u us u s u

leave in the early pring It m t not be ppo ed that

s s . us su s

the need of protection h developed the color b t that as , u

since it i developed it m y b e of o me ch rvice to th

s a s su se e

plan t The whole bject ho wever i too indefinit and

. su , , s e

O b c re to b e pre ented in any other form than

s u s a b are as

su gge tion s .

E e the condition which deter m ine a t mnal colora

v n s u u

tion have not b een m ade t certainly To m any the ou . au

t m
u l coloration i a ociated with the co m ing of fro t
na s ss s ,

which i m ply m ean a red ction of tem perat re ; other

s s u u s

a ociate it with di m i i h ing water pply ; till other

ss n s su s s

a ociate it with the change in the direction of the ray of

ss s

lig h t which are m or obliq e in a t mn than d ring the

, e u u u u

acti e gro wing ea on It i certai ly t e that the color

v s s . s n ru s

are far m ore bri lliant in cer t ain year than i other d s n s, an

th at t h coloration m t be connected in om e way with

e us s

the food r lation of t h plant R ecen t ex peri m ent h ave

e s e s . s

shown that the d coloration i largely dep n d ent p n low

re s e u o

te mperat re which aff ect certain of the food t ff and

u , s -
s u s,

the d tain i one of the prod ct

re s s u s .

The a t mnal color are notably triking in Am erican

u u s s

fore t on acco nt of the fact t hat in the e fo e t there i

s s u s r s s s

the great t di play of pecie es d hence not only are m ore

s s s, an

color prod ced b t th y are ally trikingly a ociated

s u , u e u su s ss .
 M E SO P II YT E SO C I E T I E S . 24 7

only i protection d ring the cold period ec red

N ot s u s u

b y d ecid o fore t thro gh the falling of leave b t the

u us s s u s, u

d ev elopm en t of caly b d i an ad ptation to the a me ends u s s a s .

By m ean of the e overlappi g o f ten hairy and eve var

s s n , , n

h i h d tr ct re delicate growing tip are protected d

s e s u u s, s ur

i g the cold e on
n The development of cork al o on the
s as .
, s ,

o l d r part i a mea re of protection

e s, s su .

A ltho gh the tree are the do m inant plant o f a fore t

u s s s

s oc iety it m t not be forgotten that n mero s other form

, us u u s

a r e ass ociated with them A t a lower le el t and the hr b . v s s u s,

b l ow the e t h tall herb then the low herb and gra e

e s e s, s ss s,

an d fi nally clo e to the oi l m o e and lichen occ r s s ss s s u .

T he e di ff erent trat
s they are called repre ent di ff er
s a , as , s

en t ha b it i reference t ligh t th lower trata being m ade

s n o , e s

u p of hade plant s co m pared w ith the pper trata I s as u s . n

fact t h had e hab it h b eco me

, e s e tabli h ed in many as so s s

plant of th lower trata th at they depend pon the pre

s e s u s

e nce of the over hadowing trata and co ld not live wi t h s s , u

ou t t he m .

Th ve al habit i al oe intere ting feat re of d id

rn s s eu s u ec u

ou s fore t It i a m atter of com mon o b ervation that the

s s . s s

rich di play of pring flower occ r in fore t and wooded

s s s u s s s

glen before the tre co m e i to f l l foliage The working

s es n u .

ea on of the e vernal plant i b fore t h d en e foliage f

s s s s s e e s O

the fore t h t ff the light A ccord ingly they are mo tly

s s u s O .
, s

geophilo in habit ( us endi g p their h oot or se e s n u s s

leave with great rapi d ity fro m n d ergro n d t ber root

s u u u s,

t ck etc and co m pleting the ir

s o s, . egetative work in the
, v

h ort p riod d ring which the light i ava ila ble

s e u After the s .

fore t leave are f lly d velop d the pring flower d i p

s s u e e s s sa

pear wai t ing i their b ter anean retreat for the next
, n su r s

s
—
hor t p riod of activity Two prom inent form of the
e . s ve r

nal habit m y b e ob erved The leave m y appear b efore

a s . s a

the flower in E y th i m and H y d phy ll m ; or they

s, as r r on u ro u

m y appear after the flower

a in H p ti m and S g i i s, as e a an u n ar a .

O of the wild leek ( A lli m t i

ne m) h developed a s u r coccu as
24 8 P L A NT R E L A T IO NS .

v ry intere ti g modification I t end p it ro ette Of

e s n . s s u s s

larg and very active leave d ring the ernal ea on and

e s u v s s ,

when the e have di appeared the flower

s d veloped in s s a re e

the fore t hade The ignificance of thi i that wh ile

s s . s s s

the leave m t have the light for their work the flower
s us , s

can develop j t wel l in the hade us as s .

A in t h ca e of thicke t
s decid o fore t m y b e
e s s, u us s s a

p re or m ixed A very co m m on type of p re fore t i the

u . u s s

b eech fore t which i a charac t eri tic d ark fore t The

s , s s s .

wide pread ing b ranche of neigh b oring beeche overlap

- s s s

each other to for m de e hade A a con q ence

, so as ns s . s se u ,

in a p re beech fore t t here i little or no ndergrowth ; i

u s s u n

fact no lo wer trata of v getation ntil the lo we t one are

, s e u s s

reached m ade p of gra ,

and m o A nother t ype of
u sse s sse s .

p re fore t wh ich b long to t h d rie r gion i the oak

u s ,
e s e r e s, s

for t which form a harp con t a t to the beech in tha t

es ,
s s r s ,

it i a light fore t p r m itting acce of light for lowe

s s , e ss r

str ta f plant H
a o in ch a fore t there i s ally m ore
. e n ce su s s u su

or le nd ergrowth con i ting of hr b etc which m y

ss u , s s s u s, .
, a

d velop reg l r thicke t The typical A merican d ecid o

e u a s . u us

for t however i the great m ix d fore t m ad e p f m any

es , , s e s , u o

vari t i of tr e ch b eech oak lm waln t hickory

e es e s, su as , , e , u , ,

g mu m aple etc
, , .

T h d ecid o fore t m y be ro ghly gro ped

e u us
p s s a u u as u

land and fl d plain fore t the for m er b ei g l l x riant

oo -
s s, n e ss u u

and containing fewer ty p t h la t t r b eing the highe t ex e s, e e s

pre ion of fore t develo pm nt i it region A few general

ss s e n s .

ill tration m y b e gi e
us follo w s a v n as s

I northern Illinoi t h
n pland fore t i m o tly m ade s e u s s s

u p of thr e for m w h it and red

e oak and hell b ark hick s, e s s

ory ; while t h fl d plain fore t contain twenty to t wenty

e oo -
s s

fi tree form pro mi ent a m ong wh ich

ve the el m ( white
s, n are s

and li ppery ) li d en ( ba woo d ) cottonwood h ilv r

s , n ss , ,
as , s e

m aple b ox el d r waln t and wil l ow (

, Fig e , u , s se e .

F arther o t h fro m centr l Illinoi In d iana

s u d O hio , a s, , an

o thward w ll in the A ll gh i t h fl d plain for

s u , as e as e an e s , e oo -
25 0 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

e t are the riche t know containing i addition to t h

s s s n, , n e

form en m e ated ab ove ch prom in nt tree t h yc

s u r , su e s as e s e

m ore b eech hack b erry honey lo

, ,t co ff ee tree ga , cu s , , su r

m aple t lip t ree b ckeye etc

, u ,
u ,
.

In M ichigan and W i con in the pland fore t con i t s s u s s s s

prom in ntly of b eech gar maple and hem lock a charac

e , su , ,

t i t i m ixt re of decid o
er s c and evergreen tree ; while
u u us s

the fl d plain fore t are carcely at all developed

oo -
s s s .

In the Alleghany region and N w E gland the pland e n u

fore t s s are very exten ive and co mplicated grad ing fro m s ,

the rich fl d plain fore t of the lower level

oo -
th one s s s on e

hand to the tric tly xerophytic fore t ( pine d black

, s s s s an

oak ) of the h igher level on the other hand d do m i ated

s s , an n

by vario oak ( e pecially white red and che tn t oak )

us s s , , s u s ,

che tn t
s d hickorie (
u s, a n Fig 209 s se e s .
,

The fl d plai fore t of N w E ngland are not rich

oo -
n s s e so

as tho e of the A lleghany r gion and Central W e t the

s e s ,

dom inant for m being el m linden h maple yca m ores s, , as , s, s ,

t lip tree etc

u ,
.

1 7 3 Tropical f re st s
.
—The tropical fore t m y b e o s s a

gro ped n d er two general h d ( 1 ) the evergre n fore t

u u ea s: e s s,

an d ( 2 ) t h d ecid o or m on oon fore t The fo m er are

e u us s s s . r

characterized by contin o m oi t re and are m o t largely u us s u , s

developed in the E a t In d ie and along t h A mazon d it s s e an s

trib tarie in So th A m erica The d eci d o tropical for

u s u . u us

e t are charact rized by having a perio d of relativ d y

s s e e r

ne d ring which the leave are hed and

ss, u ally bord r s S , u su e

the evergreen fore t s s .

A E .
g f t —
ve rThe e rainy fore
r ee nt of the tropic
ores s . s s s s

m y b e r garded
a W ar m i g ay
e the cli max of the
, as n s s, as

worl d vegetation for the condition in which they are d

’
s ,
”
s e

l p d favor con tant plan t activity t the highe t po i ble

ve o e s a s ss

pre re S ch great for t gro wth are fo nd within the

ss u . u es s u

region of the trade wind where there i hea y rai f ll s, s v n a ,

great heat and rich blac k oil S ab ndant i the p ipi

, s . O u s re c

t ti
a on that the air i ofte at rate d and the plant drip s n s u s
25 2 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

with oi t re In ch condition p re fore t m y

m s u . su s u s s a cc

c u r, characterized by ch tree form the tree fer s su s as n ,

palm or b am b oo O ly the great m ixed tropical fore t

s, s . n s

will b e con idered The m ain characteri tic

s . fol s s are as

low s

( )1 A b f i m l
s encet p i d
o i i ty
—
s P erha p t h
u a n eou s er o c s e

m o t triking feat re in contra t with the decid o

s s u , for s u us

e t i that there i no reg lar period for the develop

s s, s s u

m ent or fal l of leave L eaf activity i po ible thro gh s . s ss u

ou t the yea and there i no ti m e of bare fore t or of

r, s s ,

fore t j t p t ti g t leave Thi doe not m n t hat

s s us u n ou s . s s ea

the leave per i t ind efinite ly b t that there i

s s s reg lar ,
u s no u

ti m e for their fall and for m ation L eave are contin ally . s u

b eing hed and form d b t the tree alway appea i f ll

s e , u s s r n u .

fo liage .

( )
2 D i ty f gens w t h — S ch an
o area i re
rom arkably u s

fille d wit h veg tation trat m after trat m occ rring

e s u , s u u ,

r lting in gigantic j ng l
e su Th higher t rata m y be u es . e s a

m ade p f tree of d i ff er nt height b elow t h e m are h b

u O s e s, s ru s

of varying heigh t then tall and low herb and fin lly s, s, a

mo e ss s d liverwort
an A m ong the e clo e t tanding
s . s s -
se s

form great vine or liana cli m b and b ind the t nding

s, s s s a

vegetation into an inextricable tangle ( Fig 5 5 se e s .

,

I n a d dition to the e ho t of aerial plant fi d lod ging s , s s s n

plac pon the tree tr nk d vine ( Fig

es u -
The e
u s an s se e . s

rainy fore t of t h t ropic f ni h th very b e t co d ition

s s e s ur s e s n s

for t h developm ent of the n m ero epiph ytic orchi d

e u us s,

b ro m elia t s, In ch con d itio al o n m ero

e c . su pro ns s u u s sa

h
p y t occ
es r S ch uan . a e m b lage ofu vegetation i to be ss s

fo nd nowhere el
u se .

( )
3 N m b f p
u i —
er o N t only i t
s h ere an i m
ec es m en e o s s

n m b er of ind ivi d al b t an extraord inary mber of

u u s, u nu

s pecie occ r A li t of plant growing in the e fore t

s u . s s s s s

wo ld how a re markable repre entation of the plant

u S s

kingdo m .

( 4 ) F m f
or t — sT h den o e vegetation
r ees re lt in e s su s
 M E SO P H YT E SO C I E T IE S . 25 5

ight leafle tre tr nk

st r a that the leave of tree are
ss e -
u s, so s s

m inly cl tered at t h top of high branche

a us The hade e s s . s

is den e d the interference i great that the devel

so s an s so

o
p m t o f l w
enbranche i i m po ible It
o i co m m on al o s s ss . s , s ,

Fm . 218 . A grou o f p ae r ai l plant ( piph y t es ) f

s e ro m a t ro pi c l f
a o res t . N o te t h e var i
o us hab i t s of t h e e piphy t at tac h ed t t h t
es o e re e - t run k s , an d th e da gli
n n g roo ts

f
.

A te r Sc a I l r aR .

for t h larger tree to develop a y te m of b t t re e near

e s s s u ss s

th eba e and al o freq ently to end t prop root (

s , s u s ou s se e

Fig 1 00 s .
,

( )
5 A b of b d l — I t h decid
se nce o fore t b d
u s ca es n e u us s u

scale are nece ary to pro t ect the tender growing t ip d

s ss s ur

ing the period of cold The am e de vice wo l d be fli . s u su

‘
25 6 P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

cie t to protect again t a period of dro th I n the tropical

n s u .

fore t there i danger nei th er fro m cold nor dro th and i

s s u , n

su ch condition b d cale are not developed and t h b d

s u s s , e u s

re main naked and nprotected u .

( )
6 D i g i t t b d
ev ces a a n s t i — The ab ndance
oo a u n an ra n u

of rain i in danger of check ing tran piration and t hi

s s , as s

proce i e ential to plant ss s ss

activity there are often ,

fo nd device to prevent u s

the leave from beco ming s

at rated M any leave s u . s

hav c ticle m oth e u s so s o

and glaze d that the water

glance ff witho t oak ing s O u s

in ; in other ca e a velvety s s

covering of hair an wer s s s

the ame p rpo e ; in till s u s s

oth er a e leave are g t c s s s u

ter pointed that i the tip -

, s,

i prolonged a ort of s as s

g t ter and the vein are u , s

depre ed th whole ss , e su r

f ace f the leaf re e mbling o s

a drainage y t e m that s s , so

the rain i cond cted rap s u

idly from the rface ( su se e

Fig T he e are only . s

a few ill tration of many us s

device again t dangero s s us

214 p i d t t
wetting
r o n te lea f
.

g u e -

B D ec id u ou s mon
.

t ro pica l pl an t —A f te r Sc u t x r uu . or

the e for —
.

soon f or es t s I n . s

e t the am e general habit prevail in the rainy evergreen

s s s s as

fore t b t to a le degree F
s s, u exam ple the epiphyte
ss . or , s

and liana are pre ent b t they are not n mero or

s s , u so u us

con pic o
s The triking di ff erence ho wever i the
u us . s , , s
 IN D E X T O P L A N T R E L A T IO N S .

[T h e itali cized n um e rs b i nd icate th t t h a e su bject is il l ust ra te d on i

th e page c ted .

In s uc h case t h e su bject may b e re fe e d t rr o on ly i n th e il l ustration , o r it may

re f e rre d to l
a so in th e te xt .
)

A rbo r v it aa, 1 39 .

A cac ia , 1 99 . A rc t ic plan t s , 1 48 , 232.

A c h ille a , 2 02 . A rro w le a f , 1 8 6
-
.

A d apta t io n 1 47 , . A rt ille ry plan t , 1 20 .

A d ia n t u m , 2 7 . A sh 1 1 6 .

A e ra t ion , 92 98 , 95 , 1 83 , . A spi d i u m , 5 5 .

A ga v e , 47 . A ssimila t io n , 1 54, 1 5 6 .

A g ri mo n y , 1 2 1 . A u t u mn co lorat ion , 241 .

A ila n t h u s, 1 1 6 .

A ir 95 , 98 , 1 1 4, 1 22 , 1 38
, .

A ir ca vit ie s, 1 71 , 1 72 , 1 73, 1 7 6 .

A i r passage s, 9 2 , 93, 94, 95 . B t i 1 89

ac e r a, .

A ir plan ts , 9 7 , 98 , 9 9 , 1 00, 1 01 , B 88
a nan a , .

2 46 . B y 1 05 1 06
an an, , .

A ir root s, 9 7 , 98 , 9 9 , 1 00 . B b y 2 07
a r e rr , .

A lch e mi lla , 7 9 . B k 84
ar , .

A lgze , 1 , 2 , 8 7 , 99 , 1 07 , 1 09 , 1 1 0, B w d 1 1 6 201
as s oo , , .

111 ,
1 1 3, 1 50, 1 7 1 , 1 7 9 , 1 7 7 . B h 209 2 1 0
e ac , , .

A lkalin e d e se rt s 25 5 . B h m h 253
ea c a rs e s, .

B h m d w 258
,

A l pin e plan ts , 1 48 2 31 , , 232, 2 33 . e ac ea o s,

A m icis 9 , . B h p 118
e ac e a, .

A m pe lopsis, 6 8 . B 1 40
ean, .

A n e m oph ilou s, 1 22 . B b y 2 1 2 21 4
e a r e rr , , .

A n ima ls, 1 1 9 , 1 2 1 , 1 22, 1 23, 1 45 , B h d p 1 57

eec ro s, .

205 . B hf
eec 1 45 243
ore st , , .

A nn u al h ab it , 1 95 . B g g t i k 1 1 9 1 21
e ar c s, , .

A n n ual rin gs , 84 . B g i 2 5 208

e on a, , .

A n t h u ri u m, 9 7 . B llfl w
e o 1 9 80 e r, , .

A pple , 7 9 . Bid 1 1 9
e n s, .

A ra u ca ria, 74 . B ig i 1 1 6
n on a , .

18
2 60 IN D E X .

Bil b e rgia, 1 36 . Ch an ge in t e mpe ra t u re , 1 45 .

Bi h 7 1
rc es , . Ch apa rral, 22 7 .

Bl k m 9 6 1 01
ac o ss , , . Ch lo ro phy ll, 6 , 8, 1 49 , 1 52 .

Bl d d w t 7 3
a er or , 1 . Ch loroplast s, 39, 1 07, 1 5 2 , 205 , 2 08 ,
Bl d 35
a e, . 2 09 , 245 .

B l d t 1 95
oo roo , . Ch ry sa n t h e m u m , 2 3 .

B g 1 43
o s, . Cilia,
B ox eld 84 e r, . Clay t on ia , 1 9 6 .

B mb l 9 4
ra e, . Cle is to g a mou s, 1 30 .

B hdl
ra n c 1 9 0 21
e ea v e s,
0
, ,
23 . Cle m a t is, 1 1 3 .

B d 7 0 7 3 7 5 1 4 1 2 47
u s, , , , , . Clim b in g s t e ms , 6 0, 6 1 ,
62 , 68 , 64,
B lb 73 75 8 1
u s, , , . 1 02 .

B l h 1 42 1 48 1 85 1 8
u rus , , , ,
6 , 207 . Clin g in g roots, 99, 1 02 .

B d k 181
ur oc , , Clin ia , 2 09 .

B h 227
us ,
. Coc k le b u r, 1 2 0, 1 2 1 .

B h l 48
us c o ve r, . Co m pass pla n ts, 1 0, 1 2 , 1 9 7 , 1 98 .

B tt p 1 85
u e rc u , . Co m po u n d lea v es, 1 9, 2 0, 2 1 , 23 .

B tt
u 1 03 4
re sse s, , 10 . Co n d u c t in g t issu e , 1 7 1 .

Co n ife r fore st s, 2 2 6 , 22 7 , 2 2 8 , 2 2 9 ,
28 0 .

Con ife rs, 83, 1 90, 1 9 1 , 2 2 5 , 226 .

Co r k , 24 7 .

Cact u s d ese rt s, 2 1 7 , 22 2 .
Co rn , 8 5 9 0 , .

Cac t us forms, 4 , 46 , 47 , 1 46, 202 , 5

Coro lla , 7 8 , 7 9 , 8 0 .

207 , 2 1 5 , 2 1 6 , 31 7 , 2 1 8 , 31 9 , 222 .
Co rt e x, 83, 8 4, 93 9 4, 1 07 , 1 08 , .

Ca ly x, 7 8 , 7 9 8 0 , , Cotto n wood , 7 0 .

Ca mpa n u la , 1 9 8 0 , .
Cot y led on s, 5 0, 5 1 , 7 3, 1 39 , 1 40 .

Caou t c h o u c , 1 36 .
Cre vice pla n t s, 9 4 , 209 .

Carbo h y d ra t es, 1 5 3, 1 5 6 .
Cu t icle , 4 2
205 .
,

Carbon , 1 5 3 .
Cy cad , 2 2 .

Ca rb o n d ioxid e , 30, 1 5 1 , 1 5 3 .
Cy c lo lo ma 1 1 7 .
,

Ga rd e n fo re st s 231 , .
Cy pre ss k nees , 95 , 9 6 , 1 83 .

Carn at ion , Cy pri pe d iu m , 1 8 8 , 1 34, 1 35 ,

Carn i vo ro u s pla n ts 1 55 , 1 5 6 , 1 5 7 , , 1 86 .

Cyt isu s, 2 06 .

Carpe l, 78 , 7 9 , so,
Ca rrot ,
C t o O il
as r-
b ea n , 7 8 .

Cas uarin a, 231 .

Ca t alpa, 1 1 7 . Da n d e lion , 82, 1 1 4, 1 1 7 .

Ca t ch fl y , 1 36 . Darlin gto n ia , 1 5 7 .

Cat ta il fl ag , 1 42 , 1 48 , 1 85 1 8 6
-
, . Da te pa lm, 8 6 .

Ce rcis, 1 0 . De ad n e tt le , 8 0
-
.
26 2 IN DE X .

L ak e s, 1 43, 1 48 .

L amin a ria, 1 7 7 .

L arc h , 1 7 8 , 1 90 .

H ab e u aria, 1 2 7
L a t e x, 1 36
.
,

H ai rs. 43 9 2 . 1 36 , 1 46 , 9 03, 203

.
L e afl e ss fores ts , 227 .

H a lophy te s, 1 6 9 249
L ea fle t , 1 9
°
,
.

H a re b e ll, 1 9 , 8 0
L ea f re la t io n , 53
.
-
,

H a wt h o rn , 36
L e mna’ 9 7
.

H ea rt woo d , 1 5 1
-

L e spe d e za, 43
.

H e a t , 1 1 2, 1 38 , 1 45 , 1 64
L ian as, 6 0, 6 1 , 6 2 , 63 1 02 , 2 45 '
.

H ea t h pla n t s, 1 89 , 2 00, 2 1 4 .

H e lian t h e m u m, 9 36
L ic h e n s 1 94 209 2 1 4 .

IIe liot ro pism, 1 2 , 1 3, 63, 7 2 , 7 3,

L ife -
re l t i s4 7 8
a on , 53
1 39
L igh t , 1 43, 1 67 , 1 9 7
.

“ 1 90
L ig h t -
re la t io n , 7, 8 .

H orse -
c h es t n u t , 2
L ily 33 40 ,

1 06
L iv e f or e v e r 1 8
- -

H o use lee k , 1 9
.
,

L ive oa k 1 01 .

H o uston ia, 1 9 9 , 1 35
L ive rwo rts , 1 1 8
k le b e rry
.

H uc 214
,
L oc o mo t io n , 1 1 3 .

H ud son ia , 21 2 .

L oc u st 5 07 3
.

H a re. c re pit a n s, 1 20
L on g 9 6 , 1 01
.

H y d roge n 1 5 3
L oose st ri fe , 1 30, 1 35
°
,
.

H yd wph y t e s s 1 68 1 7 09 1 7 4
L ot us 1 8 0
» '
'
.

H y d rot ropis m, 9 1 , 1 38 .

M an g ro ve s , 1 92 0 .

M a ple , 2 6 1 1 5 1 1 6
I n sec t s and flowe rs , 1 23 .
, , .

M a ra n t a , 38
I ris, 1 2 6 , 1 33
.

M a rc h a n t ia, 1 07
.

Isoe t e s, 9 4, 9 5 , 2 08
.

M e ad o ws, 237 , 238

.

I vy , 99
.

M e c h a n ica l t issue , 1 72
.

M e so phy ll 38 39 40 41 , , , ,

M e so phy t e s 1 68 2 33
3 , . .

M ig rat io n , 5 8 7 5 1 47 , , .

J u n c us, 7 7
M i ld e w 1 09 1 5 7
.

, .
,

J u n ipe r, 5 1 , 2
k
2
M il we e d , 1 1 7
.

M imo sa , 1 99 .

M ist le t oe 1 07 , .

M o ld 1 09 , .

L ac t u ca, 1 °
1 9 7 1 98 , . M o n ocot y le d o n s, 35 , 8 5
L ad y sli ppe r,
-
1 33, 1 34, 1 35 , 1 36 . 1 86 .
 IN DE X .
263

M oo rs, 1 87 , 1 88 . P arasite s, 1 06 , 1 50 .

M osa ic a rra n g e me n t , 25 2
7 , 37 . P assion vin e , 62 .

M osse s, 87 , 1 07 , 1 1 0, 1 1 3, 1 1 8 , 1 88 , P ast u re s, 24 1 , 242 .

1 94, 209 , 2 1 4 . P e llion ia, 2 4 .

M o t ile le a v es, 9 , 1 0, 1 1 , 49 , 1 98, P e n ts t e mon , 1 37 .

1 99 . P eon y , 7 8 .

M ou ld 1 09 , . P e ta ls, 78 , 7 9 8 0 , .

M u lle in , 43, 44 . P e t io les, 1 5 , 2 6 , 35 , 5 5 .

M u sh ro o ms, 1 5 7 . P h lo x , 8 0 .

P h o tosy n t h e sis, 28 , 2 9 , 1 50
1 53, 1 5 6 .

P hysio log y , 1 49 .

Pic ke re l we e d , 1 8 1 1 82 , .

N e ct a r, 1 23, 1 58
P ine s, 6 3, 6 5 , 6 6 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 7 ,
.

N e lu mb iu m, 1 8 0 .

N icot ian a, 8 0
P i ru s, 7 9
.

N ig h t s h ad e 2 6 ,
P ist il, 7 7 , 7 9 8 0
.

.
,

N it roge n , 1 5 3
P it c h e r plan t , 1 5 5 , 1 5 6 , 1 5 7 , 1 58
.

N od es, 54
P it h , 83, 8 4, 1 07
.

N u ph a r, 9 2
P la in s 2 1 3, 2 1 5 , 2 1 6
, .

N u t rit ion 3, 1 49, .

P la n k t o n , 1 74 .

N y m ph aea , 78 , 1 8 0 .
P la n t b od y , 2 .

P lan t soc ie t ies , 1 , 1 46 , 1 62 , 1 68,

1 74 .

P las t id , 1 52 .

O ak , 6 9 , 1 01 .
P lat y ce ri u m , 1 00 .

O a k fo re s t , 1 45 24 8 .
P l u me s 1 1 ,
"
1 1 3, 1 1 4, 1 1 6 , 1 1 7 .

(E d ogo n iu m , 1 1 1 .
P lu m u le 5 1 , 1 40 , .

O rc h id s, 9 8 , 9 9 , 1 26 , P o lle n , 7 7, 11 1, 1 1 2, 1 1 5, 1 21 ,

1 35 , 1 36 , 1 89
1 23 .
.

O rga n s, 3 .
P ollinat io n 7 7 , 1 1 5 , 1 22, 1 23 , .

O rn it h oga lu m, 8 1 P o lygon at u m , 35 .

O vary , 7 9 , 8 0, 1 25 P on d s, 1 42 1 7 5 , . 1 84 .
.

O v u le s, 7 8 7 9 , 8 0 P o n d we ed , 1 7 6 , 1 8 1 , 1 8 9
, .

O xalis, 1 0, 5 0, 1 99 P ota to , 7 4, 7 6 .

O xyge n , 29, 1 38 1 53 P ot e n t illa , 1 s , 7 9 .

.
,

P ra irie s, 208 222 , 237 , 2 ,

P ric k les , 1 46 .

P ric k ly le t t uc e , 1 2 , 1 9 7 , 1 98 .

P rim rose , 1 37 .

P a lisad e t iss u e , 39, 40, 4 2

, 205 . P roc u mb e n t st e m , 5 7 .

P a lms 8 6 , 8 7 2 30
, , . P rofi le po s it io n , 1 9 7 , 1 98 .

P an d an us, 1 08 . P ron u ba, 1 30, 1 31 .

264 IN D E X .

P re p roots , 99, 1 03, 1 04, 1 05 , 1 06 ,

P rot a n d ry , 1 28 , 1 35 .

P rote c t ion of lea ve s, 9 , 1 0, 1 1 , 1 2, Sage b ru sh , 21 6 .

4 1 9 42 9 431 48 ) 49 °
Sagit ta ria, 1 86 .

P rot e id s, 1 5 3, 1 5 6 , 1 89 .
Saint pau lia, 1 6 .

P rot og y n y , 1 28 , 1 35 .
Salt d e se rt s, 231 .

P rot o plasm , 1 54, 1 5 6 .

Salt ste ppe s . 231 .

P te lea , 1 1 5 .
San d soc ie t ies , 209 .

P u ff -
balls , 1 57 .
San d y fi e ld s , 209 , 2 1 2 .

Sa n gu ina ria, 1 9 5 .

Q Sa pro phyt es, 1 5 0, 1 89 .

Sa p wood , 1 5 1
-

Q u ill wo rt , 94 9 5 , 2 08
.

, .

Sargassu m , 1 72 .

Sarrace n ia, 1 5 5 , 1 5 6 , 1 58 .

Sa xifrage , 58 .

R a in , 5 1 , 256 . Scale le a ve s, 7 0, 75 .

R a n u n culu s, 1 8 5 . Scales, 1 4 1 .

Ra spbe rry , 9 1 . Scou t in g ru s h , 2 03 .

R ec e pt acle , 7 9 , 8 1 , 1 1 4 . Scre w pine , 1 03 .

R e d b ud 1 0 , . Sc ru b , 22 7 .

R ee d grass, 1 42, 1 85 , 1 8 6 . Se a we e d s, 1 2 , 8 7 , 99 , .

R ee d swamps, 1 85 . Se d ge s, 1 8 7 .

R e prod uct ion , 3, 1 09 . Se e d -

d ispe rsal, 1 1 2 , 1 1 3,
R e spirat ion , 32, 1 5 4, 1 56 . 1 1 7 , 1 1 8 , 1 1 9 , 1 20 .

R h izo id s, 1 07 . Se e d plan ts , 1 1 1 , 1 1 9, 1 2 1
-
.

R ivalry , 1 46 . Se e d s, 1 1 5 , 1 38 ,
R o bin ia, 1 2 5 , 1 26 , 1 33, 2 07 . 1 40 .

R oc k -
rose , 2 36 . Se lag ine lla, 2 6 , 1 00, 1 94 .

R oc k soc ie t ie s, 209 2
10 . Se mpe rviv um , 1 9 .

R oots , 89, 90, 95 , 9 8 , 99 , 1 38, Se n e c io 1 1 4 . .

1 71 . Se n sit ive plan t s 1 1 , 48 , 5 0, 1 99 , .

R oot Cap, 1 08
-
. Se pals 78 7 9 8 0 , . , .

Ro ot h airs, 90
-
. Sh e ph e rd ia, 44 .

R oot sta lk , 5 5 , 5 6 , 7 5 , 7 6 , 7 7 , 7 3, Sh oot s, 53 .

1 95 . Silph i u m, 1 0, 1 9 7 , 1 98 .

R ose ac ac ia, 1 26 , 1 33 . Smila x, 6 1 .

R ose t te h ab it , 1 6 , 1 7 1 8 , 1 9 , 47 94,
, , Sn a pd ra go n , 8 0 1 37 , .

1 58 , 1 6 0, 209 , 237 . So il . 90, 94, 1 45 , 1 5 1 , 1 66 , 2 1 4,

R os in we e d , 1 0, 1 9 7, 1 98 . 224 .

R u b be r t re e , 1 04 So lomon s se al ,
’
. 35 , 7 6 .

R un n e rs, 5 7 , 93 . Spa n ish n e e d le , 1 1 9 , 1 2 1 .

R us ts, 1 5 7 . Sph agn u m, 1 88 .

2 66 IN DE X .

W it c h haze l, 1 1 8 1 1 9
, .

W ood b in e , 6 1 , 6 3.

W aln u t 8 2 , .

W a te r 90 92
, , ,
94, 95 , 1 1 3, 1 38 ,
1 42, 1 5 1 , 1 63, 1 93, 206 , 250 .

Xe rophy tes 1 68 1 93 208

W ate r lily , 1 7 8 1 8 0 1 8 1
, , , .

, , .

Xe rophy t e st ruct u re 207

W at e r rese rvoirs, 206 , 2 08 ,
.
,
209 .

W ee d s, 1 47 .

W illow, 35 243 , .

W in d 95 , 98 1 1 4, 1 22 , 1 6 7
, , . Y e w, 42 .

W ings, 1 1 2 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 6 . Y ucca, 45 , 47 , 1 30, 1 31 ,

 T W ENT IET H CENT UR Y T EXT BO O KS -

A SE CO N D BO O K O F BO TANY

BY

JO H N M . CO ULT E R , A M . .
, PH D. .

H E AD OF D E P A R T M E NT OF BO T A N Y
U N I V E R SIT Y OF C H IC A G O

NEW YO R K
D. A PP L ET O N A ND CO M PA NY
1 90 1
vi P RE F A CE

the plant kingdom Th le r i g of m ethod and th e . e a n n s

colle tion o f f a t
c e f ndam ental proce c se b t theyar u ss s, u

m t be
us pplemented by inform ation and ide to be of
su as

mo t er ice
s s v .

Th e a thor doe not b lieve in the

u of technical
s e u se

term nle ab ol tely nece ary for they lead freq ently
s u ss s u ss , u

to mi t king definition of word for knowledge of things

s a s s .

B t it i nece ary to introd ce the t dent not m erely to

u s ss u s u

the m in fact b t al o to the li t erat re of bot ny A

a s u s u a . c

c or di gly the m o t
n , omm only ed technical term s c us s are

introd ed often two or three f or the am e thing b t it

uc , s , u

i hoped that f m iliarity with t he m will enable the t dent

s a s u

to read y ord inary bot nical text Ca e h been taken

an a . r as

to give defi ition and derivation and to call repeated

n s s,

a ttention to ynonym o term that there m y be no

s us s, so a

c onf ion T h chaotic tat e of m orphologi al term inology

us . e s c

t e m pte d t h tho to form late e au ccept o m e con i tent

r u or a s s s

sc hem e of term ; b t it w fel t that thi wo ld i mpo e

s u as s u s

u pon the t dent too great di ffi c lty in readi ng far mo e

s u u r

im po t nt c rent text
r a ur s .

Chapter I XII f or m a connected whole pre enting the

s -
, s

g en e ral tory of thes evol tion of plant f ro m th lowe t to u s e s

t h highe t
e The re m aining chapte are pple m enta y
s . rs su r ,

and can be ed ti m e or inclination perm it b t it i t h

us as s, u s e

j dgm ent of the a thor that they ho ld be incl ded if

u u s u u

po ible Th flowe i
ss . con pic o and i m port nt a
e r s so s u us a

f eat re in connection with the highe t plan t that Chapter

u s s,

XIII eem to b a fitting eq el to the preceding chapte

s s e s u rs .

I t al o ee m de irable to develop o m e knowledge of t h

s s s s s e

g eat
r An g io per m f a m ilie pre
s ented in Chapter XI V s, as s ,

s ince they are the mo t con pic o m e mber of every flora s s u us s .

In thi connection the a thor h been in the habit of

s , u as

directing the examination of characteri tic flower and of s s,

t ea ching the of ordinary taxono mic man al Chap

u se u s .

ter X V de l with anato m ical m atter b t the tr ct re

a s s, u s u u s

in l ded
c u o bo nd are s
p with the f or m and woruk o f pl ts u an
 P R E F A CE v fi

that it eem i mportant to fi d a place f them e en i

s s n or v n an

elem enta y work The re on for Chapte X VI and XVII

r . as rs

has been t ted already and even if P l t R l ti i t d

s a , an e a on s s s u

i d Chapter X V II will be
e , ef l either a review o an us u as r as

introd ction In the chap t er on P lant P hy iology t h

u . s e

a thor h been g ided by N oll excellent ! m! i th

u as u
’
s r su n e

Stra b rge Botany

s u r .

The ill tration have been enti ely in th charge of

us s r e

D O ti W Caldwell who f or eve al year h

r . s . cond cted , s r s as u

i the U nive ity and in a m o t e ffi cient way

n rs ch labo, s , su

t y work
ra or thi vol m e i mplie M any o iginal ill
as s u s . r us

t ti
ra have been p epared by D Caldwell and hi
on s it r r . s ass s

ant and ome are cred ited to D Cham b rlain and D

s, s r
. e r .

Cowle of the U niver ity b t it i a matter o f regret t hat

s, s , u s

p e re of work and ti me lim itation have forbidden a till

r ssu s

greater n mber The a tho of t h o iginal ill tration

u . u rs e r us s

are cited and where ill tration have been obtained el e

, us s s

where the o rce are in d icated The de cription given

s u s . s s

in connection with each ill t ation are n ally f ll us r u u su u ,

and ho ld b t died ca ef lly freq ently they ontain

s u e s u r u , as u c

important mate ial not incl ded in t h tex t r u e .

The a thor wo ld again call atten t ion to the fact that

u u

thi book i m erely intended to erve a com pact pple

s s s as su

m ent to three far m ore i m po t nt factor the teacher the r a s ,

laboratory and fi eld work W itho t the e it can not er e

,
. u s s v

it p rp e
s u os .

JO H N M . CO U L T E R .

T u n U N I VE R SITY or CH I CA GO , N ovember, 1 899 .

 BO TA N Y

PA RT II . PL ANT ST R U CT U R E S

CH APTE R I

IN T R O D U C TIO N

e ident e en to t h e
in struct ure —It is v , v

a al ob erver that plant di ff er very m ch in tr ct e

c su s , s u s u ur .

T hey di ff er ot m e ely in f orm and ize b t al o in

n rm s , u s co

p l exit y S o m
. e plant i m ple other are o m ple x and s are s , s c ,

the former egarded of lower rank

are r as
—
.

Beginning with the i ple t plant

m t hat i th o e of s s s s, s

lowe t ank s — r can pa by almo t i en ible grad

on e ss s ns s a

tion to tho e of highe t ra k At c rt in point in t hi

s s s n . e a s s

advance not able interr p t ion of t h ontin ity di u s e c u are s

covered t r ct re and hence certain habit of work chang

, s u u s, s ,

ing decidedly and the e break enable one to o ga ize t h

, s s r n e

va t array of plant into gro p Som e of t h break p

s s u s . e s a

pear to be more im portant than o ther and opinion m y s, s a

diff er to tho e of chief i m portance b t it i c tom ry

as s ,
u s us a

to elect three of them indicating the di i ion of the

s as v s

plan t kingdom into fo r great gro p u u s .

2 Th e great gro ps
.
— The fo r great gro p m y b u u u s a e

i dicated here b t it m t be re m e mbered that their nam

n , u us es

m ean nothing n t il plant re pre enting the m have been

u s s

t died I t will be noticed that all the na mes have t h e

s u .
2 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

con tant term ination phy t which i a Greek word m ean

s es , s

ing plant The prefi x in each ca e i al o a G reek word

s .
”
s s s

intended to indi cate the kind of plant s .

( )
1 Th ll h
p y t — Thea na mo e m ean thall
es plant s us s,

b t j t what a thall i can not well be explained

“ ”
u us us s

u ntil om e of the plant have been examined In thi

s s . s

g reat gro p are inclu ded o m e o f the i m ple t for

u m s s s s,

k no wn A lgw and F as g i the fo m er repre ented by green

un , r s

thready growth in fre h wate and the great b t of s s r es se a

weed the latter by m o l d m hroom etc

s, u s, us s, .

( )
2 B h
y p y t — The
r na
o m e m ean esm o. plant and s ss s,

su gge t very definitely the form which

s s incl ded s are u .

E very one k no w m o e in a general way b t a o iated s ss s , u ss c

with the m in thi great gro p are the allied liverwo t s u r s,

which are very co mmon b t ot generally kno wn u n so .

( )
3 P t id p yh t —
er The na m eom ean fer plant
es and s n s,

fern well known N t all P teridophyte however

s are . o s, , are

fern for a ociated wi t h them are the hor etail ( co ring

s, ss s s s u

r he ) and the cl b mo e
us s u ss s .

m — T h na m e m ean eed plant

( ) p
4 S t p yh t er a o es e s s s

t hat i tho e plant which prod ce eed

s, s In a gene l
s u s s. ra

way the e are the mo t fam iliar plant

s d are co m m only
s s, an

s po ken of flowering plant

as They are the highe t in s .
”
s

r ank and the mo t con pic o and hence have received s s u u s,

m ch at t ention
u In form er time the t dy of bot any in
. s s u

th e chool w re tricted t the examination of thi one

s s as s o s

gro p to the entire neglect of the other three great gro p

u , u s .

3 Increfl ng complexity
.
— A t the very o t et it i well u s s

to rem ember that the Thalloph yte contain the i mple t s s s

—
plant tho e who e bodie have developed no organ for
s s s s s

s pecial work and that one advance thro gh higher

, as s u

T hallophyte Bryophy te and P t ridophyt

s, there i a con s, e e s, s

s tant increa e in t h co m plexity of the plant body ntil in

s e , u

t h Sper m atophyt e i t beco m e m o t highly organized with

e s s s ,

n m ro tr ct re t part for p cial work j t in the

u e us s u u s se a s e , us as

high t ani mal li m b eye ear bon m cle nerve etc

es s s, s, s, e s, us s, s, .
,
 CH AP TE R II
TH A L L O P H Y T E S ALGE

6 . General ch aract ers — Thallophy t e s

are the i mple t of s s

pla t often
n s, m all to e cape general ob e vation b t
so s as s s r , u

s o m tim e wi th large bod ie They occ r everywhere i

e s s
. u n

large n mber and are of pecial intere t repre enting

u s, s s as s

the beginning of the plant kingdom In thi gro p al o

s . s u s

there are organized all of the principal a tivi tie of plant c s s,

so that a t d y of Thallophyte f r i he a cle w to th

s u s u n s s e

s tr ct re
u d f nction
u s of the higher m o e complex
an u s , r

g ro p u s .

The word thall refer to the n tritiv bod y or us s u e ,

v eget tive body it i often called Thi body do

a , as t s . s es no

diff erentiate pe ial n t it ive organ ch the leave and

s c u r s, su as s

root of higher plant b t all of it region are alike I t

s s, u s s . s

nat ral po ition al o i ot erect b t prone W hile most

u s s s n , u .

Thallophyte have thall bodie in ome of them i

s us s, s , as n

c ertain ma ine form the n tritive body di ff erentiate int o

r s, u s

region which re em ble leave tem and root al o

s s s, s s, s s ce r

t in B yophyte have thall

a r bodie The thall body
s us s . us ,

therefore i not alway a di tinctive mark of Thallophy t

, s s s e s,

b t m t be
u pplem ented by othe chara ter to determine
us su r c s

the gro p u .

7 A lg
.m an d F un gi — I t i convenient to epa ate Th all s s r o

h
p y t int
es two grea t divi ion
o kno wn A lg w and F g i s s, as un .

I t ho ld b know that thi i a very gene al di i ion and

s u e n s s r v s

not a technical one for t here are gro p of Thallophyte ,

u s s

which can not be regarded trict ly ither A lg or F gi as s e a

e un ,

b ut for the pre ent t he e gro p m y be i n cl de d

s s u s a u .

4
 T H A L L O P H YT E S : A L G A; 5

great di tinction betwee the se two di i ion of

Th e s n v s s

T hallophy te i that the A lgm con t ain h l phy ll and t h

s s c or o e

F ngi do not Chlorophyll i t h characteri ti green color

u . s e s c

ing matter fo nd in pla t the word m eaning leaf green

u n s,
“
.
”

I t m y be tho gh t that t
a thi coloring material the
u o u se s as

ba i of ch an i mpo tant di i ion i om ewhat pe ficial

s s su r v s s s su r ,

b t it ho l d be k nown that the pre ence of chlorophyll gi e

u s u s v s
—
a pec l iar power one which affect the whole tr ct r
u s s u u e

of the tritive body d t h habit of life T h pre ence

nu an e . e s

of chlorophyll mean th at the plant can mak e it w food s s o n ,

can liv indepe dent of other plant and animal A lg

e n s s. aa,

therefore are the independent Thall ophyt e

, far thei s, so as r

food i con erned for th ey can ma f act e it t of the

s c , nu ur ou

inorganic mat rial abo t th em e s u .

The F ngi on the other hand contain

u , chlorophyll , no ,

can not man fact re food from i norganic mate ial and
u u r ,

hence m t obt in it already m an f act red by plant or

us a u u s

ani mal In t hi e e they are dependent pon other

s . s s ns u or

g i m
an s and thi dependence
s, h led to great chansge in as s

str ct re and habit of life

u u .

It i pposed that F ngi have de cended from Alg

s su u s ae

that i that they were once A lg which grad ally acq ired
s, ae, u u

the hab it of btaining food already m an fact red lo t thei

O u u , s r

chl orophyll and becam ab ol t ely dependent and more or

, e s u

le modified in tr ct re F ngi m y be regarded ther

ss s u u . u a , e

fore red ced relative of the A lg of eq al rank far

, as u s ae, u so

as birth n d tr ct re go b t of very di ff erent habit

a s u u , u s .

A L GE

8 . Ge neral alread y defined Alg characters

e —A s , ae ar

Thallophyte which contain chlorophyll and are therefore

s ,

able to m an fact re food from inorganic material They

u u .

are known in general eaweed altho gh there as s s,

”
u are

fre h water form well marine T hey are exceedingly

s -
s as as .

variable in ize ranging from form vi ible only by m ean

s , s s s

19
6 P L A N T ST RUCT UR E S

of the co mpo nd micro cop to m arine form with enoru s e s

m ou sly b lky bodie u —

In general they are hy d phy t a hat s . ro es

i plant adapted to life in water or in very m oi t place

s, s s s .

The pecial intere t connected with the gro p i that it i

s s u s s

su ppo ed to be the ance tral gro p of the plant kingdo m

s s u

the one from which the higher gro p ha e been m ore or u s v

le directly derived In thi regard t hey di ff er fro m the

ss . s

F ngi which are not ppo ed to be re pon ible for any

u , su s s s

higher gro p u s .

9 The . bdivi ions —A ltho gh all the A lg

su contain
s u a
e

chlorophyll om e of the m do not appear green In o m e

, s . s

of the m another coloring m atter i a ociated with the chl s ss o

rO h
p y ll and m y m k it entirely A dvantage
a i taken f as . s O

the e color a ociation to eparate A lg into b di i ion

s ss s s ae su v s s .

A the e color are acco m panied by con tant di ff erence in

s s s s s

s tr ct re and work the di tinction on the ba i of color i

u u , s s s s s

more real than it m ight appear U pon thi b a i fo r b . s s s u su

di i ion m y be made The con tant term ination phy

v s s a . s oec
e,

which appe r in the nam e i a G reek word m eaning

a s s, s sea

weed which i the co m mon nam e for A lg ; while the pre

,
”
s ae

fi in each ca e i the G reek nam e for the color which char

x s s

a ct i the gro p
e r ze s u .

The fo r bdivi ion are follow ( 1 ) Cy phy

u su s s as s : ano cete ,

or Bl e A lg b t ally called Bl e green A lg

u au ,
”
the
u u su u -
”
ae, as

c haracteri tic bl e doe not entirely m a k the green and

s u s s ,

t h general tint i bl i h green ; 2 ) Ch l

e h
p y or G
s reen u s -
oro cete ,

A lgm i which there i no pecial coloring mat ter a oci

”
, n s s ss

ated with the chlorophyll ( 3) P h phy or Bro wn eo

c cec
e,

A lg and ( 4) R h d phy or R d A lg ”
ae o o ceoe, e ae .

I t ho ld h re m arked that prob a bly t h Cy

s u e h
p y e an o c e aa

do not belong with the other gro p b t it i con enient to u s, u s v

pre ent the m in thi conn ction

s s e .

1 0 Th plant b ody .
— By thi ph ra e i m eant the n tri
e . s s s u

tive or veg tative b od y There i in plant a nit of tr

e . s s u s ue

t re known the ll The b odie of the i m pl t plan t

u as ce . s s es s

con i t f b t one cell while the bodie f the mo t m

s s o u , s O s co
3 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

n cle lie imbe d ded within it ( Fig

u us s E very working .

cell con i t of at lea t cytopla m and n cle

s s s So m eti m
s s u us . es

the cell l o e wall i ab ent and the cell th n con i t im

u s s s ,
e s s s s

ply f a n cle with m ore or le cyt opla m organized

o u us ss s

abo t it and i aid to b e k d

u ,
s s na e .

A other protopl m ic organ of the cell very con pic o

n as , s u us

a mong the A lgm and ot h er gro p i the pl tid P l tid u s, s as . as s

are relatively compact bodie com monly pherical variabl s, s , e

in n mber and lie im bedded i the cytopl m T here

u ,
n as . are

vario kind of pla tid the mo t com m on being the one

us s s s, s

which contain the chlorophyll and hence i tained green

s s s .

T h chlorophyll ontaining pla tid i known

e -
c the hl s s as c or o

p l as t id or h l p l ,t ( Fig c An ordinary
or o alg ell
as there . a -c ,

fore con i t of a cell wall within which the protopla m i

, s s s , s s

organized into cytopla m n cle d chloropla t s ,

u u s, an s s .

Th bodie of the i mple t A lg

e scon i t of one ch s s ae s s su

cell and it m y be regarded the imple t form of plant

,
a as s s

body Starting with ch form one direction of advanc

.
’

su s, e

in comple i ty i to orga ize everal ch cell into a loo e

x s n s su s s

row wh ich re emble a chain ( F ig

, s in other form t h
s . s e

cell in a row b ecome m ore co m pa ted and flattened form

s c ,

ing a i m ple fil m t ( Fig 2

s in till other form t h
a en s .
, s s e

original filam ent p t t branche like it elf prod cing u s ou s s , u

a branching filam ent ( Fig T he e fi l m t bod ie . s a en ou s s

are very characteri tic of the A lg s ae .

Starting agai n wi th the one c lled body another line of -

e ,

advance i for everal cell to organize in two direction

s s s s,

for ming a pl t of cel l Still another line of advance i for

a e s . s

the cell to organize in thr direction forming a m of

s ee s, as s

c ell s .

T h bodie o f A lgw t herefore m y b e aid t be one

e s , , a s o

c elled in the i mple t for m and in the m o t com plex f r m

s s s, s o s

they become filam ent plate or m e of cell s, s, ass s s .

1 1 R ep od ct.i o — I ad d ition to the work of n trition

r u n n u ,

the plant b o d y m t organiz for reprod ctio J t the us e u n . us as

nu tritive bod y begin i t h lowe t fo m with a ingle cell s n e s r s s

 T H A L L O P IIYT E S : A L G 1 E 9

and become m ore co mplex in the higher form

s repro s, so

d ction begin in very i mple fa hion and g ad ally b

u s s s r u e

come more compl x Two general type f reprod ction

s e . s O u

are employed by the A lg and all othe plant They are ae, r s
.

as follow s

( )
1 V g t t i m
e e alt ip li t i — Thi
ve i the only
u type o f ca on s s

reprod ction e mployed by the low t A lg b t it per i t

u es ae , u s s s

in all higher gro p even when the other m thod h been u s e as

introd ced u I n t hi ty pe no pecial repro d ctive bo d ie are

. s s u s

form ed b t the ordinary veg tative b ody i ed for the

, u e s us

p rpo e For exam ple if the body con i t of one cell that
u s .
, s s s ,

cell c t it elf into two each half grow and ro n d ff

u s s , s u s o as

a di tinct cell and t w new bod ie a ppear where th re w

s , o s e as

one before ( Fig 3 Thi proce of c ll divi ion i very

s .
, s ss e s s

com plicated and i m portant involving a divi ion of n cle , s u us

and cytopla m that the new cell m y be organi ed j t

s so s a z us

as w th as ld one e o W herever ordinary n tritiv cell are

. u e s

us ed directly t pro d ce w plant bodie the proce i o u ne s ss s

g
ve e at ti m lt i
vep li t i u Thi m etho d of reprod
ca ction
on m y . s u a

b e indicated by a form la follow P P P P P in u as s : ,

which P t an d for the plant the form la indicating th at

s s ,
u

a cce ion of plant m y ari e directly from one another

su ss s a s

witho t the int rpo ition of any pecial tr ct re

u e s s s u u .

( ) p
2 S — S pore ores are cell w h ich are pecially organ
s s s

i d to repro d ce
ze d are not at all concern d in the n tri
u , an e u

tive work of the plant Spore are all alike i their powe . s n r

of reprod ction b t they are form ed in two very d i tinct

u , u s

way It m t be re m em b ered that the e t w type of

s . us s o s

spore alike in pow r b t d iff rent in origin

s are e u e .

A l p
sexu a — The cell are form ed by c ll divi
s or es se s e

sion A cell of the plant bod y i elected for the p rpo e

. s s u s ,

an d ally it content divide and form a variable n m ber

u su s s u

of new cell within the old one ( Fig 2 B ) The e new cell
s .
,
. s s

are asexu al p and t h cell which h form ed them

s or es, e as

with in it elf i know s the m th

s ll Thi pec liar
n as o er ce . s u

k i d of ell d ivision which d

n c not involve the wall of the
, oe s
10 P L A N T ST R UCT URE S

old cell i often called i t l d i i i to d i ting i h it

, s n er n a v s on , s u s

from fi i which involve the wall of the old cell and i

s s on , s , s

the ord inary m eth o d of cell divi ion in n tri tive cell s u s .

If the mother cell which prod ce the pore i di ff erent u s s s s

f ro m the other cell of the plant b ody it i calle d the p

s s s ora n

g i um which
,
m ean pore ve el O ften a cell
s i n tri
s ss . s u

tive for a tim e and after ward becom e a m other cell in s ,

which ca e it i i d to f nction a porangi m The wall

s s sa u as s u .

of a porangi m s ally open and the pore

u us u di s, s s ar e s

charge d th being free to prod ce new plant Vario

,
us u s . us

nam e have been given to a ex al pore to in d icat e cer t in

s s u s s a

p c liaritie A A lg are m o tly rro n d ed by wat er

e u s
. s ae s su u ,

the characteri tic a ex al pore in the gro p i one that

s s u s u s

can wi m by m ean of m in te hair like proce e or ili

s s u -
ss s c a,

which have the power of la hing the water ( Fig 7 C ) s .

, .

The e ciliated pore are known

s p
s or anism al as zoos or es ,

li k e pore referring to their power of loco m otion ; om e

s s,
”
s

t i m e they are called wi mmi g p

s or w m p s It n s or es, s ar s ores .

m t be re m e m bered that all of the e ter m refer to the

us s s

s ame t hing a wi mm ing a ex al pore

, s s u s .

Thi m ethod of reprod ction m y be indicat d by a for

s u a e

m lau follow
as P o P o P o P which indi
s ,

cate that new plant are not prod ced di rectly from the
s s u

old one in veg tative m lti plication b t that between

s, as e u , u

the cce ive generation there i the a ex al pore

su ss s s s u s .

S l p
exu a — The e cell are form ed by cell nion
s ores s s u ,

two cell f ing tog ther to form the pore Thi proce
s us e s . s ss

of form ing a pore by the f ion of two cell i called the

s us s s

sex u a lp and the two pecial cell ( ex al cell ) th

r ocess, s s s u s us

us ed are known g m t ( Fig 2 0 d ) I t m t be as a e es .

, , , e . us

noticed that gam ete are not pore for they are t able s s s, no

alone to prod ce a new plant ; it i only aft r two of the m

u s e

have f ed and form ed a new cell t h pore that a plant

us , e s ,

can be prod ced The pore th form ed doe not diff r

u . s us s e

in it power from the a ex al pore b t it d i ff er very

s s u s , u s

m ch in it m ethod of origin
u s .
 CH AP TE R III

TH E E V O L UTI O N O F SE X

12 . Th e general the l t chapter it w prob lem — I n as as re

m ar k ed that the i ple t Alg reprod ce only by vegetative

s m s a
e u

m ltiplication the ordinary cell divi ion ( fi ion ) o f n tri

u , s ss u

tive cell m ltiplying cell and hence in d ivid al A mong

s u s u s .

oth r low Alg a ex al pore are added to fi ion a

e ae s u s s ss as

m ethod of reprod ctio n the pore being al o f orm ed by u , s s s

c ell di i ion generally internal divi ion In higher f orm

v s , s . s

gam ete appear and a new m eth od of reprod ction the

s , u ,

s ex al i added t the oth er two

u , s o .

Sex al reprod ction i

u i mport ant a proce in all
u s so ss

plant except t h lowe t that it i of i tere t to di cover

s e s , s n s s

how it m y ha originated and how it developed into it

a ve , s

highe t form Am ong the A lg t h origin and develop

s . aa e

m ent of the ex al proce eem to be plainly gge te d ;

s u ss s s su s

and all other plant gro p have probably been derived

as u s

more or le directly from A lg what h been

ss m ae, as ac c o

p lish d f or
e the ex al proce in thi lowe t gro
s p w u ss s s u as

probably done f the whole plant kingdom or .

1 3 The origin of m et a
.
— O of the be t A lg to ne s ae

ill trate the po ible origin of gamete i a com mon fre h

us ss s s s

water form k nown Ul t k i ( Fig T h body co i t as o r r

c . e ns s s

of a i mple filam ent compo ed of a ingle row of ho t

s s s s r

cell ( Fig 2 A ) E ach cell contain a n cle and a

s .
,
. s u u s,

s ingle large chloropla t which h t h f orm of a thic k cyl s as e

inder inve ting the re t of the cell content T hro gh the

s s s . u

m icro cope if t h f oc
s i p n the center of the cell
,
e us s u o ,

an optical ection of the cylinde i obtained the chlo o

s r s ,
r

12
 TH E E V O L UT IO N o r se x 13

pla t appea ing a thick green m a on each ide of the

s r as ss s

central n cle A no other color appear it i e ident

u us . s s, s v

that Ul tk i i one of the Ch l phy

o r x s oro ce z
e .

F m . 2 Uloth riat, a Co n e rva orm

. base f fil m t h wi g l wes t h l d fast
f f . A . o a en , s o n o o ,

i ll h wi t h it s i g l c pi
ce l l an d li ve ve ge ta t ve c e s , e ac yli dri cal chl ro s n e on s c u o us c n o

pl t ( s i
as ti
ee n ) i
n l i ga
sec on l ;B f ll
nc o s n ta i i g m s
n uc e u s , o u r ce s co n n n nu e rou

s m ll a p
zoo s th th
o re s , mp t i ed ; 0 frag m t f a fil am t h wi g
e o e rs e c ll ,
en o en s o n on e e

( 0 ) c ta i i g f
on n n p a th
o u r zo os po ( b ) di playi g f cili at its
o re s , no e r zoo s re s n our a

po i t d d d j t ha i g sca p d f m it ll a t h
n e en an us v n ell ( ) f m whi h
e ro s ce ,
no e r ce c ro c

m t f thos o m ll b i c ili t gam t

e s a h p d ga m te s pa i i g ( d )
a e e es d th e a v e e s ca e , e r n . an

re s ul t i g zy go te s ( ) ; D
n b gi n i g f e w fil m t f m sp ; E fee b l e
e e n n o n a en ro zoo o re

pore ; F yg te growi g af te re s t : 0
, .

filam t f me d b y t h m ll
en s or e s a zoos s z o n r

p s p d c d by zygote —CA w w L e xc pt F an d G whi ch are af ter

, ,

zoos o re ro u e ,
e ,

D on n -
P ou r .

cell are all alike excepting that the lowe t one o f

The s , s

the filament i m o tly colorle and i elo gated and m ore

s s ss, s n

or le m odified to act a holdfa t anchoring the filam ent

ss as s ,

to om e fi m pport W ith thi exception the cell are all

s r su . s s

n tritive ; b t any one of the m h the power of organizing

u u as

for reprod ction Thi indicate that at fi t triti e and

u . s s rs nu v
14 P L A N T STR UCT UR E S

r eprod ctive cell are not di tinctly di ff erentiated b t that

u s s , u

the sam e cell m y be n triti e at one ti m e and reprod ctive

a u v u

at ano th er .

I n itable con d ition certain cell of t h fila m ent will

su s s e

be ob erved organizing within the m elve new i ll by

s s s c s

internal d i i ion ( Fig 2 0 b) The m ethod of form a

v s .
, , a, .

tion at once gge t that the new cell are a ex al pore

su s s s s u s s,

and the m other cell which prod ce them i acting a u s s as

sporangi m The pore e cape into the water thro gh an

u . s s s u

opening formed in the wall of the m oth er cell and each i , s

o b er ed to have fo r cilia at the pointed end by m ean of

s v u , s

which it wi m and hence it i a zoo pore or warm pore

s s, s s s s .

A fter wi m m ing abo t f or a ti m e the zoo pore

s ettle u , s s s

down lo e their cilia and begin to develop a w filament

,
”
s , ne

li k e that f om which they c m e ( Fig 2 D )

r a .
, .

O the cell of the a m e filam ent al o act

r s m other cell s s as s,

b t the cell which they prod ce are m ore n m ero

u s hence u u u s,

smalle in i ze than the zo pore and they have b t two

r s os s, u

cilia ( Fig 2 C ) T hey al o e cape into the water and

.
,
'
, c . s s

swim abo t except in ize and in n mber of cilia re e m

u , s u s

bling the zoo pore In general they eem to be nable to

s s . s u

act the zoo pore in the formation of new fila ment b t

as s s s, u

occa ionally one of the m form a filam ent m ch maller

s s u s

than the ord inary one ( Fig 2 Thi indicate that .

, s s

they m y be zoo pore red ced in ize and nable to act

a s s u s , u as

the larger one T h im port ant fact however i that s. e , , s

the e m aller wi mm ing cell com e together in pair each

s s s s s,

pair f ing into one cell ( Fig 2 0 d ) The cell th

us .
, , , e . s us

form ed have the power of prod cing new filam ent m ore or u s

le directly
ss .

It i evident that thi i a ex al act that the cell pro

s s s s u ,

d u ced by f ion i a ex al pore that the t w c ll which

us s s u s , o e s

f e are gam ete and that the mother cell which pro d ce
us s, u s

the m act a gametangi m Ca e of thi ki d gge t

s as u . s s s n su s

that the gam ete or cell have been derived from zoo
s se x s

spore and that a ex al pore have given ri e to

s, cells u s s s se x s .
 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

In o de to di ting i h them t h large and p iv femal

r r s u s e a ss e e

gam ete i alled the ph whi h m ean egg phere

s c oos e re, c s s ,
”

or it i called the gg the mall b t a tive male gam e t e i

s e s u c s

vario ly call e d t h p m t i d the th

us i d or im ply
e s er a ozo , an er ozo , s

the p m In this book egg and perm will b ed t h

s er . s e us , e

name o f im ilar tr ct resin ani mal

s s s u u s .

In i ogam o plant the m oth e cell (gametangia)

s us s r s

which prod ce t h gam ete are alike ; b t i heterogamo

u e s u n us

plant t h gam et e are

s elik e that the gametangia whi h
s so un c

prod ce the m b come nlike A ccordi gly they have

u e u . n re

i d di tinctive nam e the gam etangi m which prod ce

ce ve s s, u u s

the perm being called the th id i m that prod cing the

s s an er u , u

egg being called t h o g i m ( Fig e o on u .

T h act of f ing of perm and egg i called f ti li

e us s s er za

ti on ,which i the comm on form of the ex al pro e

s Th s u c ss . e

se x al pore which re lt f rom fertilization i known the

u s su s s as

oos or e
p or egg pore o m eti m e called the
-s f ti li d gg
”
, s s er ze e .

It i evident that h et rogam o plant are bi ex al and

s e us s s u ,

bi x ality i not only a ttained among A lg b t it prevail

se u s ae , u s

am ong all higher plant A mong th lowe t form th ere i s . e s s s

only vegetative m ltiplication ; higher for m adde d u s se xu

ality ; th en till higher form became bi ex al

s s s u .

1 6 Summary —I oga m o
. form prod ce gametangia
. s us s u ,

which prod ce imilar gamete which by conj gation form

u s s, u

zy gote H eteroga
s m
.
o for m prod ce antheridia and us s u

oogonia which prod ce p m and egg whi h by fertili

, u s er s s, c za

tio form oo p e
n s or s .
 CH AP T E R IV
TH E G R E A T G R O UP S O F AL GE

17 . General Alg ch aract era —

di ting i hed
Th e ae are s u s

am ong Thallophyte by the pre ence of chlorophyll I t s s .

w tated in a previ o chapter that in three of the fo

as s us ur

great gro p nother coloring

u m
s aatter i a ociated with the s ss

chlorophyll and that thi fact i m ade the ba i of a divi ion

, s s s s s

into Bl e green A lgm ( Cyanophyce ) Green A lg ( Ch loro

u -
ae , ae

h
p y ) Brow
ce ae Alg (,P h ophyce ) andn R d A lg ( R
ae ho d o ae ae , e ae

h
p y ) In
ce ae l im ited
. pac e it will be
o uri m po ible to do s ss

more than m ention a few repre entative of each gro p s s u ,

b t they will er e to ill trat the pro m inent fact

u s v us e s .

1 . CY A N O P H Y CE E ( B lu e green A lg )
e
a

18 . l s —
e e form m y be fo nd forming
G mocap a Th s s a u

bl green or olive green patche on d amp tree tr nk rock

u e- -
s -
u s, ,

wall etc By m ean of the micro cope the e patche are

s, . s s s s

s een to be co mpo ed of m ltit d e of pherical cell each

s u u s s s,

repre enting a co m plete Gl p b ody O of the p l

s e oca
c sa . ne e cu

i it i
ar of the bod y i that the cell wall becom e m il gi
es s s uc a

no well and form a jelly like m atrix ab t the work

u s, s s, s -
ou

ing cell E ach cell d ivide in the ord i ary way two new
. s n ,

Gl p individ
oeoca al being
sa for m e d th i m et h oduof vegets , s a

tive m ltiplication being the o ly for m of reprod ction

u n u

( Fig .

Wh en new cell are form ed in th i way t h wollen

s s e s

m cilagino
u wall are apt to hold the m together that
us s , so

pre ently a n m ber of cell or indi i d al are fo nd lying

s u s v u s u

17
18 P L A N T ST RUCT UR E S

together imb the jelly like matrix form ed by t h -

e

wall mat rial The e imbedded gro p of individ

e s u s

l are poken o f l i and ua s s as co on es, as

colonie beco me large they break p s u

into new colonie t h individ al cell s, e u s

compo ing them contin ing to divi d e s u

and form new individ al Thi rep u s . s

re ent very i mple life hi tory in s s a s s ,

fac t a i m pler one co ld hard ly b e s u

im gined a .

1 9 N ostoa — T he e f orm occ r in . s s u

jelly like m a e in dam p place If -

ss s s.

F IG l 8 bl the jelly be exa

ocapsa, a
m ined it w ill
ue
be fo nd u

to contain i mbedded in it n m ero

. .

l
gre e n h wi a ga , s o ng u us
i l ll
s ng e m l
ell ce
likes,
tho e
an d
of l
s a
b
l
t they c s oca sa ,
p whi h h b
grou s c a ve p
ee n
s u

f m d by i i
or e tr ng together to form chain of
div s on a n d are s u s
h ld
are h by
l pi m il g
e
vary i ng lengt h ( Fig
t o ge t er
The
th e
jelly in s .

which the e chain are i mbedded i the

e n ve o ng uc a e.
w
Cu n u s s s

ame t hat fo nd in Gl p being s as u ce oca sa ,

form ed by the cell wall becoming m cilagino and wollen s u us s .

O notable fact i that ll the cell in the chain are not

ne s a s

alike for at i g ,
rre u

lar int rval there e s oc

cu r larger colorle ss

cell an ill tration

s, us

of the d ifi t i t i e re n a on

of cell The e larger s . s

cell are know h t

s n as e

t
er oc s s
g ( Fig 4 A ) .
, ,

which i mply m ean s s

“
other cell It i s . s

ob erved that when

s

the ch ain break p s u

i to fragm ent each

n bl s l h wi F ro . 4
. N octoc, a u e -gree n a ga, s o ng th e

fragm ent i com po ed h i lis

k fil m hs
y ( ) c a n- e a e n ts . and th e e t e roc sts A
whi h d m b h i c e te r in e t h e re a k in g u p of the c a n.

of the cell between — s C A L D W KL L .

20 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

it will b lge o tward In all ac tive living cell th e i

u u . s er s

thi pre e pon the wall fro m within

s ssur u .

E h cell o f t h O i ll i filam ent h

ac the power of e sc ar a as

dividing th for m ing w cell and elongating the fil

, us ne s a

m ent A filam ent m y break p into fragm e t o f va ying

. a u n s r

leng th and ach fragm ent by cell divi ion organi ze a new
s, e s s

filament H ere again reprod ction i by mean o f veget

. u s s a

tive m l t iplica t ion u .

2 1 Conclusion .
— Taking Gl p t and O i l oeoca sa ,
'

ca oe , sc

l i
ar a epre entative of the gro p Cyanophy ce
as r s s u ae, or

g een li me w m y come to o m e concl ion concern

r s s,
”
e a s us s

ing the g o p in general The plant body i ve y imple

r u . s r s ,

con i ting of ingle cell or chain and filament o f cell

s s s s, s s s.

A ltho gh in N t u and O i ll i the cell are organized

os oc sc ar a s

into chain d filament each cell eem to be able to live

s an s, s s

and act indep ndently and the chain and filament eem to
e , s

be little mor than colonie o f individ al cell In t hi

e s u s . s

s en e ll of the e plant m y be regarded one celled

s , a s s a as -
.

D i ff erentiation i exhibited in the appearance o f heteros

cy t in N t pec liar cell which ee m to be connected

s s os oc, u s s

in om e way with the breaking p of filam ento colonie

s u us s,

altho gh the O ill i fil m ent break p witho t them

u sc ar a a s u u .

The power of m otion i al o well exh ib ited by t h gro p s s e u ,

t h free fila m ent o f O i ll i m o i g al m o t contin ally

e s sc ar a v n s u ,

and the imbedded c h in o f N t at ti me moving to a s os oc s ss

c ape from the re training m cilage s u .

The whole gro p al o h ow a trong tendency in the u s s s s

cell wall material to beco me conve ted into m cilage and

-
r u

m ch wollen a tendency which reache an extre m e expre

u s , s s

s ion in ch form N t and Gl p

su s as os oc ce oca sa .

A nother di ting i hi g m ark i that reprod ction i

s u s n s u s

excl ively by mean of vegetative m ltiplicat ion thro gh

us s u ,
u

ordinary cell divi ion or fi ion which tak e pl ce v y s ss , s a er

freely Individ al cell are organized wi th heavy re i tant

. u s s s

wall to ena ble the m to end re the winter or other nfavor

s u u

abl condition and to tart a w erie of individ al

e s, s ne s s u s
 TH E G R E A T GR O UP S o r A L G E 21

u pon the ret rn of favorable con d ition The e m y be

u s. s a

regarded re ting cell S notable i the fact o f repro

as s s . o s

d ction b y fi ion that Cy

u h
p y are
ss oft n epa ated an o ce z
e e s r

from the other gro p of A lg and poken of Fi ion u s as s as ss

Al g which p t in technical form b ecome Schizophyce

ae, u s ae .

In thi partic lar and in everal other m entioned above

s u , s s ,

they re mble the Fi ion F ngi ( Schizo mycete ) m

se ss u
”
s , co

m ly calle d
on bacteria clo ely that they are often
“
,
”
so s

a ociated with them in a comm on gro p called F i

ss u
“
s

sion plant ( Schizoph yte ) di tinct from the ordinary

s s , s

A lg and F ngi
ae u .

2 . CH L O R O P H Y C E E ( G r een A lg )
ae .

22 P l
.enrocoocna —
Thi m y b e taken a ty pe of s a as on e

celled G r en A lg It i m o t comm only fo nd in ma e

e ae . s s u ss s

covering d m p tree tr nk etc and looking like a gree

a -
u s, .
, n

stain The e fi
. s ne

ly gran lar gree u n

ma e fo nd
ss s are u

to be m ade p u

of m ltit de of
u u s

spherical c ll e s re

sem bling tho e of s

l pocaexcept sa ,

that there i no s
F
bl e with the chlo
u

ro h
p y ll and the ,

cell s are not im

b e dd e d ln su Ch ll ed lg h
F IG 6 H eu rococcus, a on e -c e g re en a a : A, s o w
jelly like a e
. .

-
m ss s .
in g t h e ad u t l f i h it
or l ;B 0 D E
m wt s n uc e us , . , ,

f di i i (fi i ) i p d i g w
TIT cell
O s may be v ari o u s s

ce ll s ; F ,
t ag es o

l i f ll whi ch h
c o on e s o
v s on

cem i d in
s
ss o n n

a ve
ro

re
uc n

a ne
ne

soh t ary , 01 m ay '

Co n tac t .
—C A L D W BL L .

cling tog ther in e

colo i of vario ize ( Fig

n es L ike l p a c ll
us s s . oca sa , e

divide and form two new c ll the o ly reprod ction

s s e s, n u

20
22 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

being of thi i mple kind It i evident therefo e that the

s s . s , r ,

gro p Ch l phy
u begin with form j t
oro i mple
c e aa s s us as s as

are to be fo nd am ong the Cyanophyce u ae .

P leu ed to repre ent the g o p f P t

r ococcu s i s u s s r u o ro ococ

cu s fo m elled form which con tit te one of the

r s, on e -c s s u

su bdivi ion of the Green Algm It ho ld be aid that

s s . s u s

Pl i po ibly not a P rotococc

eu r ococcu s form b t m y
s ss us , u a

be a red ced me mber of om e higher g o p ; b t it i

u s r u u s so

comm on and repre ent well a typical one celled g een

,
s s so -
r

alga that it i ed i thi connection It ho ld be

, s us n s . s u

known al o that whil the i m ple t P rotococc form

, s ,
e s s us s re

prod ce only by fi ion othe add to thi the other meth

u ss ,
rs s

od of reprod ction
s u .

23 Ulot hrix — .Thi form w de crib ed in 1 3 It s as s .

i
s v ery com m on in fre h water being recognized easily by s s,

it s simple fil am en t compo ed of hort q ari h cell each s s s s u s s,

ce ll t i i g a ingle c on pic o
c on a n n cylindrical chloropla t
s s u us s
'

( Fig Thi
. plant e cell divi ion to m l
s tiply t h cell us s s u e s

of a filam ent and to develop w filam ent f om fragment

,
ne s r s

of old one ; b t it al o prod ce a ex al pore in the form

s u s u s s u s s

of zoo pore and gam et which conj gate and form zygote
s s, es u s.

Both zoo pore and zygote have the power of ger m ination
s s s

that i the power to begin t h d evelopment of a new plant

s, e .

In the germination of the zygote a w fil ame t i not pro ne n s

d d directly b t there are for m ed within it zoo pore

u ce , u s s,

each of which prod ce a new filament ( Fig 2 F G ) A ll u s .

, , .

th ree kind of reprod ction are repre e ted therefore b t

s u s n , , u

the ex al m ethod i the low type called i ogamy the pair

s u s s ,

ing gamete being alike s .

Ul tl i i tak en a repre en tative of the Conferva

o tr x s as s

form the m o t char cteri tic g o p of Ch l phy

s, s a s r u oro ce aa .

A ll the Conf erva fo m however are not i ogam o will

r s, , s u s, as

b ill trated b y the next exam ple

e us .

24 Ed ogoni m — Thi
. i a ve y co m m on g een alga s s r r ,

fo nd in fre h water ( Fig

u The filament are long d
s s . s an

s im ple the lo we t cell acting

, a hold fa t in Ul th i
s as s , as o r x
24 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

The other cell are longer than in Ul th i each s o r x,

cell containing a ingle n cle and apparently everal s u us s

chloropla t b t really there i b t one large com plex

s s, u s u

chloropla t s .

The cell of the filam ent have the power o f divi ion
s s ,

th increa ing the le gth of t h fil ament A y cell al o

us s n e . n s

m y act a a porangi m the content of a mother cell

as s u , s

organizing a ingle large a ex al pore which i a zoo pore

s s u s , s s .

The zoo pore e cape fro m the m other cell into the water
s s s ,

a d at it m ore pointed clear end there i a little crown of

n s s

cilia by mean of which it wi m abo t rapidl y ( Fig 7

, s s s u .
,

Aft r m oving abo t for a ti me the zoo pore com e to re t

e u s s s ,

attache it el f by it clear end to ome pport elongate

s s s s su , s,

begin to d i ide and develop a new filam ent ( Fig 7 D B )

s v , s .
, , .

O ther cell o f the filam ent beco m e very di ff erent fro m

s

the ordina y cell welling t into glob lar form ( Fig 7

r s, s ou u .
,

A B ) and each
, , ch cell organ ize within it elf a ingle
su s s s

large egg ( oo phere ) A the egg i a fem ale gam ete the
s . s s ,

large glob la cell which prod ce it and whic h i di ff eren

u r u s , s

t i t d fro m the ot her cell of the body i the oogoni m

a e s , s u .

A perforation i the oogoni m wall i form ed for t h n u s e

entrance of p rm s e s .

O ther cell in the am e filam ent or i s om e other fil s ,

n s a

m ent are ob erved to di ff er f o m the ordinary cell in

,
s r s

being m ch horter tho gh an ordinary cell had been

u s , as u

di ided eve al ti m e witho t b eq ent elo gatio ( Fig

v s r s u su s u n n .

7 A f B
, ),
In each
,
of the ,
e hortacell one
. or two s S s

s perm are organized and therefore each hort cell i an

s ,
s s

antheridi m W hen the perm are t free they are een

u . s s se s

to re em ble very m all zoo pore ha ing the am e little

s s s s, v s

crown of cilia at one end .

The per m wi m actively ab o t in the vicinity of the

s s s u

oogonia and ooner or later one enter the oogoni m

, s s u

thro gh t h perforation provided in the wall d f e

u e , an us s

with the egg ( Fig 7 B ) A a re lt of thi act of fer .

, , e . s su s

t ili t i an oo pore i formed which organize a fi m wall

za on s s , s r
 TH E G R E A T G R O UP S O F A L GE 25

abo t it elf Thi fi m wall indicate that the oo p re i

u s . s r s s o s

not to germ inate im m ediately b t i to pa into a re ting , u s ss s

condition Spor which for m heavy wall and pa into

. es s ss

th e re ting con s

dition are often

s pok en of re t as s

ing pore and it

s s,
”

i
s very comm on
for the ygote z s

and oo pore to s s

be re ting pore
s s s .

The e re t i ng
s s

s pore enable the

s

plant to end re u

thro gh nfavor
u u

able con di ti on s,

su ch fail re of
as u

food pply cold

su , ,

d r o g ht e t c
u , .

W h e n favorable
condition ret r s u n,

the protected re t s

ing pore i ready

s s

for germ nat on i i b hi . F ro . s

. a ran c ng alga, a very

When th m ll p pl b i h w 0
b h s a art o f th e an t e ng s o n . Th e ran c es

i pp ll ll ar se at th e e r e n d s of ce s , an d th e ce
oo pore f E d g
u s are
s O i — L O O coen oc y t c . CA L D W E L .

i m ger m inate
n u s

it doe not develop directly into a w filament b t t h e

s ne , u

conten t b eco m e organized into fo r zoo pore ( Fig 7 F )

s u s s .
, ,

which e cape and each zoo pore develop a filament In

s , s s .

thi way each oo pore m y give ri e to fo r filament

s s a s u s .

It i evident that E d g i m i a heterogam o plant

s o on u s us ,

and i anothers of the Conferva for m Conferva bodie

on e s. s

are not alway imple filam ent are tho e of Ul th i

s s s, as s o r a:

and E d g i m b t they are om eti me exten i ely branch

o on u , u s s s v

ing filam ent i O l d pl a g een alga very common

s, as n a O i or a , r
26 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

in river and lak e ( Fig The cell are long and den ely
s s . s s

crowded with chloropla t ; and in cert ain cell at the tip s s s s

of branche large n mber of zoo pore are form ed which

s u s s s ,

have two cilia at the pointed end and hence are aid to be ,
s

bi cilia te .

25 . the m o t common of the

Vauch eria —Thi s is one o f s

G reen A lgm fo nd in fel t like m a e of coar e filam ent in

, u -
ss s s s

shallow water and on m ddy bank and often c lled green u s, a

F IG . 9 . Vo cher la
u -
iph f rm sh wi ng a port i on f th cm ocy t ic
gemi n a ta , a S on o , o o e n

body ( A ) whi h b ra h at t h t ip f wh h a p ra gi m ( B)
c h as s e n t o u t a nc e o ic s o n u

f rmed wi thi whi h a l g

o , n p w c
g i e d d f m whi
a r e zo o sh ( D ) i t i
o re as o r a n z . an ro c s

d i c h a g d l at
s s a l
r e g m lt i ci li t b d y C ) whi h t h
er a ar e b gi t h d l p
u a e o c en e ns e e ve o

body ( E CA a a L L
.

m t f a en w
o cy t i ne ce n o c -
.

felt The filam ent i e y long and ally br nche ex

. s v r , u su a s

t i ly b t it great pec liarity i that th ere i no pa ti

e n s ve , u s u s s r

tion wall in the whole body which form long contin o , s on e u us

cavity ( Fig 9 Thi i ometi m e poken of a

s .
, s s s s s as on e

celled body b t it i a m i tak e I m b edded in the exten

, u s s .

s ive cytopla m m a which fill the whole cavity there are

s ss, s ,

not only very n mero chloropla t b t al o n m ero u us s s, u s u us

n clei A h been aid a ingle n cle with om e cyt o

u . s as s ,
s u us s
23 P L A N T ST R U CT U R E S

and c u t off fro m the general cavi ty by partition wall ( Fig s .

Th e oogoni m becom e a glob l ar cell which ally

u s u ,
u su

F m 11. . Vaucheria f rm h w
ses sil is , a S iph on o ,
s o

i g a p rt i
n f the
o on o y t lc bo dy an c ozn o c an

t h id i ] b ra h ( A ) wi t h a
,

er a nc e mp t y a t h n n e

rid i m ( a )
u t i t t ip a d aa s og i m ( B)
, n n o on u

c ta i i g a
on oos p o
n n ( c) a d h owi g t h
n re n s n e

o pe i g ( I ) t h ro ug h wh i c h t h
n n pe rms passe d e s

t ac h t h
o re egg — CA L D W E L L
e .

develop a perforated break for

s

the e trance of the perm and

n s s,

organize within it elf a ingles s s

large egg ( Fig 1 1 B) The .

,
. an

t h id i m is a m ch m aller cell
er u u s ,

within which n m ero very m all u us s

s perm are formed ( Fig 1 1 A )

s m
‘i fi x z
w
g z .
, , a .
G-

s
l -

ho
ot

f
t fle o

l
the

The per m are di charged warm

s s w “ o fi fi s ,
s ho , b dy
n

n in
’

g
ab o t the oogoni m and finally
u
b lb
i i
hl phyll
w iuh ,
on e con t n u o u s c a v ty . t

one pa e thro gh the break and a u o us , c o ro co n

-

ss s mi i m u m n ng po “ and g

f e t h the egg the re lt h

,

us s li k b h whi h p , su e e ran c es c e ne

whi h
mg oo por The oo pore
an s e
m
mm
.
w
s or
t ra te
th e
the

plan t
ud in
CA
c

a th ck wall and beco e WEL

F

m
o

g an i ze s i s L .

a re ting pore
s s .

It i evident that V h i i heteroga mo b t all the

s a u c er a s u s, u

other Siphon for m are i ogamo of which B t y d i m m y s s u s, o r u a ‘

be tak e an ill tra t ion ( Fig

n as us .

2 6 Spirogy ra —
. Thi i one of the comm one t of the s s s

po d c m occ rring in li ppery and often frothy

n s u s,
”
u s

m a e of delicate filam ent floa t ing in till water or ab o t

ss s s s u
 T H E G R E A T G R O UP S O F A LGE 29

spring The filam ent are i m ple and are not anchored by
s . s S ,

a pecial ba al cell in Ul th i
s d Ed g i m s Th , as o r x an o ou u . e

F IG . 18 Spirogy ra a j gat f rm h wi g on mpl te c ll and p rt i of

Co n u e o s o n e co e e o on s

ba d li k hl pl t e t d i a pi ral f m
.
, ,

t wo o t e rs T he h . n -
e c oro as s e d f th e x en n s ro on e n o

ce ll to t h e o t h e r, i n t h m are i mbe dd e d
e od l li k bodi py ram id ) and ear
n u e- e es s , n

the ce n te r o f th e cell t h n cl i wu g by rad i t i g t ra ds of cy t pl asm

e u e us s s n a n s n o

DW
.

CA L E LL .

cell contain remarkable chloropla t which are band pa

s s s, s ss

ing pirally abo t within the cell wall T he e band m

s u . s s ay

F lo 14 Spi roayr a s ow n g c o n uga t o n h A, i j i j

i t b app achi
c o n uga t n g u es ro n g eac h
b b d : C t b mpl t
. . .

h b
o t e r ; B t u e s in c o n ta c t b u t e n d wa s n o t ll a so r e u e co e e a n d co n

p —C a E L L
, ,

te n ts o f one ce ll pass i ng t h ro ug h; D ,
a c o mpl te d y g
e z os ore . A .
30 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

be olitary or everal in a cell and form very triking and

s s , s

con pic o object ( Fig 1 3

s u us s s .
,

Spi gy and it a ociate are f rther pec liar in pro

ro ra s ss s u u

d i g no a ex al pore
uc n d al o i the m ethod of ex al
s u s s, an s n s u

reprod c t ion Two adjacen t filament p t t t b lar

u . s u ou u u

proce e toward one another A cell of one filam ent end

ss s .
s s

ou t a proce which eek t m eet a co re ponding proce

ss s s o r s ss

fro m a cell of the other filam ent W hen the tip of two . s

such proce e come together the end wall di appear

ss s , s s ,

F IG . 15 . h i
Spi rogy ra , s ow n g so me comm on e xce t on s pi . A t A t wo cell h a b n
s ve ee

co n nec te dby ih f i y b
a t u b e b u t w t ou t u s o n a z g o te h a s
, e e n or ga i d in ac h
n ze e ll ;
ce

al so t h u ppe r
,
e ll to th l ft h as at t mpte d t c j g
ce e e e o on u a te wi t h t h e cell t t h e
o

ri gh t A t B t h ll f m th ree fil am ts t h c ll s
e re a re c e s ro en e e of th e ce n t ral on eha v

j gat ed wi t h b t h of t h ot h rfl —C A L D W BL L
.
,

ing c on u o e e .

and a contin o t b e ext e ding b etween the two cell i

u us u n s s

organized ( Fig 1 4 W hen m any of the cell of two

s .
,
s

parallel filament b co m e th nited the appearance is e us u ,

s

that of a ladder with the fil am ent the ide piece and , s as s s,

the connecting t b e the ro nd u s as u s .

W h ile the connecti g t be i being developed t h con n u s e

tent f the two cell are organizing and after the com pl
s o s ,
e

tion of the t b e the content of one cell pa thro gh and

u s ss u

enter t h other cell f e with it conte t and a ex al

e , us s n s, s u
32 P L A N T STR UC T URE S

by wall or they are c nocytic

s, in the Siphon form oe , as s.

The characteri tic a ex al pore are zoo pore b t the e

s s u s s s s, u s

m y be wanting
a in the Conj gate form In addition
, as u s .

to a ex al reprod ction both i ogamy and heterogamy

s u u , s are

developed and bo t h zygote d oo pore are re ting pore

, s an s s s s s .

P ro 17 grou p of D e sm d s i ll d C j
o n e -ce e on u ga t e f orms sh owi ng vari ou s pa t
EN
. . , ,

t e rn s , an d t he ce ll s organ z e i d i to di t i
n s nct h l
a ve s — A ft e r K R E R .

The Gre n A lgm are of pecial intere t in co nection

e s s n

with the evol tion of higher plant which are ppo ed to

u s, su s

have been derived from th em .

3 PH
. E O P H Y CE E ( Br own A l w
g )

28 General ch aract era

. The Bl green A lg and the
— u e- ae

G reen A lg are charac t eri tic of fre h water b t t h Brown

as s s ,
u e

A lg or kelp al mo t all m arine b ing very charac

”
a
e, s, a re s ,
e
 T H E G R E A T G R O UP S O F A L GE 33

coa t form A ll of the m are anchored by hol df a t

t e ri st ic s s . s s,

which are o meti m e highly developed root like tr ct re

s s -
s u u s ;
and the yello w brown or olive gr en floating , ,
-
e

bodie are b oyed in th w ter

s ally by the u e a u su

aid of fl oat or air bladder which ften

s -
s, are O

very con pic o The kelp are mo t highly

s u us . s s

d evelop d in the colder water e d form m ch s, an u

of the wrack tangle etc of the co t

“
,
” “
,
”
.
, as s .

The gro p i well adapted to u s

live expo ed to wave d s s an cu r

rent with it trong holdfa t

s s s s s,

air bladd r and to gh le thery

-
e s, u a

b odie It i what i known

s . s s as

a p i li d g p—that i
s ec a ze rou s, o n e

which h beco me highly org n as a

i d for certain pecial con d i

ze s

tion It i not
s . s ou r

p rpo e to co ider
u s ns

su ch a pecialized s

gro p in any d etail

u ,

as it do not al es u su

ly help to explai the n

str ct re of higher
u u s

gro p u s .

29 . Th e p l a n t
b ody — There
. v y is e r
great d iver ity in the s

s tr ct re of th
u u e

plant b od y Som e .

O f the m E t as c oca r
b w l
,
h wi P ro 18 A ( E c toca rpus ) ,
Fig are n a s o ng a
. ro ga
fi l
.

p (
us b dy i i.
i mpl fil m whi h p o c on s s t n g o f a s e a ent c u ts

a m t en form like ou s b h m p i s, i ou t ran c es (A) ,

so e s o ra n g a B) co n t a n

p m i i c o n ta in ng
the Co f va am ong n
m — er s
in g
ga
zoos

e te s
o re s , an d

CA L D W B L L
ga e ta n g a

the G r e A lg b t
. .

e n ae, u

other are ve y m ch m ore com pl x T h thall of L m

s r u e . e us a

i i i like a h ge fl oating leaf freq ently nine to ten

na r a s u ,
u
F IG . 1 80 p of b w
A grou ro n w d
sea ee s ( L umina ri e s) N ot e t h e i
va r ou s hab it s of

t bo dy wi t h it l ea f li k e t ha ll E NE
. .

th e pl an s -
u s an d roo t - li k h old fas ts —A ft
e . er K R R .
36 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

prod ced by oceanic c rent and for m ing the

u ur s so-c alled
Sarga o ea that of the N orth Atlantic ”
ss s s, as .

F m Q) A po rtio n o f a b ro wn a lg a ( Sar gassu m ) , s h o wi ng th e t h ll di ff

a us i
e re n t at e d

l eaf li k p t i
. .

i n t o s te m- li k e an d -
e or o n s , and a sol the b l dd li k
a e r- e fl oa ts —A f te r BE N
N ET T an d M UR R A Y .

30 R eproducti on
. gro p of Brown A lg — The t wo m ain u s aa

di er ro each other in their reprod cti n O

ff f m p u o . n e , re re

sented by the L am inaria d a m ajority of t h for m p s an e s, ro

d ce zoo pore and i i ogam o ( Fig

u s s The zoo pore
s s s us . s s

and gam ete are pec liar in h aving the two cilia att ched
s u a

at one i d e rather than at an d ; and they re e m ble each

s en s

other very clo ely except that the gamete f e in pair d

s , s us s an

form zygote s .
 P

F IG . 21 . Se xua l
prod uct i on f F ucus sh wing th e e igh t eggs ( six in sigh t) dis
re o , o

ch a g d f
r e m t h oog n i m an d s rro d d b y a me mb ran e ( A ) e ggs li b rat e d
ro e o u u un e ,
e

f m t h m mbrane ( E ) an t h eridi m c n ta i in g spe rms

ro e e , u o t h e d i sc h a ged l t
n r a

e ally b i i li t
r spe rms
c a e an d eggs s u r un d ed b y swarm i ng spe rms ( F
r o ,H
A ft e SI N G l B
r .
38 P LA NT ST R UC T UR E S

Th e other gro p repre ented by F ( Fig p u , s u cu s . ro

d ce no a ex al pore b t i heterogamo
u s s u A ingle s s, u s us . s

oogoni m ally form eight egg ( F ig 2 1 A ) which are

u u su s s .
, ,

di charged and float f eely in the water ( Fig 2 1 E ) The

s r .
, .

antheridia ( Fig 21 C ) prod ce n m ero m in te laterally

.
,
u u us u

b ici liate per m which are d i charged ( Fig 21 G ) wi m i

s s, s .
, , s n

grea t n m b e ab o t the large egg ( Fig 21 F H ) and

u rs u s .
, , ,

fi ally one f e with an egg and an oo pore i form ed

n us s , s s .

As the perm wa m very actively ab o t the egg and

s s s r u

im ping ag in t it they often

e t it rotating
a s Both se . an

t h id i and oogonia are for m ed in ca itie of the thall

er a v s us .

4 R H ODO P H Y CE E ( R e d A lg )
ae

—
.

31 . General ch arac t e a O acco nt of their

r u u colora re d

tion the e form are often called F l

s s or id They are m o tly
ec
e . s

m arine for m d are s, an

anchor d by hol d fa t e s s

of vario kind They us s.

b long to the deepe t

e s

water in which A lg
s ae

grow and it i probable

, s

that the d colori g re n

m atter which charact r e

ize the m i a ociated

s s ss

with the depth at wh ich

they live T h R d . e e

A lgm are al o a high s

ly pecialized line
s d , an

will b e m entioned very

b riefly .

“t
o . as . A re d l ga
a
in
( Giga rti na ) h wi n g
, s o — The Red A lgm,
b hi h ab i t an d f i t b od i s ”

g neral are ore li

ran c ng ru e .

m
,

f A t e r SC E E NCK .
d e , e

cate than the Brow n

A lgm or kelp their gracef l for m

,
d licate t xt e and
s, u s, e e ur ,

b rightly ti ted b odie ( ha d e of red violet d ark p rple

n s s s , , u ,
F un . 24 re d a l ga ( Dary a ) s h o wi ng a fi n ly d i ide d
e v t ha ll us b od y
L WELL
. , .

CA D .
F ro 25 A l ga
re d a ( R abdon i a) s h o win g h l d fasts
o an d branch i ng ll
t h a us bod y
L
.
. . ,

CA D WE LL .
F IG 26 A re d a lg
a ( P t ilol a ) w h o se b ranc h in g body bl es
re se m moss
W
. .
, .

CAL D E LL .
44 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

t in gu ish them f rom the il iate d perm or permatozoid c s s, s s,

which have the power of locomotion the e m otionle m ale , s ss

gam ete of the R d A lgm ares ally called p m ti

e u su s er a a

( ing
s lar p m
u t i m )(
, F ig
s er 2 8 A a ) u .
, , s .

The oogoni m i very p u s e

li b eing di ff erentiated cu ar,

into two region a b lbo s, u us

ba e and a hair l ike proce s -

ss

( t i h gy ) the whole tr r c o ne , s ue

t re re embling a fla k with a u s s

long nar ow neck excepting , r ,

that it i clo ed ( Fig 28 A s s .

, ,

t) W ithin the b l b o part o, . u us

the egg or it eq ival nt i ,

s u e , s

organized ; a permati m t s u a

tache it elf to the trichogyne s s

( Fig 2 8 A ) at the point of .

, , 8

co tact the two wall b ecom e n s

pe fo ated and the content r r , s

of the perm ati m th ent r s u us e

the trichogy e and reach n , so

the b l b o ba e of the g u us s oo o

ni m The ab ove acco nt rep u . u

re ent the very i m ple t con s s s s

d it i of the proce of fer on s ss

t ili t io in thi gro p and za n s u ,

gi e no idea of the great and v s

F m . b
so . w p zzling com plexity exhi b ited
ran c h of P oly stpl n ia , u
on e o f n h wi
t h e re d [1
b y the m aj or ty f f o r m
, s o ng th e
i O 8
w ro ll mp i
s of ce b dy
s co os n g the o
°

) m ll b
(A ,
h s ah i ( ran c A f t f t ili t i
es or a rs the trich
B) ,
cr e r za on

p
y
an d a c

( ) whi h h
) wi h
D
pi
st ocarp

ili ( g
(C
y W ilt an
t
1 h
esca
t e b lb ng
O ne s ( il 0 11 8

ba e in one way or another

s o re s c a ve n o c a car
s

develop a con pic o tr s s u us s ue

t re calle d the y t
u p ( F ig 2 8c wh ich
s oca r i a ca e con s .
, s s

t aining ex al pore ; in other word a pore ca e or kind

as u s s s, s s ,

of p orans
g i m I n t h e li f e hi tor
u .
y of a red al g a ther e s ,
 ‘

TH E G R E A T G R O UP S or A L G AE 45

fore two ort of a ex al pore are prod ced ( 1 ) the

, s s s u s s u :

t t p
e ra s developed in ordinary
or es, porangia ; and ( )
2 the s

ca rp p d eveloped
os in the y tocarp
ores , which h b ee n c s , as

prod ced the re lt of fertili zatio

u as su n.

O TH E R CH L O R O P H Y L L -CO N T A I N I N G T H A L L O P H Y T E S

34 .
—
Diat oma The se are pec u liar one celled form which
-
s,

occ r u in very great ab u ndance in fre h and alt water

s s s .

F m 30 A grou
. . p of D i at o ms c an d ( 1 , t op an d s id e v i e ws of th e sam e f or m; l y
e, co o n

of s ta lk d f
e orms a t t ac h dte o an a lg a;f an d g , t op an d s id i
ws o f t h e f orm s h own
e v e

at e ; h, a co o nl y; i , l y
a c o on , t h e t op an d s id e v i e w s h o wn at k —A t t e r K n a n nn
. .

They are either fr wimm ing or attached by gelatino e e-s us

stalk ; olitary or connected in band or chain or im

s s , s s,

b edded i gelatino t b e or m a e In form they are

n us u s ss s .

rod haped b oat haped elliptical wed g haped traight

-
s ,
-
s , ,
es , s

o c rved ( Fig
r u .
46 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

The chief pec liarity i that the wall i com po ed of two

u s s s

v alve one of which fi t into the other like the two part of
s, s s

a pill box Thi wall i o i m pregnated with ilica that it

. s s s s

i p actically inde tr ctible and iliceo

s r keleton of dia
s u , s us s s

tom are pre erved ab dantly in certain rock depo it

s s un s s
.

They m ltiply by cell divi ion in a pec liar way and om e

u s u , s

of them have been ob erved to con s

j gate u .

They occ r in ch n mb er in the u su u s

ocean that they form a large part of

the fre wimming form on the e -s s sur

face f the and d o btle hower o se a, u ss s s

of the iliceo keleton are con tant s us s s s

ly falling on the b otto m There se a .

are cer t ain depo it known i s s as

“
s

li earth which are im ply ce o u s s, s

m a e of fo il diato m ss s ss s .

D iato m have b een vario ly placed s us

in che m e of cla ification So m e s s ss .

have p t the m among the Brown u

A lg b eca e they contain a bro wn ae us

oloring matter ; other have placed c s

the m in the Conj gate form am ong u s

the Green A lgm on acco nt of the u

occa ional conj gation that h b een s u as

ob erved They are diff erent fro m s . so

other form however that it ee m s, , s s

be t to keep them eparate fro m all s s

other A lg ae .

35 Ch m —The e are co m m on . s

ly calle d tonewort and are often “

s s,
”

WG- 31
:
wm
sh o
P
mm
m i
A °
i
g t ip o f
incl ded
°n C’
W
a gro p ofG'
G reen A lg u as u ae,

t hey ee m to b e Thallophyte and

a n ax s

f
.

m
A te r Su n n u gn ,
as s s,

have no other coloring m atter th an

chlorophyll H owever they are pec liar that th y are
.
, so u e

b etter kept b y the m elve am on g the A lg They are ch

s s ae . su
 CH APT E R V

36 . General ch aract ers —

general F ngi incl de T halIn , u u

l ph y t
o which do ot contai chlorophyll From th i fact
es n n . s

it follow that they can not man fact re food entirely t

s u u ou

of inorganic m aterial b t are dependent for it pon other , u u

p lant or an
s i m al T hi food i obtained in two general
s. s s

way either ( 1 ) directly f om the li ing bodie of plant or

s, r v s s

ani mal or ( 2 ) f om dead b odie or the prod ct of living

s, r s u s

b odie In the fi r t ca e in which living b odie are t

s . s s , s a

tack ed t h at tack ing f ng i called p i t and the

, e u us s a a r as e,

plant o ani mal attack ed i alled the ho t In the econd

r s c s . s

a e in which living bod ie are not attacked the f ng i

c s , s , u us s

called a p phy t Some F ngi can live only para ite

sa ro e . u as s s,

or ap ophyte b t ome can live in either way

as s r s, u s .

F ngi f o m a very large

u emblage of plant m ch
r ass s, u

m ore n m ero than the A lg A many of the p ra ite

u us ae. s a s s

attack d inj re ef l plant and ani m al prod cing

an u us u s s, u

m any o f the called di ea e they are form of great ”

so -
s s s, s

intere t Govern ment and E xperi ment Station have ex

s . s s

pended great deal of m oney in t d ying the inj rio

a s u u us

par itic F ngi d in t ying to di cove om e m ethod of

as u , an r s r s

de troyi g th em or o f preventing their attack M any of

s n s.

the para itic form however are h armle ; while many of

s s, , ss

the aprophytic form are decidedl y beneficial

s s .

I t i generally ppo ed that the F ngi are derived fro m

s su s u

the Alg having lo t their chlorophyll and power of inde

ae, s

pendent living Some of them re emble certain Alg

. s ae so

clo ely that the co

s ection seem very plain ; b ut others nn s

48
 T H A L L O P H Y T E S : F UN G I 49

have b en m odi fi ed by their pa a itic and aprophytic

e so r s s

habit that they have lo t all likene to the Alg and

s s ss ae,

their connection with the m i very ob c re s s u .

37 Th plant b ody .
— D i carding certain proble m atical
e . s

form to b e m entioned later the bodie of all tr e F ngi

s, , s u u

are organized pon a niform general plan to which they

u u ,

can ll b e refer ed ( F ig
a A t of colorle b ranching
r . se ss

F ro . 32 . A d i agramma t c re i pre tat i o of

se n n M ucor , s h o wi ng t h e pro f ly b a hi
u se r nc ng

m yc li e u m . an d t h re e ve r ti l hyph ( p
ca a
e s o ro ph o re s ) , s p o ran g i a f mi g n b an d
or n o c .

—A ft er Z O PP .

filament either i olated or interwoven form t h m ain

s, s , s e

working b d and i called the my li m The i t w

o v, s ce u . n er e av

ing m y b e very loo e the myceli m looking like a delicate

a s , u

cob we b ; or it m y b e clo e and com pact form ing a fel t like

a s ,
-

ma m y often b e een in connection with pre erved

ss, as a s s

fr it The individ al thread are called hyphw ( ing lar

u s . u s s u ,

hyph ) or hyph l t h
a d The myceli m i in cont act with
a rea s . u s

it o rce of food pply which i called the b t t m

s s u su , s su s ra u .
50 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

F om the hyphal thread com po ing t h myceli m ve ti

r s s e u r

cal a cen di ng branche ari e which are

s t apart to prod ce s s , se u

the a ex al pore which are cattered and prod ce new

s u s s, s u

mycelia The e branche are called

. sd i g l g/pl or s a s cen n a us

sp h
or o
p m eaning pore
ores , bearer s s .

So m eti m e e pecially in t h ca e of pa a ite pecial

s, s e s r s s, s

de cending branche are form ed which penetrate t h b

s s , e su

strat m ho t and ab orb the food m aterial T h e e p

u or s s . s s e

i l a b orbing b anche
c a s called h t i m eaning h
r s are a u s or a , a
”
sorb e rs .

ch a mycelial body with it porophore and perhap

Su , s s s, s

ha t ria lie either pon or within a dead b trat m in

us o , s u su s u

the ca e of aprophyte or pon or within a li ing plant or

s s s, u v

ani mal in the ca e of para ite s s s .

38 Th mbdi vieiona
. e— The cla i fication of F ngi i in ss u s

conf ion on acco nt of lack of knowled ge They are

us u . so

m ch m o d ified by their pec liar life habit that they h a e

u u s v

lo t or di g i ed the tr c t re which prove m o t helpf l in

s s u s s u u s s u

cla ification am ong the A lg Fo r gro p will be pre

ss ae . u u s

s ented often m ade to in cl de all the F ngi b t do btle

,
u u , u u ss

they are i fii i t and m ore or l

n su c en nnat ral e ss u u .

The con tant t erm inat ion of t h gro p nam i my f

s e u es s ce es ,

a G reek word m eaning f ngi T h prefix in e h ca e i u . e ac s s

int n d ed to indicate om e i m po tant character of the gro p

e s r u .

The nam e of the fo r gro p to be pre en ted are follow

s u u s s as s

( )
1 P h y m y t co A lg a F ngi
ce es efe ring to the fact
-
u r r

that the form plainly re e mble the A lg ( 2 ) A my t

s s ae sco ce es

(
“
A c s us ( )
3 E i d m y t ( f E id izm F ngi
c
'

z n ce es
“
c u -
u

( )
4 B i d i m
as y t B a oidi m F ng
ce es i J t what s the u -
u us

prefixe s i d i m and b
a sc us , a c d m m ean wi ll be ex
u , a s z zu
' '

plained in connection with the gro p The la t three u s . s

g ro p u are soften a ociated together nder

ss the na m e M y u

m eaning F ng F ngi to di ting i h th e m ”

oo my t ce es,
“
u u s- u s u s

from the P hycomycete or A lga—

,

F ngi referring to the

s, u ,

fact that they do not re e mble the A lg and are only like s aa,

the m el e s v s .
52 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

habit i alled p th g i which

s c ar eno en es s, m e n reprod ction
a s u

by an egg witho t fertilization u .

F
F m 88
. . A co mmon wate r mou l d ( Sapmle g nia ) : A ,fl y from whi ch my ce li al fi la
a
me nts of the paras i t e are growi ng ; B t ip o f a , b ra ch rgan i e d as p gi m ;
n o z a s o ran u

C. s po ran g u i m d i sc h arg i n g b i c ili at e zo os p ; F

o re s g,n i u
oo m w
oi t h a t h i di m i
nn er u

con ta c t , t h e tu b h a i ng pe
e v n e t ra t e d to t h e e gg ; 1 ) a d E ng i w i t
oo h ra l
on a se ve
—A f ft
,

e ggs .
-
C a te r T u n a " , D- F a er B I BA R Y .

40 l unch.
—O n e
of the m o t comm on of the M cor or s u s,

black m o l d form white f rry growth on d am p b read

u s,
”
s u s ,

pre erved fr it ma re h eap etc It i therefore a

s u s, nu s, . s

saprophyte the y t i m yceli m,branching exten ively

cuan oc c u s

thro gh t h b trat m ( Fig

u e su s u .
 T H A L L O P H YT E S : F UN G I 53

rect porophore ari e from it in ab ndance and at

E s s s u ,

t h top of each porophore a glo b lar porangi m i for m ed

e s u s u s ,

withi which are n m ero m all a ex al pore ( Fig 35

n u us s s u s s s
.
,

F IG . 34 . D iag ram s h owi ng m y li

ce u m an d s po ro ph o re s o f a c o mm on M um .

CA a zL L .

The porangi m wall b r t ( Fig s t h light pore u u s s . e s s

are catter d by the wind and falling pon a i table b

s e , ,
u su su

s trat m g rm i ate and

u , e n

form new mycelia It i . s

evide t that the e

n s ase x

ua l pore s are not zoo s

s pore for there i no

s, s

water m edi m and wi m u S

m ing i i m po i ble s Th i ss . s

m etho d of tran fer b eing s

i mpo ible the pore

ss , s s a re

s catt red by c rr nt of
e u e s

air and m t be corre

, us

s p on d i gyl light and n p w o

d y er They are ally m m i p i u su

w F F oran g a o f M u cor, sh o
.

35 or ng s

k e n f y
. .

S p 0 l m p l O w ll S p ph ( 8 8 in g t h e s o en t ip o f t h e s o ro o re A) .

u
ore witho t
” l w
r
w ll and a a te r s tag e ( B ). in h ic l a a is
sp s, y f md p i p u
m f m
an
or e se arat n g the s o ra n g i u ro

prefix . b y — LDW L t he re st o f the od . CA EL .

54 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

W hile the ordinary m ethod of reprod u ction thro u gh the

g ro wing sea s on is by m ean s of the se rapi d ly ger m inating
spore in certain condition a ex l proce i ob erved
s, s s ua ss s s ,

by which a heavy walled ex al pore i for me d a re ting

-
s u s s as s

spore able to o tlive nfavorable con d ition Branch e

, u u s . s

ari e from the hyph of the myceli m j t in the form a

s en u us as

36 . M a t u re s p i
o ran g u m o f M ucor . s h wi
o ng F m 37. . Bu rs te d p
s i
o ran g u m o f

the wa ll ( A ) t h e n u m e ro us s po re s ( C ) an d M u cor . t h e ru pt u re d wa ll n ot

t h e co l u me l la ( B i— bi
, .

t h a t is t h e pa rt i t i o n wa ll
, e ng s h w
o n. a nd the l o o se

p hd
us e up i n to t h e ca v t iy of t h e spo ra n g iu m s p o re s a dh i e r ng to t h e c o in
LD ELL l —C LDWELL
.

CA W . ma s , A .

tion of poroph ore ( Fig

s Two contig o b ranche s . u us s

com e in contact by th ir tip ( Fig 38 A ) the tip are t e s .

, , s cu

off fro m the m ain m y t i body b y p rtition w ll ( Fig c n oc c a a s .

38 B ) the wall in contac t d i organiz

, ,
th conte t of
s s e, e n s

the two tip cell f e d a heavy walled ex al pore is us , an -

s u s s

the re lt ( Fig 38 C ) It i evi d ent that the pro e i

su .
, . s c ss s

conj gation gge ting the Conj g t form m ong the

u ,
su s u a e s a
56 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

finally deadened pot on the leave where the ti e ha e s s s, ss u s v

been killed .

From thi internal myceli m n m ero

s porophore u u us s s

ari e co m ing to t h rface of the ho t and ec ring the

s , e su s s u

scatter ing of their

spore which fall s,

u pon o ther leave s

and germ inat the e,

ne w m ycelia pene
t t i g am ong t h
ra n e

ti e and b egin
ssu s

ning their ravage s

.

The porophore ts
w ll
h
pl
s
di i
wi h
hm
a
F ro .

t
89 . A b ran c
s of a
of

b oat
P eron oxpora in
a n t, an d s e n
con tac t

n to t
t

ter ri ing above the

o ce ng e
s l h — f its arg e a us t o ria A t e r D BBA B Y .

su rface of the leaf ,

branch freely ; and m any of th e m ri ing near together s ,

they for m little elvety patche on the rface gge tingv s su , su s

the name do w y m ildew n .

”

R te . 40 . P eron ospora o n e of t h e P
, hy y
c o m c e t e s sh t w n g a t a an o og o n i u m ( 0 ) co n
, i
i i
ta n n g a n e gg an d an an t e r
, h idi
u m ( n ) in c o n ta c t ; a t b t h e a n t e r ia t u e e n e h id l b p
i
t ra t in g t h e oo go n u m a n d di h i
sc a rg n g t h e c o n t e n ts o f t h e an t e r u m n to t h e h idi i
e gg ; at c th e oo gon u i m con a n nt i i g th e oo s p
o re o r re s t i n g s p
o re —A ft er D E BA R Y .

In ce tain condition pecial branche ari e from the

r s s s s

m yc li m which organiz antheridia and oogonia and

e u ,
e ,

re m ain with in the ho t ( F ig The oogoni m i of the s . u s

u sual pherical form organizing a ingle egg The

s , s . an
 T H A L L O P H Y T E S : F UN G I 57

t h e ri d iu mcome in contact with the oogoni m p t t a s u , u s ou

t b e which pierce the oogoni m wall and enter the egg

u s u s ,

into which the ontent of the anth eridi m are di charged c s u s ,

and fertilization i fi t d The re lt i a hea y walled s e ec e . su s v -

oo pore A the oo pore are not for i mm ediate ge m ina

s . s s s r

tion they are not bro ght to the rface of the ho t and
, u su s

scattered are the a ex al pore W hen they are ready

, as s u s s .

to germinate the leave bearing them have pe i hed and, s r s

the oo pore are liberated

s s .

4 2 Conclusion — The m
.
y t i bodie o f the whole g ro p c n oc c s u

are ve y gge tive of the Siphon form am ong Green Alg

r su s s ae,

as i al o the m ethod o f form ing oogonia and antheri dia

s s .

T h wa t er m o lde S p l g i and it allie -

have u s, a ro e n a s s, re

t i d the aq atic habit of the A lg

a ne and their a ex al
u ae, s u

spore are zoo pores S ch for m

s M and Ps . u s as u cor arano

sp m oho w ever
, have adapted the m elve to terre trial
, con s s s

d it i zoo pore are abandoned and light pore are d

on s, s s , s s e

l p d which can be carri ed abo t by c rrent o f air

ve o e u u s .

In m o t of them m otile gamete are abandoned E ven

s s .

in the heterogam o form s p rm are not organized within us s e s

the a theridi m b t the content of the antheridi m are

n u , u s u

di charged thro gh a t be developed by the wall and pene

s u u

t t i g the oogoni m
ra n It ho ld be aid however that a u . s u s , ,

few form in thi gro p develop perm which mak e them

s s u s s,

all the m ore lg lik a a e .

They are both i ogam o and heterogam o both zygote s us u s, s

and oo pore being e ting pore Taking the cha acter

s s r s s s . r s

all together it eem rea onably clear that the P h ycomycete

, s s s s

are an a emblage of form der i ed from Green Alg ( Chl

ss s v ae o

ro p yh ) o f vario
ce aekind us s .

2 . A scou r c s r s s ( A s cu s or Sa F u ngi
c-
)
43 .
—Th e se are very
common par ite growing
M adam as s,

e pecially pon leave of eed plant the myceli m pread

s u s s s, u s

ing over the rface like a cobwe b A ve y comm on mil su . r

58 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

grow on lilac leave which nearly

d e w, M i cr osph wr a , s s,

alway how the whiti h covering after m at rity ( Fig

s s s u .

The branching hyph how n m ero partition wall and ae S u us s,

are not m y t i in the P hycomycet

c n oc Sm all di k like
c as es . s -

ha toria penetrate into the perficial cell of the ho t

us su s s ,

anchoring the myceli m and ab orbing the cell content u s s .

Sporophore ari e which for m a ex al por s si a p

, s u s es n c

culi way The d of the poroph ore ro n d ff al m o t

ar . en s u s o ,
s

separating it elf fro m the part b elow and becom e a pore

s ,
s s

or pore like body Below thi anoth r orga ize in the

s -
. s e n s

am e way then another ntil s , , u

a chain of pore i d ev lop d s s s e e ,

ea ily brok en apart and cat s s

t d by t h win d Falling e re e .

pon other itable leave u su s,

they germ inate and form new

m yceli ena bling the f ng a, u us

to pread rapidly Thi m eth s . s

d of c tting a branch into c u

ection to form pore i s s s s s

called b t i t i and the a s r c on ,

pore formed in thi way s s s

are call d m d or id i e co
’ '

t a, con

p ( Fig 4 3 B ) os or es .
, .

A t certain ti m e the m y s ce

li m develop p cial branche u s s e s

which d evelop organ b t se x s, u

they are l d o m e n and m y se s e a

Fm il l f
41 Ld wi h mac 1; alway
ea c o ve re A g t ii 11 0 s O CC ll i
‘
. ll OO O '

m m and an anth ridi m of

. .

w(
de ) hdd
Jl icrosph tr ra . th e s a e re
u e u ,
i p my li m
g
an d
ons

bl k d
re

the p
re s e n t in g

ac
t h 1
o ts
for m
t he
b t proba
t h e as coca r s
b ly
ce u ,
e [1 8 1 1 3 s, u

LDWELL
CA with o t orga izing g m te
.
u n a e s,

co m e into contact and a , as

re lt an e ab orate tr ct re
su l i d ev lop thed — s
p u u s e e a s coca r ,

som eti m e call d t h pore fr it The e a cocarp p

s e e
“
s u .
”
s s s a

pear the lilac leave min te dark d ot each one b eing

ou s as u s,
60 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

large one and contain a great variety of form All of

, s s .

the m ho wever prod ce pore in a ci b t the a ci are not

, , u s s s , u s

alway inclo ed by an a cocarp H ere belong the com mon

s s s .

bl e m o ld ( P i i lli m) fo nd on bread fr it etc in

u u en c u , u , u , .
,

which tage the branching chain of conidia are ve y con

s s r

spi ( g
F
cu ou s i the t ffl f ngi pon
. who e bt ru e- u , u s su er

c o mmon mo u ld A y c li m wi t h
m e u n ume ro us b ran c hi ng

b
,

p ph bea i n g c n idi a ; B p x f a sp ph r l o e e n a rge d , s h wi ng h

h i n s f c n i d ia —
s o ro o re s r o , a e o o ro o ranc
‘
ing an d c a o o A it BR B F E
er LD .

r n an
e s ycelia a cocarp develop which are known
m s s as

t mru t h blac k f
es gi wh i h feor m the di ea e known
un , c s s s

as black knot of the pl m and cherry the ergot of u ,

“

rye ( Fig and many black wart like growth pon t h

.
-
s u e

bark of tree ; other form ca ing witche broo m ( b

s s us s
’
-
s a

nor mal g owth vario tree ) peach c rl etc the

r s on us s , u ,
”
.
,

cu p f ngi
-
( F
u ig 45 and the edible
s m
. orel (,Fig s .
 TH A L L O P H YT E S : F UN G I 61

F IG 45 p ci
T wo s e e s of f
c u p- u n gus
— ND
. .

( P eziza ) A ft . er LI AU .

F IG . 44 . H e ad O f ry e a t tac k ed by sr F lG . 46 A cu p .
f un gn g ( t a) gro w
f
.

gO t ( a h p
ec u li ar g ra ni li k e 11 1 08 8 08 in g pru ( P rea ch —A te r
-
on a s ce
re pl iac n g i
t h e g ra n s o f ry e ; a s o a l R am s .

mas s of
“
e rgo t
”
g e rm n a t ng t oi i
f
o rm s o re s ( b ) —A t e r T U L A BN B
p . f .

in om of the e form the a cocarp i com pletely clo ed

s e s s s s s ,

as in the lilac m ildew ; in oth r it i fl k haped ; in e s s as -

s

other in the p f ngi it i like a p or di k b t i

s, as cu - u , s cu s u n

all t h pore are i clo ed by a d elicat

e s s the a c n s e sa c , s us .
62 P L A N T ST R U CT URE S

H ere t probably be incl de the yea t f ngi ( Fig

mu s u d s -
u .

so co m m only ed to excite alcoholic ferm entation

us .

F m 47 T he co m mo n e di b l e m ore ] ( M arch ew:

-
F m 48 Y eas t c e lls , re prod u

b y b ddi f
. . . .

escule n t a ) T he h
s tru c t u re s o wn an d use d c ngi u n g . an d orm

LDWELL
.

p
re re se n ts th e p th d p i
asc oca r , e e re ss o n s o f ing c h a i —C
ns . A .

wh o se f
su r a c e a re li d wi t h i
ne as c i
c o n ta n

ing as c o s p o re s .
—A f t 6 er 1 38 0 14 .

The yea t cell ee m to be coni d ia having a pec liar b d

s s s u u

d ing m ethod f m lti plication and the re m arkabl pow r

o u ,
e e

of exci t ing alcoholic f rm entation in gary ol tion e su s u s

.

3 E ( zE id iu m F u ng i )
'
. CI D I O M Y CE T E S c -

. a larg gro p of very

4 5 Ge neral ch aract ers — Thi s is e u

de tr cti v para it known

s u r t and m t T h
e s es as us s s u s .
”
e

r t at t ck partic larly the leave of higher plant p

us s a u s s, ro

d i g r ty pot t h w h t r t pro b a bly bei g the be t

uc n us s s, e ea us n s

k own The m t e pecially attack t h gra e

n . d are
s u s s e ss s, an

very inj rio to cereal prod cing in the head of t

u us s, u s c a s,

barley wheat corn etc the d i ea e called m t

, , , .
,
s s s u .
64 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

di ea e with great rapidity ( F g

s s O nce it w tho ght i . as u

that thi com pleted the lif cycle and the f ng received
s e , u us

the nam e U d W hen it w known that thi i b t one

re o . as s s u

F lo 50 —
W h e nt ru s t . s h wi
o ng a yo un g hyph a f rc i g it way f
o n s ro m t h e su r f
ace of a

i t i e c li —A fte r H M R SH D
.

l fdea o wn a mo n g t h e nutr v e s . . A A LL WAR .

s tage in a poly m orph ic life hi tory it w called the U red s as o

s t age and the

, pore d p om etime
s m m er s u re os ores , s s su

pore
"
s s .

51 W h ea t ru st , s h owi n g t h e wi n te r s po re s ( t e l e u tos pore s ) —A fte r

H LL
. .

H M A RS A
. W ARD .

Toward the d of the mm er t h am e myceli m en su e s u

d velop porophore which b ear an ntirely diff erent kind

e s s s e

of pore ( F ig
s It i two elled with a very heavy black
. s -
c ,
 T H A L L O P H YT E S : F UN G I 65

wall and form what i called the black r t which p

, s s
“
us , a

pear late i the mm er on wheat t bble The e pore

s n su s u . s s s

are t h re ting pore which la t thro gh t he wi t r and

e s s s, s u n e

germ inate in t h following pri g They are calle d t l t e s n . e eu o

sp ores ,m eaning t h la t pore of the growing ea o e

“
s s s s s n .

They are al o called winter pore to d i t i g i h t he m

s
“
s s, s n u s

from the redo pore or mm er pore u A t fir t thi s s

“
su s s .
”
s s

tele to pore b aring myc li m w not r cogniz d t b e

u s -
e e u as e e o

identical with t h re d o por b earing myceli m and i t w e u s e- u , as

called P i m Thi nam e i w a co

'

a . s s no

retained for the whole polym orpho us

plant and wheat r t i P im

, us s a co
’

g ram i m Thi m yceli’

m son . the s u

wheat wit h it m m r pore and

, s su e s s

winter pore i b t one t ge i s s, s u s a n

the life hi t o y of wheat r t s r us .

In t h p ing the tel to pore e s r eu s

germina t e each cell developing a s,

sm all few lled fila m ent ( Fig -

ce .

Fro m each cell of the filam ent a

lit t le branch ari which develop se s s

at it tip a m all pore called a p

s s s ,
s e

i d m which m ean pore like

'
“ ”
r zu , s s -
.

Thi little fil am ent which i not a

s ,
s

para ite and which bear poridia

s ,
W m s w
s s ,
P 52 h ea t t ho
i a cond pha e of the wheat r st
M .

s se s u ,

really the fir t pha e of the growi g i

m
s
f
f mf
mi h
wh
s n t
a
ns and

ent, ro
or ng a s

o ur o f
o rt a!
os e

ce ll s a s po re b ran c h i
ar s e s ,

The pori d ia are catter d fall

s
p i i m— f
s e ,
the l o we s t on e he ar i ng at

upon b a b e ry l av ger m nate d

r r LL W e e s, i , an
it s t ip a s
H M A R SH A
or d u

A“
. A te r

d v lop a m y eli m which p ad

. .

e e c u s re s

thro gh the l af Thi myceli m prod ce porophore

u e . s u u s s s

which e m erge on the nder rfac of the leaf in the u su e

form of chain of re d d i h yellow conidia ( Fig The e

s s -
. s

chain f oni d i s o clo ly pa k d in p like rec pt cle

c a a re se c e cu -
e a s,

and the e reddi h yellow p like

s m a e are of t e c ll d s -
cu -
ss s n a e
66 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

cl t r c p
us e -
Thi myceli m on the barb e ry b earing
u s
. s u r ,

cl ter c p w tho ght to b e a di ti ct pla t and w

us -
u s, as u s n n , as

called J s id m The
h g
'
c
'

tu .

name now i appli d to

g
u
o
i
n
g s e

the cl t er p which
r
r a
h us
t h . -
cu s,
c D

s W are called w d i andk

n
e
i

d
R
A cz
'

a,

the co idia
o

sm which they prod ce are like

r

g
porea L
L
n - s s
n A
d u

k no wn
e s

w id i p
a p n
h as c os ores
'

A .

It i the cidia which s as

g i e na m e to t h gro p v e u ,

and E id i my t are c o ce e s

t h o e F ngi in who e s u s

life h i t v id i or
i

s
a
r
s or te c a

cl ter c p app ar a
p
us -
u s e .

The cidio pore are a

e s s

cattere d by the wind s ,

fall pon the pring u s

wheat g rminate and , e ,

develop again the my n

o
ce

li m which prod c t h
b
e

r
f
c

o
i
t
s u u es e

r t on the wh at db
a

n
l

b
y

a
us e , an

the lif cycl

i
b

s m
a
i h
c
o
r so e e s co

There are th
o p
l t d
i
s
p
t
e e e us
s
t
c i r .

at lea t thr e di tinct

a
d h
e
c
s e s
s

tage in the lif hi tory

o
o
p
x
s s e s

of wheat r t Begin e ,

h
s
d i
e us .

n d

s ning with the growing s

u
r
a o
b

m ea o they are fol

i

e
t
n
e r u s s n as
e

W m low The pha e ar

h n
d

s ( 1 ) b
i

s : s e
i

i g the pori d ia which

e
y
e r
n s
.

8 h e ,
5

i not para itic ; ( 2 ) the

t v
.

G s s

id i m p h e para itic sec u as ,

s

r —
on the barber y ; ( 3) t h red t l to p ore pha e par
e u o e eu s s , a

siti on the wheat

e .

In thi lif cycle at lea t fo r kind of a ex al pore

s e s u s s u s s
68 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

n e ct e dtogether that a m yceli m bearing r do pore i

,
so u u e s s s

call d a l d one b earing tele t o por a P i m and

e
’

re o, u s es a co
’

a,

b earing ci d ia J c d i m b t what for m of U d

’

on e ae an u u s re o,

d E d m b elo g toge t her in t h am e life

' '

I i
'
’
u cct u a , a n cz t u n e s
’

cycle i very d i ffi c lt to di cover

s u s .

A other life cycl which h a b en di covere d i in

n e s e s s c on

with t h c d ar apple which ppear on d ”

nec ti on e
“
e s a re

ce d ar ( F ig In t h pring the e d i a d grow th b

. e s s se se s e

com e con pic o p cially

s a f t r a rain
u wh n the jelly
u s, e s e e , e

like ma containing the o ange olored pore w ll

sse s r -
c s s s e .

Thi corr pond to the pha e wh ich prod c r t in

s es s s u es us

wheat O the l av of appl tre wi ld crab h w thorn

. n e es e e s, , a ,

etc the cidi m tage of the am e para ite d evelop

.
, as u s s s s .

4 . BA SI D I O M Y C E T E S ( B a s i d i u m F -
u ng i ) .

48 . Gen eral ch aract ers — T h i s gro u p incl de

h u s t h e mu s
room toad tool s, s s, an d p ff ball
u s . They t d tr ctive
ar e no es u

para i te sare many s, as

form in the prece d ing

s

gro p b t m o t ly harm
u s, u s

l and often f l p
e ss u se u sa

ro h
p y t Th y m
es t . e us

al o b r gard d
s e th e e as e

m o t highly organiz d of
s e

t h F ngi
e The po p lar
u . u

di tinc tion b etween toad

s

s tool d m hroo m i
s an us s s

not born t by b ot n e ou a

ical chara t r toad tool c e s, s

an d m h roo m b i ng t h
us e e

s am e thi g b o t ic lly n an a ,

and fo m ing g rorp on e u ,

p ff ball form ing

u s an

oth r e .

AS I n rE md rom y c e t e s
F m 55 T he c o m mo n e di b l mus h ro o m,
,

no x al proc
. . e

A ga ricus ca mpe st ris —A f ! er G i a SO N .

se u e ss h as
 T H A L L O P H YT E S F UN G I

b e endi covered The life hi tory ee m i m ple b t thi

s . s s s s , u s

ap parent i m plici ty m y repre ent a very co mplicated h i

s a s s

t ory The tr ct re of the com mon m hroo m ( A g i

. s u u us ar

cu s) will erve an ill tration

s of the gro p ( Fig as us u .

mu sh r oom T he .

m yceli of white
u m,

branching thread s,

s pread ex t en iv lys s e

thro gh th d cay
u e e

ing b t r a t m
su s u ,

an d in c ltivat d u e

form i poke of
s s s n

as the pawn s .
”

Upo nthi my s ce

li m little kno b
u

like prot b eranc u es

begin to ari e grow s ,

ing larger and

larger til they
,
un

are organize d into

the called
s o -

m hroom
u s s .

The real body of

th e pla t i the n s

white thread like

m y c e l i m while u ,

the m hroom us

part e m t rep
s e s o

r ent great m
es a nu

b er of poro phor c o mm i h h
-
F IG 56 A on A gario ns : A s e ct o n t ro ug on e
S es . ,

id e of pil h wi n g
p d t gill ; i
se c t o n s o f t h e en en s

organized togeth r
s e us , s o

e B ti se c f g ill
on o m a g d s h w i g t h
o re e n ar l e o n e ce n

d b d f m d by t h b
, ,

to f m or in gle 8 s
t l ti
id i :
ra d th b
ss ue . an

t i ll m l g d ti
e

f
ro a

id f
or e r or

on o
e

o ne s
e a

e o

mpl
s a s o re e n ar e se c

Cc
p e X S O f f) a g ill h wi g t h l b h p d b id i t d i g t
,
s o n e c u -s a e as a s an n a

b e an l g St n wt u re i gh t a g l t t h f d di g t a p ir
s u r ace . an se n n ou a

f W h h b ars a i gl b a
r n es o e

f mall b h
.

h
ran c e s , e ac o ic e s n e

The
o s

m u Sh roo m s id i p os—A f t S
ore . er A cus .

28
 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S
72

The e pore called b id i p

s s s,hower down from the as os ores , s

gill when ripe germinate and prod ce new mycel ia The

s , , u .

pec liar cell called the b idi m give nam e to the gro p
u as u s u

B idio mycete
as s .

5 0 Ot h er f.em —M hroo m di play a great variety of us s s

form and coloration m any of them being ery att acti e , v r v

F m 61 A t oad s t oo l of the b ktf

rac e orm whi c h h as gro wn ab o u t b l ad es o f grass
—C A L D W B L L
. .

wi t h ou t i f i
n te r e r ng wi t h t h i e r aC t lt y . .

( Fig 5 7 s5 8. The
,
pore f
,
n gi have pore l i ke d p -
u -
e re s

s ion for th ir po e in t ad of gill

s e si the ve y m
r s, s e s, as n r co

m on b racke t f
“
ng ( P lyp ) which
-
u for m hard
us o or u s ,
s

s hell like o tgrowt h on tree tr nk and t mp ( Fig 6 0

-
u s -
u s s u s s .
,
F m 62 T h e co mmon ed b e Bole tus ( B i l ed u F m 68 A n ot hdi b l
er e e Bole tu s ( B st ro

N
. . .

eu ) —A f t
. . .

lis ) , in w c hi h
t h e gi s are re ace ll pl d by bil ac s er G I B SO
o re s —
. .

p A t e r G ms o n
. f .

F IG 64 T he c om m on ed i bl
e
“
cora l f un F un 65 H y d ru m repa n d u m , in wh i c h g ill s
d by spi
. .

—A fte r
. .

gun
"
( “ M arten Gu son are re pl ace nous p roce s ses ; ed i
—A f ter
.

b le Gm on
74 P L A N T ST R UCT U R E S

and the hroo like B l ti ( Fig 6 2 The

mu s m -
o e s .
,

ear f gi for gelatino

-
un dark brown h ll haped m u s, -
, S e -
s

m a e and thess s, coral f gi re e m bl b ranching coral “

un
”
s e s

( Fig The.H y d n m fo m have pino proc u r s s us e s se s

in tead of gill ( Fig s s .

The p ff ball u s or

g i glo b lar bodi an ze u es

( Fig within which .

the por d evelop and s es ,

are not lib era t d ntil e u

rip ; and with them e

b elong al o t h b ird s e
“ ’
s

ne t f ng t h earth s u u s, e
“

tar the ill m lling s ,

-
s e

tink horn t s -
,
”
e c .

OT H E R TH A L L O P H Y TE S

W I TH O U I C H L O R O P II Y L L
' ‘

51 . Slime moul ds .

Th p rpl xing form e se e e s,

nam e d A1 y my t d ro ce es , o

F IG b ll
66 whi h P uff
t eea
m to
s,
b in
r e l te dc t h e b as iuia an d
nO s e a

i l d di b l — f N to any gro p f plant

. .

ps o re s are n c o se ; e e A te r G I B SO . u O s,

and it i a q tion s ues

whether they to be r gard d pl nt or ani m l T h are e e as a s a s . e

working b od y i a m of n k d p otopl m c ll d a pl s a ss a e r as a e us

m di m
o gg ti g the t rm li m
u , su d li p along lik
es n e s e,
”
an s s e

a gigan tic m ba Th y are co m m o i fore t pon a oe . e n n s s, u

black oil f ll n l v s d d c ying log t h

,
a li my y l
e ea e s, an e a s, e s e

low or ng m or nging f o m t h iz f a pi he d
a e a ss e s r a r e s e O n a

to la ge a m n h d Th y
as r ro
p p
as hy t ic d a
’
s an . e a re sa , an

are ai d to eng lf food d the m mb

s S gg tive
u as o a as . o su es

of cert in low ani m l i thi b o d y d food hab it that

a a s s s an

slim m o ld hav al o b een called M y t

e -
u s or f n g e s ce ozoa
“
u us

ani mal s .
”
F m 68 . A gro u p of Bac te r i a, th e b d i b e i g b lack d b a i g m t il ili a i
o es n . an e r n o e c n

i
v a r o us way s . A . t h e t wo t o th l f t th mm h y B ill ( B b tilis l t h
e e e co on a ac us . s u ,
e

one to t h e rig ht a Spi ril lu m B C a f m P la omc ) ; C I) E p i f

oc c u s or n c us s ec es o

F b i g t h t f t yph id f
. .
, .

P se ud o mon as F 0 i
s pe c e s o f B ill ac us, e n ; 1 1 M icro
a o o e ve r

—A f t e r E NL
. , .

s7 7t ra J, K , L , M, i
s pe c e s o f Spi ri ll um . G E R an d P R A NT L .
 T H A L L O P H Y T E S : F UN G I 77

They are the malle t known living orga i m the one s s n s s,

celled form which develop on cooked potatoe bread m ilk s s, , ,

m eat etc f orm ing a blood red tain having a diam eter of
, .
,
-
S ,

b t u mm ( “ i They are of vario form

.
n
us s

( Fig . C occ f or m ingle

as pher i cal cell ; Bacteri
us m s, s s s u

form hort d haped cell ; Bacill for m long r d

s, s ro -
s s us s, e ro

s haped cell ; L eptoth rix form i m ple filam ent ; Spirill m

s s, s s u

form piral filament etc

s, s s, .

They m lt iply by cell divi ion with wonde f l rapidity

u s r u ,

and al o form re ting pore for pre ervation and d i t i

s s s s s s r

b t i
u onThey occ. r everywh re — i the air in the water
u e n , ,

in the oil in the bodie of plant d animal ; many of

s , s s an s

them harm le many of them ef l many of them dan

ss, us u ,

gero ns .

They are inti m ately concerned with ferm en ta tion and

d ecay ind cing , ch change the o ring of fr it j ice
u su s as s u u u s,

m ilk etc and the developm ent of p

, .
, in wo nd Wha t us u s .

i called anti eptic

s rgery i the s of vario m ean to su s u se us s

excl de bacteria and prevent inflammation and decay

u so .

The pathogenic for m that i tho e which ind ce d i

— s s, s u s

ea e f plant and ani mal —are of great importance and

s s o s s ,

m ean o f m ak ing the m har m le

s or de troying them are ss s

b eing earched for con tantly They are the ca e of ch

s s . us s su

di ea e pea blight and peach yellow am ong plant d

s s s as r- -
s s, an

su ch h m an di ea e u t b erc lo i cholera diphtheria

s s s as u u s s, , ,

ty phoid fever etc , .

L I CH E N S

5 3 General charact er
. ichen are ab n d ant every . L s u

where form ing va io colored plotche on tree tr nk

, r us s s -
u s,

rock old board etc and growing al o pon the gro nd

s, s, .
, s u u

( Fig 6s9 7
. 0 They have
, a general
, greeni h g ray color s -
,

b t b right er color m y al o b e ob erve d

u s a s s .

The great intere t connected with L ichen i that they are s s s

not ingle plant b t each L ichen i formed of a f ng and

S s, u s u us

an alga li ing together inti mately to appear lik e a ingle

, v so as s
80 P L A N T ST R UCT U R E S

If a L ichen b e ectioned the relation b etween the ym

s ,
s

b iont will b e een ( Fig

s The f ng m ake the b lk
s . u us s u

of the b od y with it inter woven m yceli l thread in the s a s,

m e he of which lie the Alg

s s om eti m e ca ttered om e ae, s s s , s

F m 72 Sec t i on h
t ro ug h t h ll
a us o f a lich ( Sl icla ) s
en h wi g h ld f t (
o n o as s r), l o we r ( u)
h d l g ( 9 ) —A ft
. . ,

an d u pp f
e r ( 0) s u r ace s , f g
un us h y ph re ( m ) a n d e n me s
, e a ae er SA c n s .

ti m e m a ed It i the e en m e he d A lg howing thro gh

s ss . s s s ae, s u

the tran parent myceli m that give the greeni h tint to

s u , s

the L ichen .

In the ca e of L ichen the y m biont are tho ght b y

s s s s u

som e to b e m t ally helpf l the alga m an fact ring food

u u u , u u

for the f ng d the f ng

u pro i d ing protection d
u s, an u us v an

water containing food m aterial for the alga O ther do not s . s

recog ize any pecial benefi t to the alga and in a L ichen

n s ,
se e

sim ply a para itic f ng living on the prod ct of an alga

s u us u s .

In any event the A lgw are not d e troy d b t ee m to thrive s e u s .

It i di covered that the alga ymbiont can live q ite ind e

s s s u
 T H A L L O P H YT E S : F UN G l
81

pen d ently of the f ng In fact the enm e hed Alg are u us .

, s ae

Oft n recognize d i d entical wit h form living i d p d

e as s n e en

ently tho e th ed being vario Bl e green P t

,
s us us us u -
, ro ococ

c u s, and Conferva form s .

O the other hand the f ng

n ymb iont h b eco m e , u us s as

q ite d pen d ent pon the alga d it germinating pore

u e u , an s s s

do not develop far nle the yo ng myceli m can lay hol d u ss u u

of itable Alg A t certain ti m e p like or di k like

su ae . s cu -
s -

b odie appear on th rface of the lichen thall with

s e su u s,

brown or black or m ore brightly colored lining ( Fig 7 0

, ,
-
s .
,

The e bodie are the p th i sd a ection thro gh s a o ec a , a n s u

them how that the colored lining i largely mad e p of

s s s u

delica t e c containing pore ( Fig 7 3

sa s Th e ac s s s .
,
es s s

are evidently a ci the apoth ecia corre pon d to a coca p

:

s , s s r s,

and the L ichen f ng prove to b e an A comycete u us s s .

F ro .
78 . Sec t i on t h rou g h an a o tp h ci e um of A n apt y ch i a , s h o wi n g s ta lk of t h e cu p
l l ll
( m) masse s o f a ga ce s ( g ) o u t e r marg n i o f c u p ( r ) , o ve r a l ppi n g e d ge (t l ye
a r

HS b h a i ( 10 —A f t
, , ,

i
o f as c ( k ) an d mass n g o f h y ph ie
, i
e n e at sc . er SA C .

Certain A co mycete there fore have lear ed tos s, ,

n u se ce r

tain A lg in thi pec liar way and a L ichen i the r lt

ae s u ,
s e su .

So m e Ba i d io m ycete have al o learne d the am ha b it and

s s s s e ,

form L ichen s .

V ario form of L ich en b od ie can be di ting i hed

us s s s u s as

f ollow ( 1 ) C t Li h
s in which the thall re e m
r u s aceou s c e n s, us s
32 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

ble an incr tation pon it b trat m of rock oil etc

s us u s su s u , s ,
.

( )
2 F li L i
o h with flattened
ose leaf like lobed
c en s ,b o d ie t ,
-
,
s, a

M uc h l
e n a rg e d i p ti
se c t o n o f a or on o f th e a p t h i m f A na pty h ia h
o ec u o c s o w
d ab ( y ) j t b
.

i ng t h e f un g u s m y li m m ) whi c h i m
ce u ( , s ass e o ve th th l y
. us e ne a e a er of

as c i( 1 2 , 3, t ) , i whi h p
n c si i
o re s n v ar ou s s t ag f d
es ol pm t e ve o h w en are s o n

HS
, .

f
A t e r SA C .

only at the m iddle or irreg larly t the b trat m ;

t a ch e d u o su s u

( )
3 F t i L i
ruh with fi la
cos e m ento bo d ie b ranching
c e n s, us s

like hr b ither erect pend lo or pro trate

s u s, e , u u s, s .
84 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

te m perat re and witho t any pecial di play of en rgy It

u s u s s e .

i i m po tant b eca e the foo d of all plant and ani m al de

s r , us s s

pend pon it it i the only kno wn proce by which inor

s u , as s ss

gani m aterial can be organized

e .

The proce i called ph t y th i or ph t y t ss s o os n es s , o os n aa ,

'

word i dicating that the pre ence of light i nece ary

s n s s ss .

The m ech ani m on the par t of the plant i the chloropla t

s s s ,

which when expo ed to light i able to do thi work The s s s .

proc i often called carb on a imilation chlorophyll

e ss s ss ,
”

a imilation fixation of carb on etc I t ho ld be note d

ss
”
, ,
”
. s u

that it i not the chlorophyll which doe the work b t the

s s , u

protopla mic pla tid tain d green by the chlorophyll The

s s s e .

chlorophyll manip late the light in ome w y that the u s s a so

pla ti d m y b tain from it the energy needed for the work

s a O .

F rther detail concerning it m y be btained by reading

u s a O

1 1 2 of P l t R l ti an e a on s .

It i evident that g een pl nt m t expo e their chlor

s r a s us s o

phyll to the light For thi rea on the A lgw can not live . s s

in d e p water or in dark place In the ca e of the large

e s s . s

m arine kelp altho gh they m y b e anchored in con i d era

s, u a s

ble depth of water their working bodie are floated p ,

s u

toward t h light by air blad d er In the ca e of high r

e -
s . s e

plant p cially organiz d chlorophyll b earing organ the

s, s e e -
s,

foliage leave are develop d s, e .

5 6 Saprophyt a
.
— O nly cell containing chloropla t can
e s s s

live independently In the h igh er plant where b odie b . s, s e

co me large m any living cell are h t away from the light

,
s s u ,

and m t d epend pon the m ore perficial green c ll for

us u su e s

their food pply The hab it of cell depending pon one

su . s u

another for food therefore i a very co mm on , , s on e .

W hen none o f t h cell of the plant body contain c h loro e s

phyll t h whole plant becom e d ependent and m t live

, e s ,
us as

a aprophyt e or a para it In the ca e of aprophy te d ead

s s e . s s s

b o d ie or b ody prod ct are attacked and ooner or later all

s u s , s

organic m atter i att cke d d deco m po ed by them The s a an s .

deco m po ition i a re lt of t h n tritive proce e of plant

s s su e u ss s s
 TH E F OOD OF P L A N TS 35

witho t ch lorophyll and were i t not for them the whole

u ,
“

surfa e of the ea th wo ld b covered with a thick depo it

c r u e s

of the anim l and plant remai of the pa t tho nd of

a ns s u sa s

year s
.
”

The green plant therefore are the man fact rer of s, , u u s

organic material prod ci g far more than they can ,

u n use ,

while the plant witho t chlorophyll the d e troyer of

s u are s s

organic material Th chief de troyer are the Bacteria . e s s

an d ordinary F ngi b t o m e of the higher plant have

u , u s s

l o ad opted thi m ethod of o btaini g food M any ordinary

a s s n .

green plant have the aprophytic habit of ab orbing organi

s s s c

m aterial fro m rich h m oil ; and m any orchid and he th

u us s s a s

are pa a itic attachi g their bterranean pa t to tho e of

r s ,
n su r s s

other plant becom ing what are called root para ite
s,
“
s s .
”

The c ltivated plant al o m y b e regarded partially

u s, s , a as

saprophytic in f they the organic material p

, so ar as u se su

plied to them in fe tilizer r s

.

5 7 P arasit ee —
. Ce tain plant witho t chlorophyll are r s u

not content to obtain org nic m aterial fro m dead bod ie a s,

b t at tack living one

u A in the ca e of aprophyt the s . s s s e s,

va t m ajority of plant which have form ed thi habit are

s s s

Bacteria and ordinary F ngi P ara ite are not only m odi u . s s

fi d in tr ct re in co eq ence of the ab ence of chloro

e s u u ns u s

phyll b t they have develope d m ean of penetrating their

, u s

ho t M any of them have al o c ltivat d a very elective

s s . s u e s

hab it re tricting them elve to cert ain plant or ani m al or

, s s s s s,

even to certain organ s .

The para itic habit h al o been d eveloped by ome of

s as s s

the higher plant om eti m e com pletely om eti m e p s, s s , s s ar

ti ily D odd er for exam ple i com pletely para itic at

n .
, , s s

m at rity ( Fig
u while m i tletoe i only partially
. s s so,

doing chlorophyll work and al o ab orb ing from the tree s s

into which it h ent it ha toria as s s us .

That aprophyti m and para iti m are both habit grad

s s s s s

ua lly acq ir d i i nferred f om the n m ber of green plant

u e s r u s

which have developed them m ore or le a pplem ent t o ss, as su

24
86 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

the food which they m an fact re The le chlorophyll i u u . ss s

used the le i it d v lop d and a g een plant which i

ss s e e e ,
r s

obtaini g the larger am o nt of it food in a aprophytic

n u s s

or pa a itic way i r s s

on the way to lo ing s

all of it chlorophyll s

and becom ing a m co

p l t aprophy t e or e e s

pa a ite r s .

Ce tain of the l w r o

A lgw are in the er

habit of living in the

b ody cavitie of high s

er plant finding in s,

ch it ation the su s u s

m Oi t and p t s u re ro e c

tion which th y need e .

They m y th have a us

bro ght within their u

reach om e of the s

organic prod ct of u s

the higher plant If .

they can om e of u se s

the e i very like s , as s

ly a pa tially pa a , r r

iti h ab it i b eg n s e s u ,

which m y le d to a a

lo of chlorophyll ss

d co m pl t par an e e a

d dd pl t paras i t i c a will w twi g

A o er an on o sit ism .

b t t h wi ll w d
.

Th l fl
e d dd t i
ea e ss o er n nes a ou e o , an

d t ki g p hi h p t t d
heno m non f
se n s ou s uc n ro c e s s e s vs c e n e ra e an

ab b —A ft ST R U
so r . er A SH RGER .
The P e O

ym b io i h alread y s s s as

been referred to in connection with L ichen In s

it b road e t
s n e t h word incl d any ort of d epend
s se s e u es s

e nce b etween livin g organi m from t h vine d the tree s s, e an

F IG . 76 yc rrhi za : to t h l e f t is th t ip f a ot l e t f b
. M o e e o ro o e e c h e n me s h d by
e t he
f g ; A diag am f l g i t di l se ct i
un us , r f a
o rc hid
on u na on o n o ro o t , s h o wi n g t h e ce lls
of th c t ( p) fill ed wi t h h y ph ; B pa t f l
e or e x g i t di l az , r o on u na i
s e c t o n o f o rc hid roo t

m chu l a g d h wmg pid rmi ( e) t m t c ll f t h

en r e , s o e e s , ou e r os e s o e co rt e x ( p) fi lled w t h i
hyphal t h d which are di ng b ra ch s i nt th e ad j c
rea s, se n n e o a i l ll
e n t co rt ca ce s ( a , i )

F RA N
.

A ft er K .

F lo . 77 . M y c o rr hi a :
z A . l
ro o t e ts of wh i t e po pl ar fo rm i ng my co rrhi za ; B e n l arge d ,

s ec t o n i of i gl
s n e l
roo t e ts , s h o wi n g t h e h y ph m pe n e t ra t in g t h e ce ll s —A f te r

KE R NE R.
 TH E F O OD OF P L A N TS

oak d their allie

s an etc ( Fig 7 6 The d elicate s, . s .
,

branching filam ent ( hyph ) of the f ng pread thro gh s e

n u us s u

th oil wrap the rootlet with a m e h of h yph and pene

e s , s s aa
,

trate into the cell It ee m clear that the f ng ob tain s . s s u us s

food from the rootlet a para ite ; b t it i al o tho ght as s u s s u

that the hyphal thread pread ing widely thro gh the oil s, s u s ,

are of great ervice to the ho t plant

s s

in aiding the rootlet in ab orbing s s .

If thi be tr e there i m t al d
s u , s u u a

vantage i the a ociation for the

n ss ,

sm all a m o nt of no ri h m ent tak en

u u s

b y the f ng i m ore than m p

u us s co en

sate d by it a i tance in ab orption

s ss s s .

3) It t t b l — O the root
oo -
u er c es . n s

of many leg m e plant clover

u s, as s,

pea b ean etc little wa t lik e

s, s, .
, r -

o tgro wth are freq ently fo n d

u s u u ,

known root t b rcle ( Fig

as - u e s .

It i fo nd tha t the e t b er
s u s u

cle are ca e d by cert ain Bacteria

s us ,

which penetrate the root and i s n

d ce the e excre cent gro wth The

u s s s .

t bercle
u fo nd to warm with
s are u s

Bacteria which are do b tle

,
h u ss o

taining food from the root of the s

ho t s A t the am e ti m the e B
. s e, s ac

teria have the pec liar power of u

laying hol d of the free nitrogen f O

the air circ lat ing in the oil and

u s ,

of pplying it to the ho t plant

su
m m
s
rs R oo t b les on

in o me able form O rdinarily V

o
.

s us — f . id a F ab a . A t e r N on .

plant can not s free nitrogen u se ,

al t ho gh it occ r in the air in ch ab n d ance and thi

u u s su u , s

power of the e oil Bacteria i pec liarly intere ti ng

s s s u s .

Thi hab it of ls and it allie explain why they are

c e ve r s s s

us ef l in what i calle d re toring the oil A fter ordi

u s s s .
”
go P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

nary crop have exha ted the oil of it nitrogen contain

s us s s -

in g alt and it h
s s, becom e comparatively terile clover i
as s , s

able to grow by obtaining nitrogen f rom the air thro gh t h u e

root t bercle I f the crop of clover be plowed nder

-
u s . u
”
,

nitrogen containing material which the clover h organ

-
s as

i d will b e contrib ted to the oil which i th

ze u re tored s , s us s

to a condition which will pport the ordina y crop again su r s .

T hi indicate the igni fi cance of a ve y ordi nary ro t ation

s s s r

o f crop s .
”

( )
4 A t p l t t — In y-
m bio i one of
an s , e a the y m biont h s s s s s

m y b e an ani m al
a Certain f re h water polyp and ponge
. s -
s s s

becom e green on acco nt of A lg which they harbor with u aa

in their bodie ( Fig L ik e s .

the L ichen f ng the e ani -

u u s, s

m al the food man fact red s u se u u

by the Alg which in t rn fi d ae, u n

a congenial it ation for living s u .

By o m e thi wo ld al o be re s s u s

garded a ca e of heloti m as s s ,

the animal en la ing the alga s v .

V ery de finite arrange m ent s

are made by ce tain plant for r s

harboring ant which in t r s, u n

F m A f w p lyp ( H
79
g
re s h
ard the m again t the at t ack
at e r o y
u s

of leaf tt ng n ect and oth

. .

d ra
) w
a t tac h ed f d to a t ig and ee
-
cu i i s s

“in ” ( Whi h m er foe T he e plant are called

8 33 Cl c “ y s s s
h h p
.

be t t h e t ra ns a re n t

od
see n

b y w ll a
roug
M y m phy t which m ean r ee o es, s

t plant or my m phi l ”
an -
s, r eeo ou s

p l t which
a n s, m ean p l ant lo ing ant The s e plant
“
s v s .
”
s s

are m ainly in the tropic and in tem cavitie in hollow s, s s,

tho n or el ewhere they provi d e dwelling place for trib e

r s, s , s s

of warlike ant ( F ig In addition to the e dwelling

s . s

place they pro ide pecial kind of food for the ant
s v s s s .

( )
5 F l w d i t
o — A ver y intere
er s a n ting and i m por
n sec s . s

tant ca e of ym bio i i that exi ting between fl ower d

s s s s s s s an

in ect T h flower f rni h food to the in ect and t h

s s. e s u s s s, e
92 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

59 . Carnivorous plant a —Ce

green plant growingrt ain s,

in sit ation poor in nitrogen containing lt have learned

u s -
sa s,

to pplem ent the proteid which they man f act re by cap

su s u u

t ring and dige ti g in ect The vario device employed

u s n s s . us s

for ec ring i ect have excited great intere t ince they

s u ns s s , s

do not eem to be a ociated wi th the ordina y i d ea of plant

s ss r

acti itie P rom inent am ong the e fo m are the bladder

v s. s r s

wort pitcher plant

s, ndew Ven
-
fly trap etc
s, su Fors,
’
us s -
, .

f ther acco nt and ill tration o f the e plant e P l t

ur u us s s s s e an

R ela ti ons , 119 .

 CH AP T E R VII
BR Y O P H Y T E S ( M O SS P L A NT S)

6 0 Summary f rom Thallophyt es —B

. efore con idering the s

second great di vi io of plant it i well to recall the m o t

s n s s s

important fact co ecte d with the T h alloph yt e tho e

s nn s, s

thing which m y be reg rded the contrib tion of the

s a a as u

Thallophyt e to the evol tion of the plant k ingdom d

s u , an

which in the backg o nd when one enter the regi on of

are r u s

the B y ophyt e r s .

( 1 ) I i g mpl
n cr ea s n i t y f t h b d
co
y
— B e g inni
ex g wi th o e o n

single i olated cell the plant body attain con iderable

s s, s s

com plexity in the form of i mple or branching filam ent

, s s,

c ll plate and cell ma e

e -
s, -
ss s .

2 ) A pp f p —
eara n ce oTh etting apa
s rt
or esof repro. e s

d tiuc cell known

ve s, pore di tinct from n tri tive
as s s, as s u

cell and of reprod ctive organ to organize the e pore

s, u s s s s,

repre ent the fir t i mportant diff erentiation of the plant

s s s

body into n tritive and reprod ctive region

u u s .

3) D fi ti i te f p
er eu — A f
at er the
on o introd
s ction
ores of . u

spore they become di ff erent in their mode of origin b t

s , u

not in their power The a ex al pore ordi narily form ed

. s u s ,

by cell di i ion i followed by the appearance of th ex al

v s , s e s u

spore form ed by cell nion the act of cell nion b eing

, u ,
u

k nown the ex al proce

as s u ss .

( )
4 D ifi t i t i
’
f g
e r enm t — A
a t the
on ofir t appearance
a e es . s

of th
se x ex al cell or gam ete are alike b t after
e s u s s ,
u

ward they become d iff erent in ize and cti ity the large s a v ,

p ive one being called the egg the mall active one the
ass , s

93
94 PL A NT ST R UCT UR E S

sperm the organ prod ci g the two being k now

, s ogo
u n n as c

ni m and anth eridi m e p ctively

u u r s e .

( )
5 A ly t h m i Zi — The
c
e Alg e aq atic
a n in habit ne ae, u ,

appear to be the T hallophyt e which lead to the B y ophyt e s r s

and higher gro ps the F ngi being regarded their de u , u as

g enerat de sc e nd a nt e ; and a m ong t h A lg m the sC hlor o e

h
p y ee m t
ce ae so be m o t probable ance tor o f higher for
s m s s s.

It ho ld be rem embered that am ong the e Green A lgm t h

s u s e

ciliated wi mm ing pore ( zoo pore ) i the characteri ti

s s s s s c

a ex al pore and the ex al pore ( zygote or oo pore ) i

s u s ,
s u s s s

the re ting t age of the plant to carry it over f rom one

s s ,

growing eason to t h next s e

—
.

6 1 General ch aract ers of

. B ry oph yt e T h e na m e g ive e n

to the gro p mean m plant and the M o e m y b e

u s oss s,
”
ss s a

regarded the mo t repre e t ative form A ociate d

as s s n s . ss

with the m in the gro p however e the L iverwort u ,

d , ar s, an

the e two gro p are plainly di ting i hed from the Thallo
s u s s u s

h
p y t below es and f ro m the P teridoph
, y t e above S t a tin g s . r

with the tr ct re that the Alg have work ed t the

s u u s ae ou ,

Bryophyt e m o di fy the m till f rther a d m ak e their w

s s u , n o n

contri b tion to the evol tion of t h plant k ingdo m

u s u e , so

that Bryophyt e b ecome m ch m ore comple x than Thall

s u o

h
p yt e s .

6 2 Alt ernation . o t imof gene mfi m —P robably th e m s

portant fact connected with the B yophyt es is t h di tinct r e s

alternation of generation which t hey exhibit S i mpor s . o

t nt i t hi fact in co nection with the develop ment of the

a s s n

plant kingdom that it gen eral nat re m t be clearly nder s u us u

s tood P robably the cleare t defi ition m y be obt ained by

. s n a

tracing in bare o tline the life hi tory of an ordinary m o

u s ss .

Beginning with the a ex al pore which i not ciliated s u s , s ,

as there i no water in which it can wi m we m y i magin

s s , a e

that it h been car ied by the wind to ome pot itable

as r s s su

for it s germi ation I t develop a branching filam ento

n . s us

g ro wth which re e mble o m e of the Con f erva f or m

s a m on g s s s

t h G reen Alg ( F ig
e I t i pro trate and i a regu
a . s s , s
96 P L AN T ST R UCT UR E S

plant from which it cam e T hi . s

new le fy body con i ts of a lender

a s s s

s tal k bearing at it s mmit an su urn

li k e ca e in which are developed

s nu

m er a ex al pore ( Fig 82
cu s s u s s s .
,

T hi whole tr ct re i often called

s s u u s

the pore fr it and it talk i

s u ,
”
s s s

imbe d ded at ba e i t h mm it of s n e su

the leafy branch th ob taining fi m , us r

anchorage and ab orbing what no r s u

i h m t it need b t no m ore a part

s en s, u

of the leafy branch than i a par s a

s it part of the ho t
e a s .

W hen the a ex al pore p s u s s, ro

d u ced by the pore fr it germ i s u ,

”

nate t hey reprod ce the alga li k e

, u -

body with which we began and the ,

l if e cycle i complet d s e .

In exam ining thi life hi tory it s s ,

i apparent that each pore prod ce

s s u s

a di ff erent tr ct re The a ex al
s u u . s u

s pore prod ce the alga lik e b ody

u s -

with it erect leafy b ranch while

s ,

the oo pore prod ce the pore

s u s s

fr it with it leafle t l k and

u
”
s ss s a

s pore ca e T h e e two tr ct re
s . s s u u s,

one prod ced by the a ex al pore

u s u s ,

t h other by the oo pore appear in

e s ,

alte nating cce ion and thi i

r su ss , s s

F ro . 82 . A commonmoss
what i meant by lt t i f g
s a e rn a on o en

( P ol y l r l c h u m commu n e ) e ra t i on s .

f
.

s h owi n g t h e l e a y game to

ph ore wi t h rhi zo i d s ( rh )
The e t w generation d i ff er
s o s

an d t wo s po ro phy t e s ( s poro
,

stri k ingly from one another in the

g on i a) wi t h se ta ( s ) ca ly p
, ,

t ra ( c) an d ope rc u l u m ( d )
spore which they prod ce T h
s u . e

th e ca
.

lypt ra h i b av ng ee n re
.

. gener tion comp ed of alga lik e

a os -

mov ed — A fte r Sc a nu ca .
b ody and erect lea fy branch pro
 B R Y O P H YT E S 97

d ce only ex al pore ( oo pore ) d therefore pro

u s s u s s s s , an

d ceu s organ se x d ga m ete It i know therefore

s an s . s n, ,

as the g m t phy t that i the gamet e plant

— a e o e s, .

T h generation which con i t of t h

e pore fr it s s s e
“
s u

that i leafle tal k and pore ca e prod ce only a ex al

s, —
ss s s s u s s u

sp ore and
s, i called the p h
p y t
s — that i the pore s oro e s,
“
s

plant .
”

Al ternation of generation therefore m ean the alter s, , s

nation of a gam etophyt e and a porophyte in com pleting a s

life hi tory In t e ad of having the am e body prod ce both

s . s s u

a ex al and ex al pore
s u in mo t of the A lg the two
s u s s, a s s ae ,

k ind of pore are epa ated pon di ff erent tr ct re

s s s s r u s u u s,

k no wn generation
as It i evident that the gam eto s .
”
s

phyte i the ex al generation and the porophyte the

s s u , s

a ex al one ; and it ho ld be k ept clearly in m ind th at

s u s u

the a ex al pore al way prod ce the gam etoph y te and

s u s s u s ,

the ex al pore the porophyte In other word each

s u s s . s,

spore prod ce not it own gene ation b t the other one

u s s r ,
u .

T h relation between the two alternating gene ation

e r s

m y be in d icated clearly by the f ollowing f orm la in

a u ,

which G and S are ed for gametophy te and porophy te us s

re pectively
s

G : 8> o S o G: 3> o S o—G etc

— — — — — , .

The form la indicate that the gametoph yt e prod ce

u s u s

two gam ete ( p rm and egg ) which f e to form an oo pore

s s e , us s ,

which prod ce the porophyte which prod ce an a ex al

u s s , u s s u

spore which prod ce a gam etophy te etc

,
u s , .

That alte nation of gene ation i of great advan t age i

r r s s s

evidenced by the fact that it appear in all higher plant s s.

It m t t b ppo ed that it appear fir t in the E ry

us no e su s s s c

h
p y t for i
e s, t beginning m y be eens a m ong the T hallo s a s

h
p y t T
esh B.ryophyte however e fir t di play it f lly s, , s s u

organized d witho t exception J t what thi alter a

an u . us s n

tion doe for plant m y not b e f lly known b t one

s s a u , u

advantage ee m prom inent By m ean of it m any gam eto

s s . s

h yt m y re lt fro m a ingle oo pore ; in other word

p es a su s s s,
98 P L AN T ST R UCT UR E S

it m ltiplie the prod ct of the x al pore A glance at

u s u se u s .

the f orm la given above how that if there were no poro

u s s s

phy te ( S) the oo po e wo ld prod ce b t one gam etophyt e

s r u u u

( )G . B y introd cin g the porophyte u however m any s , , as

g a m etoph y te m y re lt fro m sa ingal e oo pore su there are s s as

a ex al pore prod ced by t h porophy t e which ally

s u s s u e s ,
u su

prod ce a very great n m ber

u s u .

In reference to the porophyte and gam etophy te of s s s

Bryoph yt e two pec liaritie m y b m entioned at thi

s u s a e s

point ( 1 ) the poroph y te i dependent pon the gameto

s s u

phyt for it no ri h m ent and rem ain attached to it ;

e s u s , s

( )
2 the ga m etophyte i the pecial chlorophyll genes ation s -
r ,

and hence i the m ore con pic o s It follow that in a s u us . s ,

g ener l way a the porophyte , of t h B ryos phyte only pro e s

d ce pore while the gametoph y te both prod ce gamete

u s s s, u s s

and doe chlorophyll work s .

It i im po tant al o t note that the protected re ting

s r s o s

s tage in the life hi tory i not the ex al pore s in thes s u s , as

Algw b t i the a ex al pore in connection with the

, u s s u s

s porophyte T he e pore have a prot cting wall are

. s s s e ,

s cattered and m y rem ain for om e tim e wi tho t germ i

, a s u

nation .

If the ordinary term in reference to M o e be fitted s ss s

to the fact gi en above it i evident that the m o

s v , s
“
ss

plan t i the leafy br nch of the gam etoph yte ; that

”
s a

the m o f r it i the porophyte ; and that the alga

“
ss u
”
s s

l ik e part of the gam etophyte h e caped attention and as s

a nam e .

The nam e now given to the di ff erent tr ct re wh ich

s s u u s

appear in thi life hi tory are fol low T h alga like part
s s as s e -

of the gam etophyte i the p t m the leafy branch i s ro one a, s

the g m t ph a gamete bearer

e o or e the wh ole porophy te -
s

i the p
s g si m ( a na m
oro on ue given to t h i pec liar leafle s u ss

s porophy te of Bryoph yt e ) t h talk like portion i the s , e s -

s

l
se a , the part of it i m b edded i the gam etophore i the n s
’

f oot ,and the r like pore ca e i the

u n-
s p l s -
s ca su e .
1 00 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

g lob lar body

u ( Fig 8 3 8 4 A ection thro g h thi s
.
, , s u s

body how it to con i t of a ingle layer of cel l which

s s s s s s,

f orm the wall o f the antheridi m and within thi a m

s u , s co

pact m a of mall c bical ( q are in ection ) cell withi

ss s u s u s s, n

each one of which there i form ed a ingle perm ( Fig s s s .

T he e c bical cell are evidently m oth s u s

er cel l and to di ting i h t he m from s, s u s

other they are called p m m th ll s s er o er ce s .

A antheridi m therefore a ide fro m n u , , s

it talk i a ma of per m m other s s , s ss s

ce ll rro nded by a wall con i ting s su u s s

of one layer of cell s .

Th perm i a ve y m all cell with e s s r s

two long cilia ( Fig The two .

part are poken of body and s s as

cilia and the body m y be traight or ,

a s

om ewhat c rved The e m all b i ili s u . s s c

F ro 84 m
ate per
“ t h e ridi u
m are one of the di ting
of
i h s s s u s

ing mark of the B yoph y te The

. .

a w i
live r ort in sec t on , s r s .

gfi fi figfli fifi e i tence of ale ga ete in the for

O

n f

e
m m
n
m x s s

m
in g t h e m h of ciliate d perm ind icate that fertil
ass o f ot s s s
A“ m i ti can take place only in t h e pre
er S “
za on s

ence of water that while the plant , so

h beco me terre trial and it a ex al pore have re pond

as s , s s u s s s

e d t the new condition and are no longer ciliated it

o s , s

s ex al proce i con d cted am ong the G reen Alg It

u ss s u as ae .

m t not b e
us ppo ed however that any great amo nt of
su s , , u

water i nece ary to enable perm to wi m even a film

s ss s s s ,

of d w often an wering the p rpo e

e s u s .

W hen the m at re antheridia are wet they are r pt red u u u

at the apex and di charge the m other cell in a m a ( Fig s s ss s .

8 3 1 05 E ) the wal l of the m other ce ll beco m e m il gi

, , , s s uc a

no and the perm e caping wi m actively ab o t and are

u s, s s s s u

attracted to the organ containing the egg .

64 Th h
a c ego n
.i m — Thi nam e i gi ven to the fem ale
e r u . s s

s exorgan d it i very di ff e ren t fro m the oogoni m of

,
an s u
 B R Y O P H YT E S 1 01

T hall oph yt e In t ad of b ing a ingle m other cell it is

s . s e e s ,

a m any celled tr ct re haped li k e a fla k ( F ig 83

-
s u u , s s s
.
,

The neck of the fla k i m ore or le elongated and within s s ss ,

th b lbo
e u ba e ( t ) the ingle egg i organized The
us s ven er S s .

archegoni m m de p of neck and venter con i t mo tly

u ,
a u , s s s s

of ingle layer of cel l Thi hollow fla k i olid at fir t

a s s
. s s s s s ,

there being a centr l vertical row of cell rro nded by a s su u

the ingle layer j t referred to A ll of the cell of thi

s us . s s

axial row except the lowe t one di organize and leave a

, s , s

pa ge way dow thro gh the neck The lowe t one of

ssa n u . s

the row which lie in the venter of the archegoni m

, s u , or

g i
an ze sthe egg In thi way there i for m ed
. in the arche s s

goni m an open pa ageway thro gh the neck to the egg

u ss u

lying in the venter .

T thi nec k the wi m m ing per m are attracted enter

o s s s s ,

and pa down it one of them f e with the egg a d thi

ss , us s , n s

act of f ert ilization re lt in an oo pore su s s .

It i ppo ed that archegonia have been derived in ome

s su s s

way from oogonia b t no interm ediat tage gge t the ,

u e s s su s

step In any event the pre ence of the rchegonia i one

s .
, s a s

strong and nvary ing di tinction between T hallophy te

u s s

and Bryophyte P teridophyte al o have archegonia and

s . s s ,

so char cteri tic an organ i it that Bryophyte and P t ri

a s s s e

d ph yt
o are pok en of together A h g i t
es s as r c e on a es .

6 5 Germinati on of t h e oospo e —T h
. oo pore in B y r e s r o

h
p y t i not
es a re ting
s pore b t ger m inate i mm ediately
s s , u s

by cell divi ion forming the porophyte em bryo which

s , s ,

pre ently develop into the mat re poroph yte ( F ig 85 A )

s s u s .
, .

The lower pa t of the embryo develop downward into the

r s

gam etophore form i g the foot which penetrate and b

, n , s o

tain a fi m anchorage in the gam etophore ( Fig 85 B

s r .
, ,

The pper part of the e mbryo develop pward organizing

u s u ,

the eta and cap le In tr e M o e when the embryo

s su . u ss s,

becom e too large for the venter of the archegoni m in

s u

which it i developing the archeg ni m i broken near the

s , o u s

ba e of the venter and i carried p ward perched on the top

s s u
25
1 02 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

of the c p le like a loo e cap or hood k nown as the lyp

a su s , ca

t (
raFi g 8 2 which s ooner
. or later f
,
llc,ff A s a s o . S

tated bef ore the m s , a

t re tr ct e devel u s u ur

oped from the oo pore s

i called a porogoni s s

m a form of poro u , s

phyt e pec liar to the u

Bryoph y te s .

devel —I n it s fu lle st
pm t the porogoni o en s

m i di ff erentiated u s

into the three region s,

foot t and cap le , se s , su

( Fig 8 2 1 07 ) b t in s .
, u

om e form the t s s se s

m y be lac k ing and a ,

in other the foot l o s a s ,

the porogoni m in thi s u s

la t ca e being o l y the s s n

cap le or pore ca e su s s ,

which after all i the , , s

e ential part of any ss

porogoni m s u .

At fir t the cap l e s su

i olid and it cell s s , s s

F ro . p 85 . i m S oro gon u m are all alike L ater a

of F u n aria : A , an e .

p
b ry o
the (
i m f
)
s d l pi wi hi
oro go n u

h i m
b b
gro p
of
( of.
cell within
e ve o ng t
; B , 0,
n
u s

p ti l fy h
s
ve n t e r

of b i y ea
.

p s be gin
o o ts to di
an arc
ff er
e ar n g in
egon u

p o u ng s o ro s a
i p hi
gon
i m k
a, lyp us

di
n g u p ca

f d w p fro m tho
t ra ( c) ean d a rc h e g o
e aran ce s

i
n u

p
nt o t h e
n ec

m pha ex— f abo

an d

of
t the
the
se n
mga
being
ng t h e

e to
t
oo t

o re
o

A te r
n
u ,
se

G or a n .
apart for the prod uc

tion of pore Thi s s . s

initial gro p of pore prod cing cell i called the h

u s -
u s s a rc e

p
s or ui m a word m eaning
,
the beginning o f pore It s s .
”
1 04 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

ou s part of the higher plant The f er pl nt d s . n a , an

the herb hr b and tree am ong floweri g pl t

s, s u s, s n an s

corre pond to the porogoni m of B yophyte and not to

s s u r s,

the leafy branch ( gametophore ) or m o plant C “

ss .
”
on se

q ently the evol tion of the porogoni m th o gh the

u u s u r u

Bryophyt i t raced with a great deal o f intere t

es s It m y s . a

be o tlined foll ow
u as s

In a liverwort called R i i the i m ple t porogo i m cc a s s s n u

i f o nd
s It i a glob lar cap le wit ho t et or foot
u . s u su , u s a

F ro 88 i agrammatic sect i s of spor g i of li w rts : A R icci a t h e wh ole

D on o on a ve r o

b i ng ar h p i um x pt t h t ril e wall l ay ; B M archa nti a one

. .
, ,

ca p u l s e e c es or e ce e s e er

t h arc h po i u m res trict d t t h e ot h e r h a l f ; D

, ,

h l f t h e ca p u l b e i g s t il
a s e n er e, e es r e o ,

A thocems
n h p ri m t ill m
. arc es t i t d b i g d om sh aped a d cappi ng a
o u s ore re s r c e . e n e- n

c n tral s te il
e ti th
r e l me ll (aol) —A ft G s n s t
ssue , e co u a . er o .

( Fig 8 6 A ) The
. on ly terile
, ti e i the
. ingle layer o f s ssu s s

cell forming the wall all th cell within the wall b

s , e s e

lon ging to the arche pori m The ripe porogoni m s u . s u ,

therefore i nothing b t a thin walled pore ca e It i

, s u -
s s . s

well to ote that the porophyt e th b egi

n a pore s us n s as s

case and that any ad d itional tr ct re tha t it m y de

, s u u s a

l p later are econda y

ve o s r .

In a other liverwort ( M h ti ) the entire lower hal f

n arc an a

of the porogoni m i terile while in the pper hal f the e

s u s s ,
u r
 BR Y O P H Y T E S 1 05

is a ingle layer of terile cell

s a wall bo t the arche s s as a u

sp i m
or u which i co m po ed
, o f all the re m aining cell o f
s the s s

u pper half ( Fig 86 B) It will be noted that the terile .

, . s

ti e i thi porogoni m h encroached pon the arche

ss u n s s u as u

sp i m
or u which i re tricted
, to one hal f of the b ody Isn s .

thi ca e the arche pori m h th form of a he m i phere

s s s u as e s .

In another liverwort ( J g m i ) the arche pori m un er ann a s u

i till m ore re tricted ( Fig

ss The terile ti e i organ
s . s ssu s

F re . S7 . D i ag ammat i c sect i on
r o f spe F IG . 88 . Se ct ih sp rog i m f
on t h ro u g o on u o

rog on iu m of a J u n germa n n ia form , Sph ag m nu h wi g p l ( k) wi th

, s o n ca su e

s h wio ng i
d ff e re n t i ti
a on in t o f oo t . old arch eg i m ck ( ah ) calyptra ( ca)
on u ne , ,

p l th a
se t s , an d ca s u e , e rc h spo
e riu m d m h p d mas f sp g
o e- s a e s ti
s ou o ro e nou ss e

res tr icte d t upp pa t o er r of sporogo ( spa) d an l m ll a ( co) l t h b u l b

co u e a so e

f
, .

n u i m —A te r G ora n
. on e f t ( spf ) i mb dd e d i t h p ud o
oo e n e se
—A fte Scn m r s n
.

p di um
o r .

ize d into a foot and a eta d the arch e pori m i a m s , an s u s co

p t
arai l y m all m a of
ve cell in the pper
s part of the ss s u

sporogoni m u .

In another liverwort ( A th ) the terile ti e n ocer os s ssu or

g i f
an ze s oot and eta and the arche pori m i till m ore s , s u s s

e tricte d ( F ig 86 D ) In tead of a olid hem i pherical

r s .
, . s s s
1 06 P L A N T STR UCT UR E S

mass, it i a dome haped ma the inner cell of the h emi

s -
S ss, s

sphere having becom e te i le T hi central gro p o f terile

s r . s u s

cell which i rro nded by the ar s s su u

h p i m i called the c l m ll
es or u s co u e a,

which m ean a mall col mn s s u .

”

I n a m o called Sph g m there ss a nu

i the am e do m e haped s h p i s -
s arc es or

m with the col m ell a u in A u , as n

th b t it i relatively m aller oce r os, u s s

on acco nt of the m ore ab n d a t u u n

terile ti e ( Fig s ssu .

I n t h highe t M o e s the arch e e s ss

p i m beco m e ery m all

s or u m s v s as co

pared with the sterile ti e ( Fig ssu .

A foot a long eta and an , s ,

elaborate cap le are organized f rom su

the terile ti e whil e the arch s ssu , e

p i m i haped li k e the wall

s or u o f s S s

a barrel tho gh the dom e haped , as u -

s

arche pori m of Sph g m or A s u a nu n

th had become te ile at the oceros s r

apex In thi way the col m ella i . s u s

contin ed th ro gh th cap l e and u u e su ,

i not capped b y the arche pori m s s u .

Thi erie in d icate that afte s s s s r

the porogoni m begi n a impl s u s as s e

pore ca e ( R i i ) it te dency i s s cc a , s n s

to increa e terile ti e and to e s s ssu r

trict porogeno ti e ing t h s s us ssu , us e

p i
terile ti e in the for m ation of the
s ssu
F
m
ro

u
. 89
m
of a
.

h w organ
Y ou n g
true
o the
s o rog on
f
oss , s p orogoni
o
m b o d y s
s s u , a
f
ing y f oot eta cap le wall etc
oo t , se t s , an d ou n g
, s , su s, .

p l whi h
ca s u e ,

m (d
ch e sporiu
in
A m ong
c

ark er
t
th e
h G reen
o
p r
ar
Al g m there is e

i ) b l p
t on is a form k nown
arre -
sh a e d , an dC l h t who e as o eoc ae e , s
l m ll
th rough it th e
b ody re
co u
e m ble tho e o f the im
e a is
s s s s
i wi h
con t n uous t t h e lid
f e t L i erwort ig W e
.

m
A t er O s p l an .
( F s h v s . n
1 08 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

however it how an in t ere ting evol tio from it im

, s s s u n s s

p l t
es condition in the L iverwort t it m o t co m plex con s o s s

dition i the tr e M o e n u ss s.

I the L iverwort the pore develop a flat thall

n s body s s us ,

one plate of cel l or m ore in thic kne which generally

s ss,

branche dichotom o ly ( s 2 9 ) and form a m ore or le

us se e s ss

exten ive body ( Fig

s Th i thall i the gam etophyt e
. s us s ,

there being no di ff erentiation into protonem a and leafy

b nch
ra .

In the i m pler L iverwort the s organ ( antheridia s se x s

an d chegonia ) are cattered over the back of this thall

ar s us

( Fig . I other f or m they

n beco m e collected in cert in s a

defi ite region of the thall

n s In other form the e d fi u s. s s e

nite ex al region becom e di ff erentiated f rom th re t of

s u s e s

t h thall
e di k I other f orm the e di k b ring
u s as s s . n s s s s, ea

th e se x organ beco m e hort talk ed and in other long

s, s -
s , s

s talk ed ntil a reg lar branch ari e f rom the thall

, u u s s us

body ( Fig 96 s Thi erect branch bearing the e

.
, s , s x or

g an i
s, o f co
s, r e a ga m etophoreu s b t ,it i leafle the , u s ss,

thall body doing the chlorophyll work

us .

In the Sph g m M o e the pore d evelop the m e

a nu ss s s s sa

k ind of flat thall ( Fig b t the

us ga m etop h ore b . u e

c om e leafy haring the chlorophyll work with the thall

s , s us .

I the tr e M o e m o t of the chlorophyll work i done by

n u ss s s s

the leafy gam etophore and the flat thall i red ced to ,
us s u

br nching filam ent ( the protone ma ) ( Fig

a s .

The protone m a of the tr e M o e therefore cor e u ss s, , r

s p ond to the
s flat t h all o f the L iver w ort and S h
p gus m s a nu ,

while the leafy b ranch corre pond to the leafle gam eto s s ss

phore fo nd in om e L iverwort It al o se em evident

u s s . s s

that the gam etoph ore w ori ginally t apart to bear as se se x

organ and that the leave which appear pon it i t h

s, s u n e

M os e s s are s b eq ent tr ct re s u s u s u u .
 CH A P T E R VII I
TH E G R E A T G R O U P S O F BR Y O P H Y T E S

E P A TI cm verwor ts)
H ( L i

68 . General ch aract er —L iverwort s li ve

a variety of . in
o d ition om e floating on the water m ny in d amp
c n s, s , a

place and ma y t h e bark of t ee In gene al they

s, n on r s. r are

m oi t re loving pl t ( hy d rophyt e ) tho gh som e can

s u -
an s s , u en

d re great d y e
u The gam etophy te body i pro trate
r n ss . s s ,

tho gh there m y be erect and leafl e gam etophore

u a ss s .

T hi pro trate habit d e v 1 p a d o i

s s —
t l body that e 0 s rs ven ra

i one who e two

s, rfa e ( d l and t l) are expo ed
s su c s orsa ven ra s

to di ff erent conditio and becom e nlik e in tr ct re In ns u s u u .

L iverwort the ventr l s rfa e i again t t h b trat m a su c s s e su s u ,

and p t t n m ero hair lik e proce e ( hi id ) for b

u s ou u us -
ss s r zo s a

sorption and anchorage T h dor al region is expo ed to . e s s

the light and it cell develop chlorophyll If the thall

s s . us

i thin chl o
s rophyll i developed in all the cell i f it be
, s s so

thick that the light i t ff from t h ventral cell t h s cu o e s, e

thall i di ff e entiated into a green dor al region doing the

us s r s

chlorophyll work and a colorle ventral region prod cing

, ss u

ab orb ing rhizoid T hi latter represent a i mple diff er

s s . s s s

en ti ti a of the n tritive body into work ing region the

on u s,

ventral region ab orb ing material and cond cting it to the

s u

green dor al cell which s it in mak ing food

s u se .

T here ee m t have b een at lea t three m ai

s s o line of s n s

developm ent am ong L iverwort each beginni g in form s, n s

wi th a ve y i m ple thall r and developing in di ff e r nt di

S u s, e

rec tio T hey

n s. brie fly indi cated follow
are as s :
1 09
 69 . H amh antia f orma — In thi line the i m ple thall s s us

g ra d allyub eco m es change d into a very co m pl x one The e .

thall retain it i m ple us s s s

o tline b t b ecom e thick u s, u s

and di ff erentiated in ti s s u es

(g ro p o f i m i lar cell ) u s s s .

The line m y be di tin a s

g i h d there f ore one

u s e , , as

in which the di ff erentia

t ion o f the ti e of t h ssu s e

gam etophyte i e mpha ized s s

( Fig 91 In M s . ar

F m 91 A ve r y small sp i
e c es o f
h ti
R i ccia ,
proper the thall
c an a us

b eco m e very com plex

. .

on e of t h e M e rc h an t ia f mor s : A . a d s , an
grou p of h ll
t a us b di
o es li h ly
s g t it m y b e taken
en
an ill a as us
larged B, i
sec t o n o f a h ll
t a h w
u s, s o

in g hi id and t w sp g i
r zo s o oro on a im t rat ion .

bed de d a d c mm i cat i g wi t h
n o

ts id e b y t b l ar passages i
The thall i
un
thick n th e
us s so

t h l lus —
th e
that there are very di tinct
ou u u n

a A ft Sr a nu o er ss a nn .
s

green dor l d colorle sa an ss

ventral region ( Fig The latter p t s t n m ero . u s ou u us

rhizoid d cale from t h ingle layer of epiderm al cell

s an s s e s s .

A bove the ven t ral epider m i are everal layer o f colorle s s s ss

P ro 92 R iccioca rpu s a M arc h a t i f m h wi g m

n a or s o n nu e rous r hi id f m
zo s ro v e n t ra l
b hi g d t h p i t i
. .
, ,

f
su r ace , t h e di h c oto mo u s ran c n . an e os on of th
e p g ia
s o ro on on th e
d orsa ls ur f ac e a l o ng t he mi d i bs
r .
"
F ro . 95 ion through cup ule of M arch a nt ia sh owing wall
. Sect , in w hich are chl o ro

phyll beari g ai c hambers wi t h air p res a d gamma ( a )

-
n r- in vari ous s t ag e s of

d e velopmen t —
-
o n

A f te r Kn
,

F ro . 96 . H a rch a nt ta pol ymorpha : t h e l

figure repre sents a gametoph yt e bear
o wer
in g a mat e h id ur s me y ou ng an t h erid ia] b ran ch es an d also
an t e r ial b ranch o ,

s me c p u l s wi th t oot h ed marg i s in wh i ch th e ge mm
o u e n , may b e see ; th e le n

u pper fi gure re presen ts a part ial sect i o t h ro gh th e a t h e rid ia] d isk and sh ows
n u n

an t h eridia wi th i n t h e ant h eri d ia] ca i t ies ( a b c d s f ) — A f te r e

,

v , , , , , . .
 TH E G R E A T G R O UP S O F BR Y O P H Y T E S 113

cell more or le modi fied for o d ctio Abo e the e

s ss c n u n. v s

the d or l region i orga ized into a erie of large air cham

sa s n s s

be i to which project chl orophyll containing cell i t h e

rs, n -
s n

F ro . 97 . H arch an tt a poly morpha , a. co mmon li verw ort : 1 , th a ll us , wi th i

rh zo id s,

b ea rin g a h
l bran ch (f ) and se ra l y unger es ( a b c d e) ;
ma t u re arc e gon ia ve o on , , , ,

z a d 3 d rsal
n ,d tral i ws f a h g n ia! di s k ; L a d 6 y un g poro phy t e
o an ve n v e o rc e o n ,
o s

( sp g i m) e mb y s ; 6 m re mat ure sp g i um s t ill wi t hi l a g d en ter

o ro on u r o . o oro on n en r e v

f a h g i m ; 7 mat sp g i m di h a g i g spo e s ; 8 t h ree sp res and

l ate —A fte K n r
o rc e on u , ure oro on u sc r n r ,
o

an e r. r .

form of hort branchi g filam e t O verarching the i

s n n s . a r

cham b er i the dor al epiderm i

s d piercing thro gh it
s s s, an u

into each air chamb er is a con pic o air pore (F ig 94 B ) s u us .

,
.
114 P L A N T STR UCT UR E S

The air chambe are o tlined on the s f e as mallrs u u r ac s

rhombic are ( lw) each containing i gle air por

as a reo , a s n e.
P ec lia reprod ctive bo d ie
u r al o developed pon u s are s u

the do al s face o f M h ti for vegetative m ltipli ca

rs ur a rc a n a u

M arc/ mat te pa gmorph a : 1, pa t i l

r a sec t oni
h ugh a ch e gon i al d i sk sh ow t ro r ,

in g arch g n i a wi t h l g k and t c ta i i g gg ; 9 y u g arc h eg

e o on ne c s. v e n e rs on n n e s ,
o n o

i
n um s h wi g i l w; 1 0 p rfi ial i w at l t t g ; 1 1 mat arch egO
o n ax a ro . su e c v e a er s a e . u re o

i
n u m. wi t h ax i al w d i o ga i d a d l
ro s r ing a pe n pas g t th l a g e gg ;
n ze n ea v n o sa e o e r e

L2, cross e ct i n
s
-
fo n te ; 1 3 cro ss sec t i n o f n eck —
o ve r . A f te Kn r
-
o r .

tio n . ittle c p ( p l ) appear and in them are me

L u s cu u es ,
nu r

ou s s hort talked bodie ( g mm ) which are ro nd d

-
s s e ae ,
u an

fl at ( b i c it
s u ha ed
p ) and m-
anyscelle d ( Fig 95 T h -
s .
,
e
 P L A NT ST R UCT UR E S

le eav s here are r lly three rows of lea es b t the third

. T ea v , u

i o the entr l i d e agai t the

s n v b trat m and i ofte
a s ns su s u , s n

so m ch m o di fied
u not to lo k lik e the other leave s I
as o . n

co eq ence of thi the J g m i form are s ally

ns u s un er ann a s u u

called l afy li e wort to di ting i h them fro m the

“
e v r s, s u s

li e worts both J u ge man n i a f

T wo v r , n r o rms : t o th e le ft i Blasts whi ch re
s ,

ta i s t h e t h ll
n f m b t h as l b d m g i
a us or u o e ar ns ; to th e rig h t is Scapa ia wi t h dis n ,

t in ct l ea es an d porog
v ia ( A )
s on .

other L iverwort which are thallo e They are al o

s,
“
s . s

oft en called cale mo e on acco nt of their m o like

s ss s,
”
u ss -

appearance d their mall cale li k e leave

an s s -
s .

The line m y be di ting i hed therefore a one i s u s , , as n

which the di ff ere tiation of the form of the gam etophyt e

n

i e m pha ized
s A other di ting i hing mark i that the
s . n s u s s

sporogoni m h a prom inent e ta d the cap le plit

u as s , an su s s

down into fo r piece ( l ) when opening to di charge

u s ,
va ves s

the pore ( Fig 1 00 C )

s s .
, .

.
—
7 1 A nth oceros forma Thi line contain co m parativel y s s

few form b t they are of great intere t

s, u they are p s , as su

po ed
s to re pre ent f or m which ha e g
si ven ri e to t h s v s e
 T H E G R E A T G R O UP S O F BR YO P H YT E S 117

F ro 1 m S pe c i es of l fy li e rwo t s sh owing d i ff e e nt le af
Le pid ozta , a ge n u s of ea v r r

po g i m by f u a l es In C
.
.
,

f rms a d i A a d C t h e
o ,
n n n d e h isceu ce o f th e s ro on u o r v v .
'

rhi id s are e id t ; a d i B D a d E t h e th ree r w f lea es are see th e

zo v en n n n o s o v n,

l e s f th e n t ral w be i g c mparat i e ly small —A fte E n e m a a d P a w n

, ,

ea v o ve ro n o v . r n .

M o e and po ibly t the P te idophyte l o T h e

ss s, ss o r s a s .

thall i ery i m ple b ei g di ff erenti ted either i

us s v s , n a n n

str t re form
uc u in the t w other line ; b t t h e
n or , as o s u

26
118 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

special de elopm ent h been in connection with the

v as

sporogoni m ( Fig 93 u s .
,

Thi complex porogoni m ( porophyt e ) h a large

s s u s as

b lb o foot imbedded in the i m ple thall

u us while s u s,

abo e there a i e a long p d like cap le The m

v r s s o -
su . co

plex wall of thi cap s s

le contain chlorophyll su

d air pore that an s, so

the porogoni m i s u s or

g i d for chlorophyll an ze

work If the foot co ld . u

end ab orb ing proce es s s ss

into the oil thi poro s , s s

phyte co ld li e i de u v n

pendent f the gameto o

~
~

phyte In opening to .

di charge pore the pod s s s

like cap le plit down su s s

into two valve s .

Another pec liarity u

of the A th form n ocer os s

i in co nection with s n

the anthe i d ia and arch r

g i The e orga e on a . s n s,

in tead of growing t s ou

free from the body of the

l
F ro

m
.

phy
ga
1 01
e to
.

whi h i h
te s
thall
A nthoceros
on
in
c
other
gracilis
L
:
i
s po rogon a
A , se ve ra

ave
u s, as v

w t are i m b edde d in
.

d l p e ve o l d p
ed i m
; B an e n arg e . s oro go n u , er or s,
h wi s o l d h
n g it s e o n gat e
it The ignificance
c arac te r a n d d e
of
by w l l i
h isc e u ce p d
t o v a ve s ea v n g e x ose
. s

l d
t he l m ll
s en fe r co u thi pec liari ty lie in
e a on th e s u r ace of s u s
whi h p
t e rs
c

f m
of
are

p — f
th e
vari ous
the fact
s
that
o re s ;
it
; G,
i a
C I)
,
char , E
'
, F , e la

A te r
s

acter which belong to

or s s o re s .

Sc a rs-t u na .
s

the P te idoph yt e r s.

The chie f direction of developm ent of t h three liv e

erw t line m y be
or mm ed p b riefly
s a follow The su u as s :

M ch n ti line h as d i ff erenti ate d t h

ar a a tr ct re of t h e e s u u
1 20 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

in contra t with the dor iventral thall referring

r a dia l, s s u s,

to the fact that it i expo ed to i m ilar con d ition all s s s s

aro nd and it organ are arranged ab o t a central axi

u , s s u s

like the part of a rad iate ani m al Thi po ition i m ch

s . s s s u

m ore favora ble for the

chlorophyll work than
the dor iventral po i s s

tion the pecial , as s

c h l o r o p h y l l organ s

( leave ) can be pread s s

t to the light freely ou

in all d irection s
.

It ho l d be s u re

m arked that the g m a

t ph y t in all gro p e o e u s

of plant i a thall s s u s,

doing it chlorophyll s

work when it doe , s

any in a dor iventral , s

po ition ; the only ex s

p t i b i g the ce on e n ra

di al leafy b ranch that

ari from the thal se s

l of M o e From us ss s .

Mo e onward the ss s
F m m) h wi b
ro . 1 02
ea
(
l fy b h m ph
. A
hd
ra n c g
os s
m t
Bry u
h
p y
( ga e t o
t b o m e
,

o re )
s o ng

a t ta c e
as e of

to th e
a
a e o e co s
p
p
m
t hem
h i
ro t o n e

fil m
hi id
h
ro to n e
a .
1 and

a]
co
av n g
pic
a
o
e nt
se n t o ut r

to t h e rig
zo s.

t an d b e
On 333 ns u u s, SO

t h at th e rom l n e n t
lo w is t h e y o un g b ud of a n o t h l fy b ra h
er ea nc P
—M 0 leafy plant of the
.

L m s

h igher gro p hold no u s

relation to th little erect leafy branch of the M o

e sse s,

which i p t t by the gam to phyte and which i the

s u ou e ,
s

be t the gam etophyte e er doe toward g tting into a b et

s v s e

t po ition for chlorophyll work

er s .

The leafy b ra ch of the M o ally b com inde n sse s u su e es

pendent f th thall b y p ttin g t rhiz id t it b e

o e us u ou o s a s as
 TH E G R E A T G R O UP S O F B R YO P l I Y TE S 1 21

( g
F i . the thall pa t dying Som eti m e however us r . s, ,

the lam ento protone m a i very per i tent and give ri

fi us s s s , s se

t a perennial
o cce ion of leafy branche
su ss s .

T ip of l fy b c h f a m
ea ra n o oss ( F luna ria ) , b i l
ea r ng a c u s t e r o f se x o rgan s .

sh wi g
o n an o ld a t h i d i m ( A ) a y
n er u o un ge r o n e ( B) so me o f th e i i
c u r ou s ass oc a te d
—A f t
, ,

h ai ( p)
rs , an d l e af ti
sec on s er CA I P B BL L .

At the mm it of the leafy gametophore either po

su ,
u n

the main axi or pon a lateral branch the a the idia and
s u , n r

archegonia are borne ( Fig 8 3 O ft en th leave at s .

, e s

the mm it become m odi fi ed in form and arranged to form

su
1 22 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

a ro ette in the enter of which are the

s , organ Thi c se x s . s

ro ette i often called the m o flower b t it hold no

s s ss ,
”
u s

relation to the flower of Seed plan t and the phra e ho ld -

s, s s u

not b ed A ro ette m y con tain b t one kind of

e us . s a u se x

organ ( Fig 83 or it m y contain both k ind for

s .
, a s,

M o e are both di cio

ss s and m i The two prin oe us on cs c o u s.

cip l g o p are
a follow
r u s as s

7 3 h
Sp ga n um .
—
forma The e large and pallid bog s are

m o e fo nd ab ndantly in m ar hy gro nd e p cially o f

ss s, u u s u , s e

te mperate and arctic region and con pic o peat s, are s u us

form er ( F ig 1 05 A ) The lea e and gam etophore axi

s .
, . v s s

of pec liar t ar e u s ru c

t re to enable them u

to ck p and hold su u

a large am o nt of w u a

ter T hi ab ndant . s u

water torage ti e -
s ssu

and the co mparative

ly poor di play of s

chloroph yll contain

ing cell give the s s

pec liar pallid p u a

pe aran c e .

They re emble the s

L i verwort in the s

broad thall body us

of the gametophyt e ,

P ro . h l b y
1 04 . mT phy al u s
p from which the larg
od of ga e to te of S hag o

e
i hi id ( b d )
m nu

whi h d l p i
c
, g
l
vin g

l fy b h
e ve o
leafy
rise

g m
n to
to r
eto ph or e
th e
zo

arg e
s r ) an d

ea
u s (k

ran c es
a

( m phga ) — f eto m ore s ari e ( F g

. A te r C a u sa .
s s 1

T h ey al o re emble s s

A thn form in t h porogoni m the arche po i m

ocer os s e s u , s r u

b ing a dom e haped ma ( Fig 1 05

e O -
the other
s ss .
,
n

hand they re e mble the tr e M o e not only in the leafy

,
s u ss s,

gam etophore b t al o in the fact that the cap le open

,
u s su s

at the apex by a circ lar lid called the p l m ( Fig u , o er cu u .

1 24 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

called a p d p d i m or fal e talk and in the top of

seu o o u ,
“
s s ,

it i i mb dded the foot of t h porogoni m carrying the

s e e s u

glob lar cap le ( Fig 1 05

u su .
,

—
7 4 True H os ea Thi i mm en e and m o t highly organ
. s s s

iz d Bryophyte gro p contain the great m ajority of the

o u s

M o e w h ic h are o m eti m e called the B g m form to

ss s , s s r u s,

di ting i sh them from the Sph g m form T h ey

s u a nu s . are

F ro . 1 06 . D ifi e re n t s tage s in t h e d e ve l pme n t
o of th e l fy gam t ph
ea e o o re f ro m t h e pro
ton e ma mmon moss
of a co A t h e fi rs t f e w c e lls an d a rhi zo id ( r ) ; B ,
,

C l ate r stage s s h o wi n g api ca l ce l l ( 1 ) an d y oun g l ea ve s

. , D l ate r stage mu ch ,

le ss magn ified sh owi ng p ro ton ema] fi l amen t s an d t h e y oung game to pho re ( gam)
—A fte r Ga m m a
,

t herepre e tative Bryoph yt e the only gro p vying with

s n s, u

them b eing the leafy L iverwort or J g m i form s, un er an n a s .

They grow in ll con di tio of moi t re from act al b

a ns s u ,
u su

m ergence in water to dry rock d they al o fo m exten s, an s r

sive peat depo it in bog s s s

.

The thall body of the gam etoph yt e is made p of

us u

br ching filament ( Fig 8 1

an tho e expo ed to th e s s
.
, s s
 T H E G R E A T G R O UP S O F BR YO P H YT E S 1 25

light containing chlorophyll and tho e in the b t at m , s su s r u

being colorle and acting rhizoid The leafy gam eto

ss as s
.

p h ore sare o f ten highly organized ( Fig 1 02 the s .

,

leave and te m howing a certain amo nt of di ff erentia

s s s s u

tion of ti e ssu s .

It i the sporophyte however which how the great

s , , s s

est am o nt f pecialization ( Fig

u o Th s porogoni m . e s u

P ro 1 07
. . A co mmon moss ( F l e afy sh oot ( g m t ph ore )
u na ri a ) : in t h e ce n te r is th e a e o ,

wi t h h i id se era l l ea es an d a p g i um ( p rophy t ) wi t h a l g t
r zo s, v v . s o ro o n s o e ,
on se a ,

cap l d a t its t ip t h ca lypt ra ( cal ) : t t h e i gh t

su e . an e p ul e wi t h lypto r a ca s ca ra r e

m d h wi ng th e p l m ( o) ; t t h l f t y u g p g n ium p hi g p
ov e s o o e rc u u o e e a o n s o ro o us n u

fr m th l fy hoot —A ft Ca n a s t a
,

t h e calypt ra o e ea s er .

h as a foot and a long l ender eta b t t h cap le i e pe s s , u e su s s

i lly co m plex
c a The arche pori m i red ced to a m all
. s u s u s

hollow cylinder ( Fig the cap le wall i m o t elabo . su s s

t ly con tr cted and the col m ella r n th ro gh the

ra e s u , u u s u
F ro . 1 m i di al e ct i n f moss capsu l e
. L o ng tu n s o o

h wi g its mpl x h a t :
s o n co e c rac e r

f o pe
o, l m; p p i t m
rcu u c c l m l
, er s o e : c,
’
,
o u e

l ; a p g ti
a, s oro e n o us
; t id f th ss ue ou s e o s e

c m pl x w ll c
o i ti g f l y
e a f ll
ons s n o a e rs o ce s

a d nl g p par e ( It ) t ra rs d b y
o en s ac e s ve e

s trand s o f t iss ue —A f te r G o aa a n .

F ro . 1 09 . P art i l l o g i t di al
a n u n

sec t on t i h ro gh a u moss cap

su e : l A y g
. o un er ca p l
su e ,

s h wio ng wa ll ce lls (a )
, lls
ce

o f l c o u me ll a (ii . an d s po rog

e n ou s ce ll s (m ) ; B . so me

wh a t o ld e r ca p l
su e , a an d t
sa me as bf e ore , an d am th e

P ro . 1 10 porog i a f G im mia f rom all f

. S on o r o
p
s o re mo t h e r ce ll s —A ft
. er
,
G or a n
wh i ch th p l m h fa ll di pl yi g .

e o e rc u u as en , s a n

t h p i t m t th
e er s o A p itie f t h te t h
ee ,
os on o e e

wh d y ; B pos i t i o wh
en r m i st —A ft
, n en o er

Ka au a n .
 CH A P T E R IX
m a mo p m as ( F E RN p u m a)

75 .
—introd cing the B y
Summary from Bry op yt es In
h u r o

h
p y t a es ary fro
su m m the
m Thallophyte w given ( s as se e

indicating certain im portan t thing which that gro p s u

h as contrib ted to the evol tion of the plant kingd om

u u .

I n intr d cing the P teridophyte it i well t notice ce tain

o u s s o r

i mportant add ition m ad e by t h Bryophyte s e s .

( )
1 A lt ti f g
er n a t i — The
on o great fact of alter
e n era on s .

nating ex al ( gam etophyte ) and exle ( poroph y te ) gen

s u s ss s

e rati fi r t clearly expre ed by the Bryoph y te altho gh

on s i s s ss s, u s

it beginning are to be fo nd a m ong the Thallophyte

s s u s!

E ach generation prod ce one kind of pore fro m which iu s s , s

developed the other generation .

( )
2 G m t h
p y ta t h h l
e o h
p y gll e ti — O
e c acco nt or o en era on . n u

of thi fact the food i chiefly m an fact red by the gam eto
s s u u

phyt e which i therefore the m ore con pic o generation

, s s u us .

W hen a m o or a li erwo t i poken of therefore the

ss v r s s , ,

gam etophyte i ally refe red t

s u su r o .

( )
3 G a m e t o h
p y t e and spor oph
y t e n ot in d epen d e n t — The
sporophyt i m ainly d pendent pon the gam etophyte for
e s e u

it n trition and re m ain attached to it being co mm only

s u , s ,

called the porogoni m and it only f nction i to prod ce

s u , s u s u

spore s .

( ) tha llu s i n t o st em
'

4 D ifi e re n t i a t i on o f and lea ves .

Thi appear incom pletely in the leafy L iverwort ( J g

s s s un er

m i form ) and m ch m ore clearly in t h erect and

a nn a s u e

r dial leafy branch ( gam etophore ) of the M o e

a ss s.

1 28
 P TE R I D O P H YTE S 1 29

( )
5 M a n y
-
celled antheridia and the
sex orga n s —The
fl ask haped archegonia are very cha acteri tic of B y
-
s r s r o

h
p y t contra
e s as ted with Thallophyte
s s .

7 6 G en .ral h
c a act e
r ers o f P te rid o h
p yt s
e — The name m ean s

fer plantn and the Fern are the m o t n m ero and the
s,
”
s s u us

m ost repre entative form of the gro p A ociated w th i

s s u . ss

them ho wever are t h H or etail ( Sco ing r he ) and

, , e s s ur us s

the Cl b m o e By many the P teridophyte are tho ght

u -
ss s. s u

to have b een derived from ch L iverwort the A th su s as n o

ceros form while o m e think that they m y po i bly have

s, s a ss

been derived directly from the Green Alg W hatever ae .

their ori gin they are very di tinc t from Bryophyte

, s s .

O of the very i m portant facts i the appearance of

ne s

the va c lar y te m which m ean a y tem of ve el

s u s s , s s s ss s,
”

organized for cond cting m aterial thro gh the plant bodyu u .

The appearance of thi y tem m ark ome ch epoch in s s s s s su

the evol tion of plant u i m ark ed in ani m al by the

s as s s

appearance of the back b one A ani mal are often .

”
s s

g ro ped
u vertebrate
as and invertebrate plant
s are “
s,
”
s

often gro ped u va c lar plant and non va c lar

as s u s -
s u

plant the form er being the P terid oph yte and Spermato
s,
”
s

h
p y t the
e s, latter being the Thallophyte and B ryophyte s s .

P teridophyte are of great intere t there f ore

s b eing the s , , as

fi r t va c lar plant
s s u s.

77 Al ternati on of gen rations — Thi alternation con e s

tin e in the P teridophyte b t i even m ore di tinct than

n s s, u s s

in the Bryophyte the gam etophyte and porophyt e b s, s e

com ing in d epe dent f one a other An o tline of the life

n o n . u

hi tory of an ordinary fern will ill trate thi fact and will
s us s ,

serve al o to point t the prom inent tr ct re U pon the

s ou s u u s .

lower rface of th leave of an ordinary fer dark pot

su e s n s s

or line are often e en The e are fo nd to yield pore

s s . s u s s,

with which the li fe hi tory m y be beg n s a u .

W hen ch a pore germ inate it give ri e to a mall

su s s s s s ,

green hear t,
haped thall -
s re e m b ling a delicate and
u s,im s s

pl eliverwort ( g
F i 1 1 1 A ) U p on .thi s tha ll
,
s anthe ri di a
. u
1 30 P L A N T ST R UCT U RE S

an d archegonia appear that it i e i d e tly a gameto , so s v n

phyte Thi gam etophyte e cape ord inary attent ion it

. s s s , as

i ally very mall and lie pr trate pon t h b t

s u su s , s os u e su s ra

t m u It h received the nam e p th lli m or p th ll

. as ro a u ro a u s,

so that when the term prothalli m i ed the gam etophyt e u s us

of P teri dophyte i generally ref erred to j t when the s s us as

term porogoni m i ed the porophyte of the Bryophyt e

s u s us s s

i referred to
s W ithin an archegoni m borne pon thi little
. u u s

prothalli m an oo pore i form ed W hen the oo pore ger

u s s . s

F te . ill . P rot h alli u m of a c om mo n f e rn ( A sptd ium ) : A , ve n tra l f

s u r ace , s h o wi ng
r hi id zo s ( rh ) an t h idi ( )
er a an an d arc h e go n a i ( a r) ; B , l f
ve n t ra su r ace o f ld
an o er

t ( w) an d l a f
. ,

ga me tophy t e, s h wi g hi id
o n r zo s ( rh ) an d y ou ng s p ro phy t wi t h
o e roo e

b
( ) — A f te S
. r c a ns c x .

it develop the large leafy plant ordinarily poken

m in a t e s s s

of the fern with it b terranean t e m from which

as ,
”
s su s ,

root de cen d and from which large branching leave ri e

s s , s s

ab ove the rface of the gro nd ( F i g 1 1 1 B ) It i in

su u .
, . s

thi com plex b ody that the va c lar y te m appear N

s s u s s s . o

se x organ are d eveloped pon it b t the leave b ear n m er

s u , u s u

ou s sporangia f ll of a ex al pore Thi com plex va c lar

u s u s s
. s s u

p lant therefore i a poroph yt e and corre pond in thi

, , s s , s s s

life hi tory to the porogoni m of t h Bryo ph yte

s T hi s s u e s.
1 32 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

U nder ert ain other condi tion prothallia are ob er d to

c s s ve

spro t directly from the leafy porophyte in tead of from

u s s

a pos T hi i called p p y m eaning

re . s s with t a a os or , ou

spore .
”

7 8 Th gamet op yt e
. h e— The prothalli m lik e a i mple u , s

liver wort i a dor ivent al body and p t t n m ero s

, s s r ,
u s ou u u

F lo 1 12 Stag h orn
-
f e rn (H a n/cer iu m grand s) , an e piphy t i c t pi cal f m h wi g
ro or s o n

f
. .
,

th e t wo o rms o f l ea ve s : a an d b, y o un g ste ri l e l ea ves ; c l ea

,
bea i g po
ves r n s

raugia ; d, an old s te ri e l l ea f .

rhizoid f om it ventral rface ( Fig

s r s It i thin su . s so

that all the cell contain chlorophyll and it i

s ally hort , s u su s

liv e d In rare cases it be co me q ite large and perm anent

. s u ,
F lo . 1 13 . A mh e go n iu m of P ter ts at t h e t i m f f t ilizat io h wi g t is
e o er f ga m
n, s o n s ue o

e t o ph y t e ll f
( A ) . t h e c e s orm i g n t he n ec k ( B ) t h pa sag w y f rm d by th d is
. e s e a o e e

o rga n i i
zat o n o f t h e cana c e l ll s an d th gge ( D
e ) lyi g x pose d in tnh en t e re e v .

-
Ca w wam ..

F ro 1 14 A n th e r idi u m of h
P ter is ( B ) s ow ng wa ce s ( a ) o i ll ll pe n i ng f or p
e sca e of

f f
. . , ,

sp h ll p
e rm mo t e r ce s ( e ) e sc a e d mo t e r c e s h
s pe rms re e ll ro m mo t h er c
e ll s ( b)
—
, ,

sh owing s pi l
ra an d mu t c l i ili
a te chamc te r CAL D W E L L . .
1 34 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

be ing a c n pic o s object in con ection with the

o s u u n spo o r
h
p y t e .

At the bottom f the co pic s notch in the p o ns u ou rot h al

li m i the g owing point

u s r ,

repre enting the ape x of the

s

p lant Thi . not h i alway s c s s

a con pic o feat re

s u us u .

The antheridia and arch

e g i
on a are ally developed u su

on the nder rface of the u su

prothalli m ( F ig 1 1 1 A ) u .
, ,

an d di ff er f o m tho e of all r s

B yophyt e
r e xcept the A s, n

th oce ros form in b ing nk s, e su

in the ti e of the p th l ssu ro a

li m d openi g on the
u an n su r

F m 1 1 15 l pme t f game t phy t e

De ve o n o o P ro 1 1 6 ph
Y oun g game t o y t e of P teris
of F loris : t h e fi gure t th l f t h w
. . . . .

o e e s o s sh i p
ow n g old s ore wa ll
( B) , r zo s hi id
th ld s pore ( B ) t h e rhi
e o id ( C ) a d
, zo , n api ca l c ll ( D ) a y ou
e , n g an t h r
e

t h t h all u s ( A ) ; t h at t ig h t i id ium ( E ) and an ld i wh i c h

—
e th o e r s , o e r on e n

o ld r sh owing t h e
e , am p ts an d s e ar , s p rms h ave organ i ed ( F
e z L CA L D
also t h e api ca l ce ll ( D ) .
P ro 1 1 8
. . A f
e rn ( A spid i um ) , s h o win g h
large branchi n g l ea es comi g from a
t ree v n

h i ta l
or zo n bte rran an t m ( t t k ) : y ng lea are l h w whi h
su e s e ro o s oc ou v es a so s o n, c

Sh w o i rc i na t
c at i o
e Th
ve rn t m y
n .
g l es a d p t i l
e s e f th
,
la rge
ou n ea v . n e o es o e

l are t hi c k ly c
ea ve s re d wi t h p
o ve t t i g h a i rs Th e t m g i
ro e c i t n m s
n s e ves r se o u e ro u

ts f m it l w r
.

s m lla ro o ro s fac Th fig re ma k d 3 re pr e n t t h d
o e s ur e . e u r e es s e un er su r

f f a po t i
ace o rf t h l ea f s h wi g
on o e n so ri wi t h
. hi ld li k i d i ; t 5 is
o n se v e s e -
e n us a a

re p t d a
re se n e ti t hr gh a
se c on m h wi g th p rang i tt h d a d p
ou so e. s o n e s o a a ac e n ro

te ct d b y t h i n d us i m ; whil e t 6 i
e e u p te d a s i n gl
a p gi m p i g
s re re se n e s o ran u o en n

an d di c ha rg i n g it
s pore th h y an n l xte nd ing along t h e bac k and o er
s s s, e ea v u us e v

th e t o p —A f t er W oss xn w .
 P T E R ID O P H Y T E S 1 37

idia be gin to appear very early ( Fig and later the .

archegonia ( Fig If the prot halli m i p rly no r

. u s oo u

i hed only anthe idia appear ; it need t o b well developed

e , r s e

and no ri hed to develop arch gonia There ee m t be

u s e . s s o

a v ry definite relation there fore betwee n n trition and

e , , u

the developm e t of the t w organ a fact which m t

n o se x s, us

b re m e mbered in connection with certain l ate r d v lop

e e e

m ent s .

7 9 Th sporophyt e
.
— T hi com ple x body i di ff erentiated
e s s

into r t t m and leaf and i m ore highly organized

oo , s e , , s

than any plant body heretofore m entioned ( F ig Th . e

develop ment of thi body a d it three great work ing region s n s s

m t b e con idered eparately

us s s .

( )
1 D lopm t f m b y
—
eveThe oo pore f o menwhic h o e r o . s , r

the porophyt e dev elop r t in the v nter of the arch

s s, es s e e

g oni m which at
u thi t ag
, e m ble a depre ion i t h s s e r se s ss n e

F ro . 1 19 bryos f a common f ( P ier ts) : A yo ng e mb ryo sh owing direct i on

. Em o e rn
-
. u ,

of b asa l w ll ( I ) an d of sec o d wall ( I I ) whi ch organ i e q ad ra t

a n s ea h f z u n s, c o

b q tly d e e l ps i t f t if ) ro t ( w) l ea f a d ste m ( s) ; B an
, .

whi h c su se uen v o n o oo o n

l d mb y in which th f f
. . ,

o er e r o, g i n ( l tt e re d
e as in A )
o u r re h a e doe e l pe
s d rt h e v v o u e r,

also h wi g s n te
o f arc h e go i m ( a m) a d
n ve r o me t i ss e f th e p t ha lli m ( pr)
n u . n so u o ro u .

—A f te K I B i G l R w P F ; B ft e H n n zn
a r N a r o rsr .

lower face of the prothalli m ( Fig 1 1 9 B) It germ i

su r u .
, .

nate at once in Bryophyt e not bei g a re ti g por

s , as s, n s n s e

asin Green Algm T h re ting t ge i the Bry ophyte . e s s a , as n s,

1 38 P L A NT ST R UCT UR E S

is in onnection with the ex al pore which m y b

c as u s s, a e

kept for a lo g ti m e and then germinated

n .

The fi t t ep in germ ination i for the oo pore to di

rs s s s

vide into t w cell forming a two elled m bryo In the

o s, -
c e .

ordinary F r th i fir t di idi ng wall i t right ngle t

e ns s s v s a a s o

the fac of the prothalli m and i called the b l w ll

su r e u , s a sa a

( Fig 1 1 9
. A ) O , f the .two c ll therefore
ne o i a t ri or e s, , s n e

( toward the no t c h o f the prothalli m ) and the ot h er i u , s

po t erior
s .

T h two cell ne t d i ide by for m in g wall

e s x t righ t v s a

angle t the ba al wall and a fo r celled embryo i the

s o s , u -
s

re lt Th i i called the q ad ant t ge of the m

su . s s u r s a e

b y r o, as eac h one of the fo r cell i li k e the q ad ant of a u s s u r

s phere .

W ith the appea nce o f the q ad ant f o r body re gio

ra u r , u ns

are organ ized each cell by it b eq ent di i ion gi i g

, s su s u v s s v n

ri e to a di tinct work ing regi on ( Fig 1 1 9 A ) Two of the

s s .
, .

cell are in er ( away from the b trat m ) al o one of the

s n su s u s

inner and one of t h te r ( toward the b trat m ) cell

e ou su s u s

are anterior while the two other inner and o ter cell u s are

po te rior T h a terior o ter ll d l p the fir t leaf of

s . e n u ce _
e ve o s s

the e mbryo generally called the ty l d ( F ig 1 1 9 b) t h

,
co e on .
, e

ante ri or inner cell develop the te m ( Fig 1 1 9 ) the p s s .

, s os

t i
e r or o ter cell develop the fi r t ( prim ry ) root ( Fig
u .
s s a .

1 1 9 w) ; the po t r or nner cell develop a pecial organ

, s e i i s s

for the of the e mbryo called the f t ( F ig 1 1 9 f)

u se , oo .
, .

T h foot re m ain in clo e con t act wit the pro thalli m and
e s s h u

ab orb no ri h m ent from it for the yo ng e mbryo When

s s u s u .

the yo ng porophyte h developed eno gh to becom e i

u s as u n

dependent the foot di appear It i therefore poken of s s . s s

as a tem porary organ of the em bryo It i nece ry for the . s ssa

le f to e m erge from beneath the prothalli m and it m y

a u , a

be een ally c rving pward thro gh the notch T h

s u su u u u . e

other part re mai bterranean s n su .

( )
2 Th t — The pr
e r ooi m a y root orga ized by one o f r n

th q ad rant
e u f th e e m bryo i a t e m po ary aff air ( Fig
s o s r s .
F ro . 1 20. A gro u p of tro pica l pl a n ts . To th e l ft
e of th e ce n te r is a t re ef e rn ,
wi t h its
s enl d l
e r c o u m na r s t e m an d c ro wn of l a rg e l
e a ve s Th e l l
a rg e - e ave d pl a n ts to t h e
b
.

r ig h t a re a n an as ( M o u oc o t y led on s) .
—F rom P lan t R l e a ti o ns.
"
 P T E R I D O P H YT E S 1 41

are poken ofs leaf vein L arge wor k ing leave and
as
“
s
. s

a va c lar y tem therefore belong together d app r

s u s s , ,
an ea

together ; and the v c lar pl ts are al o the plant wi th as u an s s

leaf y porophy te s s .

( )
4 Th l f — L eave
e are de
ea ice . f or preading t s v s s ou

g reen ti e to the
ssu light d in the F ern they are ally , an s u su

large There i a t lk like p rt ion ( p ti l ) which ri e

. s s a -
o e oe s s

from the bterranean tem and a broad expanded portion

su s ,

( b l d a) expoe ed to the lights and air ( Fig I n F e . rn s

the blade i ally m ch branched b ing t p into

s u su u , e cu u

s egment of vario ize and form

s us s s s .

The e ential tr ct re con i t of an expan ion of

ss s u u s s s s

g reen ti e ( m p y )
ssu h ll thro gh which
es o trand of the , u s s

va c lar y te m ( i ) branch forming a pporti g

s u s s ve n s , su n

framework and over all a comp ct layer of protecting

, a

cell ( pid mi ) A rface

s e er s . su

view of the epiderm i how s S s

that it i pierced by n m er s u

ou s pe liar pore called

cu s,

t m t m eaning m
s o a a, th on s
.

The rface view of a toma

su s

s how t w cre centic cell

s o s s

(g d
uar ll ) in contact
ce ats

th en d and leaving b
e s e

tween the m len haped a s s -

opening ( Fig .

A cro ection thro gh ss s -

u

a le f give a good view of

a s

the three region ( F ig s m pi m l ll f m l f F ro 1 21 . So e e d er a ce s ro ea

A b ove d b elow i the col

.

an h w is i l k i of PM . s o ng t he n te r oc ng

w ll h m d
1
‘
01 e ss 1“ d 6 p.

erce I6 11 1 1 1 8 ,
i i hl pl — i (
a s an d

ce lls co n ta n n g c
t re e sto

o ro
a ta, the
a s ts
g ua r
Ca r n
here and th ere by tom ata ;
. .

w s in -L .

between the epidermal lay

e rs the cell of the m e ophyll are pack ed ; and am ong
s s

t h m e ophyll cell there m y be een here and there the

e s s a s

o t end s of t h v ein s
u Th e le af ie ally a d or iventral
. s u su s
 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S
1 42

organ it two f e being di ff erently relate d to light

,
s su r ac s .

To thi di ff erent relation the m e ophyll cell re pond in

s s s s

their ar angem ent Tho e in cont t with the pper epi

r . s ac u

derm i becom e elongated and t endwi e clo e together

s se s s ,

form ing the p li d t i ; tho e below are loo ely ar

a sa e ss u e s s

ms . 1 22 . h a p t i n f t h l ea f of P teris sh wi g th e hea y
Cross -se c ti o n t hr ou g or o o e , o n v

wa ll d pid m i ab
e e era d b l w tw
s t m ta i t h
o ve n l w pid m i (
e o , o s o a n e o er e er s o n e on

eac h id f t hs t
e o ) p i g i t i te r ll l a pa
e ce n e r o en n
g th m phyll c ll s
n o n ce u r s sa es , e es o e

co t i i g
n a n n hl pl t t h p p
c o ro w arra g d i pa li d f h i
as s , e u th
e r ro th n e n sa e as on . e o er

cell l s ly a ged ( p gy m phyll ) a d l i g la g i t ll l pa sag

oos e rra n s on e so n e av n r e n e rce u ar s es ,

an d i th n t a ti
e ce n e r f a ei l t (
se c l b dl ) t h x yl m b i g rop
on o v n e vas cu ar un e , e e e n ra

se te d b y t h e ce t ral gro p f h ea y wa ll d c ll —C nn wau

n n u o v -
e e s a .

ra nged leaving n m ero int rcell lar p e forming

, u us e u s ac s,

the p gy ti
s on The e pace form a y te m of inter
ssu e . s s s s s

cell lar pa ageway am ong the work ing m e ophyll cell

u ss s s s,

p tting them into comm nication with the o ter air

u u u

t h o gh the tomata
r u T h e freed om of t hi c om mu nicati o
s . s n
P ro 1 28 F hie l d f rn ( A spld
ragran t s e F ro T heb lad d e f e rn Cy tepteris b ulb
r s

ij ero ) h owi g g e l h b i t
. . .

i u m f rag ra ns) h owi g g e ra l

,
s n en ,
s n en ra d t th
a , an o e

h b i t d t t h e l f t ( a) t h u d
a , an o e e n er ri g h t ( a ) t h e u d n u face
er s f a l eafl t
r o e ,

s f c f a l ea fl t b ri g i
ur a e o e ea n s or s h owi g t h e d ich ot omo
n ti a d
us ve n a on , n

c r d by
o ve e hi e ld li k e i nd s ia
s - u fi v e so ri p ot ec te d b y po ch li k i d s i a
r u -
e n u

—A ft
. .

A ft r M a m n S r n a t aa
e o a . er M a n xon Sa r raa t
'
aa .
 P T E R I D O P H YT E S 1 45

m argin ( Fig s
. 1 25 , which m ay be call d a e
“
fal se in
d u siu m .

I t is
evident that ch leave are doing two di tinct su s s

k ind of swor k — chlorophyll wor k and pore for m ation s .

Thi i tr e of mo t of the ordinary Fern b t o me of

s s u s s, u s

them how a tendency to di

S

vide the work Certain leave . s,

or certain leaf branche p -

s, ro

d ce pore and do no chlor

u s s o

phyll work whi le other do ,

s

chlorophyll work and prod ce u

no pore Thi di ff erenti

s s . s a

tion in the leave or leaf s -

re

g ion i i
s dicated by
s appr n o

p i t
r a e na m e Tho e leave s . s s

which prod ce only pore are u s s

called p phy ll meaning s or o s,

“
pore leave whi le the leaf
s s,

bra che th
n t apart are
s us se

called porophyll branche s

w mm
s .
F ro 1 25 L eafle ts of t o co on

Tho e I h only do f
. .

s Wt GG V GS mm b k e rn s : A, th e co on ra e

m id h i
chlorophyll work are called f m ) o h wi m om o
( P te ris ) ; B
a ; b th
,

s
a

o
en

ng
a r ( A d id a
i h e

l g l
za e and ch branch
ea ves m i p su by at t h e a rg n a n d ro tec ted

are foliage branche A i f ld d m i whi h h th e t us

f m f l i d i m—
n o e a rg n , c
88 s . S
C a1 n
porophyll are not called pon
or s a a se n us u . .

s s u “ LL ,

for chlorophyll work they often

becom e m ch m odified bei g m ch m ore compact and not
u , n u ,

at all re e mbli g th foliage leave S ch a di ff erentiation

s n e s . u

m y be een i the o trich fern and e itive fer ( O

a s n l )s s ns n n oc ea

( Fig 1 2 7s . the cli m bing

, fe n (n d i m ) the royal r o u ,

fern ( O m d ) the m oo wort ( B t y h i m) ( Fig

s un a , n o r c u .

and the adder to g e Ophi gl m) ( Fig ’

s n u o ossu .

A ordinary fern porangi m con i t of a lender talk

’

n s u s s s s s

and a b lbo t p which i the pore ca e ( Fig 1 1 8

u us 0 s s s .
,

Thi c e h a delicate wall for med of a ingle layer of

s as as s

cell and extending aro nd it from th t l k and nearly to

s, u e s a
1 46 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

the t lk again like a m eridian line abo t a globe i a w

s a , u , s ro

of p c liar cell with thick wall forming a h vy ring

e u s s, ea ,

c lled the
a l T h ann l i like a bent pring
an n u u s . e u us s s ,

and when the delicate wall becom e yielding the pring s s

straighte n viole tly the wall i to n and the pore are

s n , s r , s s

di charged with con ide ble f orce ( Fig

s Thi s ra . s

F ro l% —Th e purpl e clifi brak e ( P elkza atropu rpurea ) , s h owi ng ge n e ral hab i t and
in f l d e d margi n
. . .

at a a s n g e i l lea fl h wi g
et s o n th e dich o t o mo u s ve n at on an di the o

cove r n g i t h e so rt —A ft e M a n xo n Sa r ra m
'
a.
'
r

charge of fern p re m y be een b y placing om e por ngi

s o s a s s s a a

upon a moi t lide and der a low power watching them

s s , un

asthey d y and b r t r u s .

W ithin thi poran gi m the arche pori m (

s s 66 ) u s u se e

con i t of a ingle cell which by divi ion finally prod ce

s s s s , s u s
F ro . 128 . Th e se n s i t i f ( O noclea
ve e rn se ns i bil is ) , sh o wi n g di ffe re n t iat on i of f li
o age
l ea ve s an d s p phyll s —Fr m
o ro o F i ld
e , F ore s t , an d W y id
a s e F l o we rs .
 ' ‘
P l E RID O P H YT E S 1 49

Am ong the B y ophyte the porogeno ti e appear

r s s us ssu s

ve y ea ly in the development of the porogoni m the p

r r s u , ro

d ction of pore bein g it only f nction ; al o there i a

u s s s u s s

F ro 1 29 Amoon wo rt ( Botry ch i F ro 1 a) d s t g ( Ophtogloss m

The ad er
’
on ue u

f
. .
. .

u m) , sh owi n g t h e l ea d iff e re n oulg atu m) s h wi g t w,l o h n o e av es . eac

ti t d i
s e n to f li age a d p
o n s o ro phyll wi t h a f li g b o h d m ch l g
a e ran c an a u on er

b h —A ft e r S rna
'
sn u na an sp phyll b anch —A ft r M m Sar
o ro r e a on

T ER M S
i
ranc es . .

.
1 50 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

te ndency t re trict the porogeno ti e and incre e t h

o s s us ssu as e

sterile ti e It will be ob erved tha t wi th the i t d

ssu . s n ro uc

tion of the leaf y porophyt am ong the P teridophyte th

s e s e

sporangia appear m ch later in it develop m ent om etim u s , s es

n ot appearing for e eral year tho gh they are f s v s, as u o

F ro . 181 . A se rie s s h wi g t h d h i c
o n e e s e u ce o f a f
e rn s p i
o ra n g u m t h e ra pt u re o f t h e
,

wa ll , the s t ra ig h t i g a d b di g b
en n n en n a ck o f l
t h e an n u us , a nd t h e rec o iL —A te rf
A r a m so n .

secondary i m portance com pared with chlorophyll work as

and that the poroge o ti e i far m ore re tricted the

s n us ssu s s ,

sporangia form i g a very mall part of the b lk of t h

n s u e

sporophyte body .
 1 52 P L A N T ST RUCT U R E S

por ou s, or ometim e i p s both term m eaning s sos or ou s , s

spore im ilar T h corre ponding no form i h m

s s .
”
e s un s o os

p gor i
or p y sos B ryoph y te orand m o .t P teridophy t e s s s are

hom o poro while om e P teridophyte and ll Spermato

s u s, s s a

h
p y t es are hetero poro s us .

It i convenient to di ting i h by itable nam e the

s s u s su s

two k ind of a ex al pore prod ced by the porangia of

s s u s s u s

hetero poro plant ( Fig

s us The large one s called . s are

mg pe as or es , or by om e w iter m p both
s ter m r s a cr os or es , s

m eaning large pore “

the m all one are called mi
s s s s cro

sp or es , or m a l l pore s I t ho ld be re mse m bered that s . s u

m ega pore alway prod ce f e male gam etophyte and m i

s s s u s,

cros p ore sm ale ga m et phyte o s .

T hi di ff erentiation doe not end with the pore b t

s s s s, u

s oon involve the porangia ( Fig s So m e porangia

s . s

prod ce only m ega pore and are c lled m g p gi

u s s, a e as or a n a

other prod ce only m icro pore and are called mi p

s u s s, cr os o

ra n g i a I t
. i i m portant to note
s that while m icro porangi s a

u su ally prod ce n m ero micro pore the m ega porangi

u u us s s, s a

p rod uce m ch fewer um ega pore the tendency being to s s,

d i m i i h the n m ber and increa e the ize

n s u ntil finally s s , u

t here are m ega porangia which prod ce b t a ingl larg

s u u s e e

m eg poreas .

T h di ff erentiation goe
e till f rther If the pora gi s s u . s n a

are born pon porophyll the porophyll them elve m y

u s s, s s s s a

diff erentiate om e bearing only m ega po ngia and other

,
s s ra , s

only m icro porangia the form er being called m g p

s , e as or a

h
p y ll s, the latter m i p p yh ll In ch a ca e
cr os the or o s . su s

seq ence i follow m ega porophyll prod ce m g p

u s as s : s s u e as o

rangia which prod ce m ega pore which in germ ination

,
u s s,

prod ce the fe male gam etophyte ( prothallia with h g

u s arc e o

nia ) while the micro porophyll prod ce m icro por ngia s s u s a ,

which prod ce m icro pore which in germ ination prod e

u s s, uc

m al e gam etophyte ( prothallia with antheridia ) s .

A form la m y indicat the life hi tory of a hetero

u a e s s

poro plant T h form la of ho m o poro plant with

us . e u s us s
 P T E R l D O P H YT E S 1 53

altern ation o f ge eration ( Bryophyte and n s s most P t e rid o

h
p y t ) w
esas g iven f ollow 62 ) as s

G: — — —
8> o S o G: etc — — —
8> o S o G _ o—S , .

In the ca e of hetero poro pla t ( som e P teridophyt

s s us n s es

and all Spermatophy te ) it wo ld b modi fied follow s u e as s :

o — S etc , .

I n thi a e two gam etophyt e

s c s i volved p s are n , on e ro

d i g a perm t h other an egg which f e and f orm the

uc n s , e , us

oo pore which in germination prod ce s the porophyte

s , u s ,

which prod c two k ind of a ex al pore ( m ega pore

u es s s u s s s s

and m icro pore ) which in ge m ination prod c the t w

s s , r u e o

gam etophyte again s .

O addi tio al f t connected with hetero pory ho ld

ne n ac s S u

be m entioned and that i the g eat red ctio of t h g m

, s r u n e a

t ph y t
e o I n the h om o poro
e . fe n the pore d elop s us r s s ev s

a m all b t f ree and i dependent prothalli m which p

s u n u ro

d ce both
u s orga W hen in hetero poro pl t thi
se x n s. s us an s s

work of prod cing organ i divided be tween two g m

u se x s s a

t ph y t e they becom e ve y m ch ed ced in ize and lo e

e o s r u r u s s

their freedom d independence T hey are an mall that . so s

they do not e cap entirely if at all from the embr ce of

s e , , a

the pore which prod ce them and are m ainly depende t

s s u ,
n

f or their no ri h m ent pon the food tored p in the pore

u s u s u s s

( F ig 1
s. 40 A t h,e pore i prod ced by thes poro s s u s

phyte hetero p y bring abo t a condition in which the

,
s or s u

gam etophyt e i dependent pon the porophyte

s ex ct u s , an a

rever al f the conditi on i Bryophyte

s o n s .

T h e elative i m porta ce of the gam etophyte and the

r n

s porophyte th ro gho t the plant k ingdom m y be ro ghly

u u a u

ind icated by the accom p nying diag am in which the a r ,

shaded part of the pa allelog am repre ent r r s s th e gamet o

phy t and the n haded pa t the porophyt e

e u s r s . A m ong the
1 54 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

lowe t plant the gam etoph yt e i repre ented by the whole

s s s s

plant tr ct re W hen the porophy t e fir t app r it i

s u u . s s ea s s

dependent pon t h e gam etoph y te ( o m e Thalloph y te and

u s s

the Bryophyt e ) and i relatively incon pic o

s , s L ater s u us .

the poroph yt e becom e independent ( m o t P teridophyte )

s s s s ,

the gametophyte being relati ely incon pic o Finallyv s u us .

( hetero poro sP teridophyt

use ) the ga m etoph y te becosm e s

dependent pon the poroph yt e and in Sperm atophyt i

u s , es s

so incon pic o and concealed that it i only ob erved by

s u us s s

m ean of laboratory appliance while the porophyte i the

s s, s s

whole plant of ordinary ob er ation s v .

 T H E G R E A T G RO UP S O F P TE R ID O P H YT E S 1 57

here are al o piphy t i form ( air

T s e i c s —
plants) that s,

tho e which perch

s pon other pla t b t derive no u n s u

no ri h men t from the m ( Fig

u s Thi habit belong . s s

chie fly to the warm and m oi t tropic where the pla t s s, n s

can ab orb fii i t m oi t re from the i witho t en d

s su c en s u a r u s
'

ing root into the oil I n thi way ma y of the tropical

s s . s n

fern are fo nd growing pon living and dead tree and

s u u s

other pla t In the te m perat region t h chief epi

n s . e s e

h
p y t are L
es ichen L iver w ort d M o e the F
s, e b s, an ss s, rn s e

ing chie fly fo d in m oi t wood and a ine ( Fig un s s r v s .

altho gh a n mber g ow i com parat ively dry and expo ed

u u r n s

sit ation om eti me cove ing exten ive area

u s, s the m
s r s s, as co

m onbrak e ( P t i ) ( F ig er s .

The Filicale di ff er from the other g o p of P t id s r u s er o

h
p y t chiefly
es in hav i ng few large leave which do chlor s, o

phyll work and bear porangia In a f w of them there i a s . e s

diff erentiatio of f nction in foliage bra che d poro

n u s n s an s

phyll branche ( Fig 1 2 7 b t even thi i

s s p. u s s e xce

ti l
on a Another di tinction i that the te m are
. s s s s un

b anched
r .

84 O g ri i n . f
o spo ang a i — A i m port n t feat re i the
r n a u n

Fern i the origin of the po angia In om e of them a

s s s r . s

spo angi m i develop d f om a ingle epidermal cell of

r u s e r s

the leaf d i an e tirely perfi cial and gene ally talked

, an s n su r s

aff air ( Fig 1 1 8 5 ) in other the porangi m in it d evel

.
, s s u s

op m t involve
en everal epider mal ands sdeep r cell o f the e s

leaf and i m ore or le of an i m b edded aff air In the fir t

, s ss . s

ca e the fe n are aid to b e l pt p gi t in the

s r s s e os ora n a e se c

on d ca e they are s
p g i t eu s or an a e.

The lepto poran giate F e n are overwh el m ingly ab n

s r s u

dant com pared with t h E p gi t

as Back i the e us oran a es . n

Coal m ea re however there w an ab n d ant fern

-
su s,
g , as u ve e

t ti
a which w probably all e pora giat The L p
on as us n e . e

t p
os i
oran
g t ee m to b e the
a es m d e n F
s ern the once o r s,

ab nda t E p gi t being repre ented now in the

u n u s oran a es s

tem pe ate region o ly by ch form

r m oon wort ( B
s n su s as o
 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

t rgch i u m )
( Fig 1 2 9 ) d adder tong e O
( p g
. h i l m ) an
’
s u o ossu

( Fig It.i i m portant to note however thast t h , , e

H or etail and Cl b m o e are E

s s p gi t well
u -
ss s us oran a e s, as as

all the Seed plant -

s .

A other m all b t intere ting gro p of F er incl de

n s u s u ns u s

the W ater fern floating form or om eti m e on m ddy

-
s, s s s u

flat T h co m m on M
s . i li m y be t ken
e a type ( Fig a rs a a a as .

Th lender creeping tem e S s

end down n m ero r t into s s u us oo s

the m cky oil and at int r al u s , e v s

give ri e to a com pa atively large s s r

le f Thi leaf h a long erect a . s as

petiol d a blade of fo r pread e an u s

F le . 1 83 .
—A wat e r F ro 1 34 floating wate f s ( Sal
O ne of th e r- e rn

i w ( A ) a d i w fro m
. .

s h o wi n g h i
or zon t a l st e m, wi t h s t te ) sh wi g id
a ,
o n s e v e n v e

d esc e n di ng roo t s , an d as ce n d ab e ( B)
ov Th d a g li g t li k p oc ses
e n n roo -
e r es

l af
.

in g l e a ves ; a, a y ou n g e are t h modifi e d s b m g d l a

e I A u er e e ves . n ,

s h o wi n g i i
c rc n a t e i
v e rn a t o n n a e th rt p f th e l t f b m ged
o o e c us e r o su er

l ea m
ve s . sop phyll b ra h ( p ro
e s o ro nc es
“
s o

rocarps —
A f te r B i sc n o r r . ca p r smay b —A ft B c n r r e se e n er rs o .

ing wedge haped leaflet like a fo r leaved clover T h

-
s s u -
. e

d ichoto m o venation and circinate ver ation at once g

us n su

g t
est h fer alliance F roem near the bane of the petiole . s
F le . 1 85 . E q uis et u m l h oo ts ri si g from
a m use , a commo n h rs o e ta il : 1, t h re e f e rt i e s n

th d e i tral st e m h wi g
ors ve n f coa l d sca l l ea
,
s o n t h e cy c l
t t h j i n ts es o e s ce e- ves a e o

a d th
n t mi al st
e b ili wi t h m
er n p phyll th t at a b i g mat ; 2
ro nu e rou s s o ro s, a e n u re ,

t il
a s er e s h t f m t h sam t m h wi g bra hi g ; 3 i g l p l tate p
oo ro e e s e , s o n nc n . a s n e e s o ro

phyll be i g p ra gi ; L i w f sp phyll f m b t h h wi g d h isc ce

ar n s o n a , v e o o ro ro e ne a , s o n e eu

of p ra g i a ; 5 6 7 sp
s o n h wi g th. wi di g f t h t t whi ch a ids
o re s , s o n e un n n o e o u e r cos

in di pe rsa l —A f t e W
, . ,

s . ma r o ss o .
 TH E G R E A T G R O UP S O F P T E R ID O P H YT E S 1 61

ar a gem ent or o m eti m e t h wh l d ar angem ent each

r n , s s e or e r ,

such t of leave b eing lled a y l or a wh l The e

se s ca c c e or . s

leave contain chlorophyll d have evidently abandoned

s no an

chlorophyll work which i car ied on by the green te m , s r s .

S ch leave are k nown

u l to di ting i h t hem from
s as sca es, s u s

foliage leave T h te m i either im ple or prof ely

s . e s s s us

branched ( Fig .

86 Th e strob il
.us — O of the di ting i hing characte ne s u s rs

of the gro p i that chlorophyll work and pore form ation

u s -
s -

are co mpletely d i ff erentiated Al tho gh the foliage leave . u s

F ro . 1 36 . D imcious game t o phy te s of E q u ise tu m : A . th e f mal e game t o phy t e sh ow

e ,

in g b ra hi g hi id and a
nc n , r h eg i m ( ar) ;
zo s, n arc on u B th e ma l e game t ophy t e
, ,

s h owi n g se e ra l a t h e ridi a
v 6 —A f te Ca r r a nza
n r .

are red ced to cale and the chlorophyll work i done b y

u s s, -
s

the tem there are well organized porophyll The poro

s ,
-
s s . s

h
p y ll are gro s ped clo e together at the end
u of the te m in s s

a com pact conical cl ter which i called a t bi l the us s s ro u s,

L atin na m e for pi e cone which thi cl ter of poro “ ”

n , s us s

h
p y l l re e m bsle ( Fig s s .

E ach porophyll con i t of a talk like portion

s d a s s s s -
an

sh ield li k e ( p lt t ) top
-
Beneath the hield ha g the
e a e . s n
1 62 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

sporangi which prod ce p re of b t one k ind he

a, u s o s u , n ce

the pl nt are homo poro ; and t h porangia orig i

se a s s us as e s

nate i e po ngiate fa hion E q i t m h the h m p

n us ra s , u se u as o os o

ro e po angiate combination hown by one of the F e

u s- us r s rn

gro p It i int re ting to know however that ome f

u s. s e s , , s o

the ancient more highly organized m em ber of thi gro p

, s s u

were hetero poro and that the pre ent form ha

s u s, s s ve

dim i gam etophy te ( Fig

c o us s .

L Y CO P O D I A L E S ( Clu b m osse s )-

87 . Gen eral — Thi s

gro p i now repr ente d
charact ers u s es

by bo t fi h ndred pe cie m o t of which belong t

a u ve u s s, s o

the two genera L y p d i m d S l gi ll the latte co o u an e a ne a, r

being m ch the larger gen

u The plant have lender us . s s ,

bra ching pro t ate or erect t m com pletely clothed

n , s r , s e s

with mall foliage le ve havi ng

s gene al m o lik e a s, a r ss-

appea a ce ( F ig
r n O f te the erect branche are
. n s

t rm inated by con pic o

e conical or cylin d ri l trob ili
s u us ca s ,

which the cl b that enter into the name Cl b

are u s u

mo e ss sT here i al o a certain k ind of re e m bl

.
”
s e s s an c

to m iniat re pine that the nam e Gro nd pine i

u s, so u -
s s

som etim e ed s us .

L ycopo d iale were once m ch m ore ab nd nt than now

s u u a ,

an d m ore highly orga ize d f or m ing a con pic o pa t of n ,

s u us r

the fore t egetation of the Coal m ea re

s v -
su s .

O of the di tin g i hing m ark of the gro p i that t h

ne s u s s u s e

sperm doe not re em ble that of the other P teridoph yt e

s s s,

b t i of the Bryophyt e type ( Fig 1 40 F )

u s That i it .
, . s,

con i t of mall body with two cili in tead of a la ge

s s s a s a, s r

spirally coiled body with many cilia Another di ting i h . s u s

ing character i that there i b t a ingle porangi m pro

s s u s s u

d d by each porophyll ( Fig

u ce Thi i in m arked
s . s s

contr t with the Filicale who e leave b ear very n mer

as s, s s u

ou s spo an gia and with the E q i etale who porophylls

r , u s s, se s

bea eve l p angia

r s ra s or .
1 64 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

g radation between ordinary foli ge lea e d di ti t a v s an s nc

sporophyll s .

The porangi are bor e either by di tinct porophyll

s a n s s s

or by the ordinary foliage leave near the mmit of t h s su e

stem At the ba e of each of the e leave or porophyll

. s s s, s s,

on the pper ide i a ingle porangi m ( Fig

u s , sTh s s u . e

spo angia are e porangiate in origin and the pore

r us , as s s a re

all ali k e L y p d i m h
, the am e homo poro
co o u p as s s us eus -
oran

giate com bination noted in E q i etale and in one of the u s s

g rou p o f
s Filicale s .

8 9 S laginella
.
—eThi large gen contain the maller s us s s ,

m ore delicate Cl b m o e often being called the u little

-
ss s,
“

Cl b m o e T hey e pecially di played in the trop

”
u -
ss s . are s s

F m 1 88
. . Sd ag i n d la , s h owi ng ge n e ra l spray li k ha b i t
- e , an dda gli n ng l fl ess
ea st e m s

wh i ch s tri k e roo t ( rh izoph ora ) .

—F rom P l n t R e l at i
a on s .

ics, and are comm on in greenho e delicate m o y u s s as , ss ,

decorative plant ( Fig I general the porophyll

s . n s s

are not difi t f om the ordinary leave ( Fig

e re n b t r s . u

som eti m e they are m odified tho gh not di tinct in

s ,
u so s as

ce tain pecie of L y p d i m
r s s co o u .
 TH E G R E A T G R O UP S O F P T E R ID O P H YT E S 1 65

The olitary po angi m appe r in the i l ( pper

s s r u a s ax s u

angle form ed by the leave with the t e m ) of the leave

s s s s

and porophyll b t ari e from the tem in te d of the

s s, u s s s a

F m . 1 89 . Sela gi nella M a r tens i i : A , b ran ch be ari n g s t ro b ili ; B a m i c po phyll

, ros ro

i
w th a m icro s po a g i m h wi g mi p es t h
r n u , s o n c ros or ro u gh a ru pt re in th wall ; 0
u e ,

s m e g as po ro phyll wi t h a m gas p ra gi m ; D m
e o n u ,
e gas pore s : E m i crosp ores
,

C a nn wz u .
 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

leaf ( Fig i i i mportant as sho wi g that p ra

. Th s s n s e h

g i am y b e prod
a ced by te m well by leave
u tho s s as as s, se

b eing prod ced b y lea e being cal led f li

u d th e b y v s o a r, an os

stem li ca u ne .

The m t i mporta t f ct in connection with S l gi ll

os n a e a ne a,

however i that it i hetero poro

, s M eg po angia e hs s u s. as r , ac

u sually containing b t fo r mega pore are fo nd in th u u s s, u e

axil of a few of the lower leave of the trobil and mor

s s s u s, e

n mero m icro po angi occ r in the pper axil con

u us s r a u u s,

taining very many micro pore ( Fig The ch racter s s . a

of the gam etophy te of het ro poro s P te idophy te m y s e s u r s a

be well ill trat ed b y tho e of S l gi lla

us s e a ne .

T h m icro pore germ inate and f orm a m ale g m eto

e s s s a

phyt mall th t it i entirely incl ded within t h

e so s a pore s u e s

P ro 1 40
. . l e game tophyte or Sd aglnd la : in each case p is t h e pro tha llia] ce ll «7
Ma ,

th e wall ce ll f t h e an t h eri d i um s th spe m t i ssue : F t h e b i c i liate spe rms

s o ,
e r , .

A f te r Bu n s" .

wall ( Fig A ingle m all cell i all that repre ent

. s s s s s

t h ordinary cell o f the prothalli m while all the re t i

e s u , s s

an antheridi m con i ti g of a wall of a few cell

u , s s n s su r

ro ndi g n mero perm m other cell In the pre ence

u n u us s s. s
1 68 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

tion t it food pply i called t h

o s p s d i a
su , s e su s en or , an s

te m porary organ of the e mbryo ( Fig 1 4 1 1 42 t ) A t s

.
, , e .

the end of the pen or the real e mb ryo develop and su s s s,

whe it region b ecome organized it how the followin g

n s s s s

p rt ( 1 ) a large foot b ried mong the n tritive cell of

a s : u a u s

the prothalli m and ab orb ing no ri h m ent ; ( 2) a root

u s u s

stretching t toward the b t rat m ( 3) a te m extend

ou su s u s

F m 1 42 Em bry o of Selag i nella re mo ve d f om th

r e h
game to ph y t e , s o w n g su s e nsor i p
f
. .

( ),
ct roo t -
t ip ( w) ,
oo t (j ) , co t yl ed on s ( bl) , s t e m t ip ( at) , an d
-
g u e s li l
li
( g) —A te r . f
Pn rn n .

in g in the other direction and b earing j t b ehind it tip , us s

( )
4 a pair of o ppo ite leave ( cotyledon ) ( Fig s s s .

A the porangia of S l gi ll are e porangiate thi

s s e a ne a us , s

gen h the hetero poro e poran giate com b ination

us as — s u s- us a

com b ination not m entioned heretofore and b eing of pecial , s

intere t it i the co m bination which b elo g to all the

s as s n s

Sper m atophyte For thi and other rea on S l g ll '

s . s s s, e a zn e a

i one of the P teridophyte for m

s which h attracted s as

sp ecial attention po i b ly re pre enting one of

, the as ss s an

t l for m of the Seed plant

c e s ra s -
s.
 TH E G R E A T G R O UP S O F P T E R ID O P H YT E S 1 69

90 .
—
Isoetea Thi s little
gro p o f aq atic plants kno w u u ,
n

as q illwort i very p zzling

u to it relation hip
s, s u as s s s

among P te idophyt e By om e it i p t with the Fer

r s. s s
'

u n s,

form ing a di tinct divi io o f Filic l ; by other it i p t

s s n a es s s u

A common qu ill wort ( 1 m m lacus P ro . 1 44p rm f Imam

. S e o ,

t ria) ,h wi g cl st
s o nf roo ts d ich t
u er o o o ing pi l b dy an d
s ra l o se ve n on g

m usly b ra c hi g a d c l t
o n of l
n n us e r ea ve s cili a i i g f
a m t he b k
r s n ro ea

f
,

eac h l ged at base a d i cl os i g sin -

e n ar n n n a A t e r Ba t a an r .

gle s p ra goi m —Af

n te r Sc
u m mcx. .

with the b m o e and i a ociated with S l gi ll

Clu -
ss s, s ss e a ne a .

I t re e m ble a b ch of fi
s gra growing in hoal water
s un ne ss s

or in m d b t the lea e enlarge at the ba e and overlap

u ,
u v s s

one a other and the very hort t bero t em ( Fig

n s u us s .

W ithin each enlarged leaf b a e a ingle pora gi m i s s s n u s

formed d the cl ter contain both mega porangia and

, an us s s

m icro poran gia

s The porangia are e po angiate and
. s us r ,

therefore I t hare wi th S l gi ll t h di ti ction of

soe es s s e a ne a e s n
1 70 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

having the hetero poro po giate co m bi ation

s whic h u s-e u s ran n ,

i a feat re of t h Seed plant

s u e -
s .

The embryo i al o pec liar and i gge tive of t h

s s u , s so su s e

embryo of the M onocotyledo ( 1 1 4 ) a m ong See d ns se e

plant that om e regard it po ibly repre enting t h

s s as ss s e

ancest l form of that gro p of Sperm atophy te T h

ra s u s . e

pec liarity lie in the fact that at one end of the axi of t h
u s s e

e mbryo i a root and at the other the fir t leaf ( cotyledon )

s , s ,

while the tem tip ri e sa lateral o tgrowt h T hi i s s as u . s s

exactly the di tinctive feat re of the e mbryo of M

s ty u on oco

le d on s .

The greate t ob tacle in the way of a ociating the e

s s ss s

q illwort with the Cl b m o e i the fact that their perm

u s u -
ss s s s s

are of the large d pirally coiled m lticiliate type which

an s u

belong to Filicale and E q i etale ( Fig

s and not at
s u s s .

all the m all biciliate type which charac t erize the Cl b

s s u

m o e ( Fig
ss s To m p the ho t n branched tem
. su u , s r u s

with comparatively few large leave and the coiled m lti s, u

ciliate perm gge t Filicale wh ile the olitary p

s , su s s s e o

r ngia and the hetero poro e porangiate character g

a s us -
us su

ge t S l gi ll
s e a ne a .
1 72 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

s erve to di t ing i h the fo r gre t gro p of plant I t

s u s u a u s s.

m t not be
us ppo ed that the e are the only character
su s s s,

or eve the m o t im por t nt one in every ca e b t t hey

n s a s s , u

are convenient for p rpo e Two character are give ou r u s . s n

—
for each of the fir t three gro p one a po itive chara ter s u s s c

which belong to i t the other a negative character which

s ,

di ting i he it fro m the gro p above and becom e t h

s u s s u , s e

po itive character o f that gro p

s u .

( )
1 T h ll h
p y t — Thall
a obo d y b t no archegonia
es . us , u .

( )
2 B y p yh t — Archegonia
r o b t no va
es c lar
. y te m , u s u s s .

( )
3 P t i d h
p y t —
er V a c lar y te
o m b t no e ed
es . s u s s , u s s.

( ) p
4 S rm t p yh t —
e S ee d a o es . s .

93 General ch aract ers of Spermat ophyt a T hi i the

.
— e s s

g reate t g ro p osf plant in u ran k and in di play S con s s . o

s pi are
c u ou s they and m ch do they enter
,
in t o so u o ur

experience that they have often been t died

, bot ny s u as a ,
”

to the excl ion of the other gro p The lower gro p

us u s . u s

are t m ely nece ary to fill t any general view of the

no e1 ss ou

plant k ingdom b t t hey are ab ol tely e ential to an , u s u ss

u nder tanding of the tr ct re of the highe t gro p

s s u u s s u .

Thi great dom inant gro p h received a ariety of

s u as v

nam e Som eti m e they are called A fl wphy t m eaning

s . s n es ,
“
Flowering plant with the idea that they are di tin s, s

g i h
u s d by the
e prod ction of flower A flower i d iffi
u s .
”
s

c lt to define b t in the pop lar en e all Sperm atoph y te

u , u u s s s

do not prod ce flower while in another en e the trobil

u s, s s s us

of P t eridophyte i a flower H ence t h flower d oe not s s . e s

acc rately li m it the gro p and t h nam e A t h ph yt i

u u , e n o es s

not in general M ch m ore co m m o ly t h gro p i

u se . u n e u s

called P h g m ( o m eti m
a n er o a e corr pted in tso P h no gsa m s u ae s

or even P henogam ) m eaning evident ex al p d s ,

“
s u re ro uc

tion A t the ti m e thi nam e w propo ed all t h other

.
”
s as s e

gro p were called C ypt g m m eaning hidden ex al

u “
s r o a s, s u

reprod ction It i a c rio fact that the nam e o ght

u .
”
s u us s u

to have been rever ed for ex al reprod ction i m ch more s , s u u s u

e ident in Cryptogam than in P hanerogam t h mi t k

v s s, e s a e
 SP E R M A T O P H Y T E S G Y M N O SP E R M S 1 73

ari ing from the fact that what were ppo ed to be ex al

s su s s u

organ in P hanerogam have proved not to be ch The

s s su .

nam e P ha erogam therefore i b eing generally abandoned

n , , s

b t the nam e Cryptogam i a

u ef l one when the lower s us u

g ro p are
u to be sreferred to ; and the P teri doph y t e are s

still very freq en tly called the V l C ypt g m The

u a scu a r r o a s.

m o t di ti g i hing m ar k of the gro p ee m to be the

s s n u s u s s

prod ction of eed and hence the nam e Sp m t phy t

u s s, er a o es,

Seed plant i co m ing into general

”
or -
s, s u se .

The eed can b e better d efined aft er it developm ent

s ,
s

h been de cribed b t it re lt from the fact that in thi

as s , u su s s

g ro p the
u ingl e m eg pore i never
s di charged fro m it s as s s

m ega porangi m b t germ inate j t where it i devel

s u , u s us s

oped The great fact connect ed with the gro p therefore

. u , ,

i the retention of the m ega pore which re lt in a eed

s s , su s s .

The f l l m eaning of thi will appear later

u s

There are two very independent line of Seed plant s -

s,

the Gy m p m and the A gi p m The fir t am e

n os er s n os er s . s n

m ean aked eed re ferring to the fact that the eed

s n s s, s s

are alway expo ed ; the econd m ean inclo ed ee d

s s s s s s s,
”

as the eed are inclo ed i a eed ve el

s s s n s ss .

Gr mu osps nn s

94 . r o t fam iliar Gym no perm

General cha act e a
r — Th e m s s s

in tem perate region are t h pine pr ce hemlock s e s, s u s, s

cedar etc t h gro p com m only called evergreen

s, .
, e u so
“
s .

It i an ancient tree gro p for it repre entative were

s u , s s s

a ociated with the giant cl b m o e and hor etail in

ss u -
ss s s s

the fore t vegetation of the Coal m ea re O nly ab o t

s -
su s . u

fo r h nd ed pecie exi t t day a remnant of it for

u u r s s s o- as s

m di play altho gh the pine till form ext en ive fore t

er s , u s s s s s.

The gro p i d iver i fi ed in it

u tr ct re th at all form
s so s s s u u s

can not b e incl d ed in a ingle d e cription Th com m on

u s s . e

pine ( P i ) there fore will be taken a type to how

nu s , , as , s

the general Gymno perm character s .

1 74 P L A N T S T R UCT U R E S

l hb ody — b d f h l
f ormin g a
p an

r
t e g reat o y o
.

la ge t ree , is t h e sporoph yt e
T t e p an t , of te

in f act , t h e
n

ga m et phyt o t
e s are di y b no t i
t i i bl
v s I t e o or nar o se rva on .

s h o ld b u e m mb e r th p
e p h y t erd i ted th t
i ctl y a e s oro e 18 s n a

se x le g ss ti n d t h t it d 1 p
e n e ra o , x
an g a e ve 0 s no se or an s .

Th i gr t p r phyt b d y i lab t ly rg i d f
s ea s o o e o s e ora e o an ze or

nu tri ti w rk with itve ot tm , d l Th s roo s , s e s , an ea ves . e se

o rg n a y com plex in t ct e bei g m d p f

s are ve r s ru ur , n a e u o

var io ti us y t e m th t ss u e s s rg i d f p i l k i d s a are o an ze or s ec a n s

o f work Th le e . t h m t a i bl
e a v s arerg bi g e os v r a e o ans , e n

difi ti t d i t
e re n t h r e d i ti ct k i d
a e n o foli g l e e s n n s a e eav s,

( )
2 le
sca d ( ) p
3 rophy
s, an ll s o s .

9 6 Sporoph y lla—Th
.
p h
p s l t a p t t
e so oro are ea ve s se ar

p ro d ce po
u ngia and si the rap i t h e y , n g d i n ne are arra e n

a trobils i the H o t i l d Cl b m
us , as n A rse a s an u -
osse s . s

t h gro p i h eter p ro
e u ho wever th e
s os t w ki d
o u s, , re are o n s

o f p rophyll
s o d t w ki d f trobili
s an O k i d of
o n s o s . ne n

s trobil i m d e p of m eg poroph yl l be i g m ega

us s a u as s ar n

s po angia ; t h other i m d p f m icro p roph yll b r

r e s a e u o s o s ea

i g micro po angia
n Th s trob ili
r ft n pok of
. ese s are o e s en as

the flowe of t h pine b t if th rs

”
fl we e ,
u ese are o rs, so are

the trobili of H o e t il and Cl b m o e

s rs a s u -
ss s .

9 7 I icmcporophy lla I — the pine the trobil m h s s us co

p ed f micro porophyll i co mp ratively m ll ( Fig

os o s s s a s a s .

1 45 d , ,
E a h porophyll i li k e a cale l f i c s s s ea , s n ar

rowed t the b e d pon the lower fa e

a as , an b neu su r c are or

two prom inent po n gia which of co e s ra mi p ,

u rs are cros o

rangia and con t in m icr pore ( Fig

, a os s .

The e tr ct re of S ed pla t all received mes

s s u u s e -
n s na

before they were identi fi ed with the orre pondi ng t c s s ru e

t re of the lower gro p The m icro porophyll w all d

u s u s . s as c e a

t m
s a the m icro porangia p ll
en, and t h m icro pore
s o e n - sacs , e s s

p ll
o en g i or i m ply
ra n s,p ll The e a
s m e are ti ll ve y o en . s n s s r

c onvenient to in connectio with the Sp m atophyt

u se n er e s,

b t it ho ld b
u sem embered that t hey
u e r i m ply the are s o r

na me f or tr ct e fo nd i the l wer gro p

s s u ur s u n o u s .
1 76 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

The trobil com po ed of m icro porophyll m y b

s us s s s a e

called the t m i t t bi l — that i one com po ed o f

s a na e s ro us s, s

stam en ; it i often called the tam inate cone cone

s s s ,

being the E ngli h tran lation of the word trobil s s s us .

Freq ently the taminate cone i pok en of a the male

u s s s s

cone as it w once ppo ed t hat the tamen i t h

,
”
as su s s s e

F m 1 46
. . i ate c e ( t b il ) f pi ( P i a) : A se ct i
Sta m n on s ro f c
us sh wi g
o ne na
t , on o on e , o n

m i o p r phyll s ( ta me ) b
cr s o o i g mi c p ra g i a ; B l gi t di al t i f
s ns ear n ros o n , on u n sec on o a

i gl tame n sh owi g t h l g p g i m b at h 0 c
s n e s ,
n e ar e s ti f taora n u e ne , ro s s- se c on o u s

m h owi g t h e t wo sp g i a ; D i g l mi c p e ( p ll g i ) m h
en , s n o ran , a s n e ro s or o en ra n uc en

l g d
ar e h owi g th e t w wi g a d m l e g me t phy te f t w ll t h l w r
,
s n o n s, n a a a o o o ce s, e o e

a d l a g e ( wa ll c ll ) d
n r r l pi g t h p ll t b t h ppe a d m ll ( g ra
e e ve o n e o en u e. e u r n s a er e ne

ti ll ) gi i ng ri e t o th p m —A ft Scu m r s n
ve ce v s e s er s er .

m ale organ Thi nam e ho ld of co r e be aban d oned

. s s u , u s , ,

as the tamen i now known to b e a micro porophyll which

s s s ,

i an organ prod ced by the porophyte which never pro

s u s ,

d ce
u organ I t ho ld be borne di tinctly in mind
s se x s. s u s

that the ta men i not a sorgan for the literat re o f

s se x , u

bot ny i f l l of thi old a m ption and the beginner i i

a s u s ss u , s n
 SP E R M A T O P H YT E S : G Y M N O S P E R M S 1 77

danger of becom ing con f ed and of forgetting that pollen us

g rain are a ex sal pore s u s s .

98 M h
egaspo p y a
ro. ll — The trob ili com po ed of m ega s s

sporophyll b ecom e m ch larger than the other form ing

s u s,

P ro 1 47 P in e s h wi g mat
sy lves t ri a, so pa t ly s t i ed a d h wi g c
o n u re c ne r ec on n s o n ar

d i t h i x il ( g ) i whi h t h mb y ( m ) m y b
. .
,

pl (q
e s s , s q q ) wit h
' e
,
’ se e s n e r a s ,
n c e e r os e a e

di t i g
s n u s i h d; Ae y g p l wi t h t w m g p g i ; B old ca p l wi t h
a o un car e o e as o ran a an r e

d ( h ) t h m pyl b i g b l w ( M ) —A f t a snx
, ,

ma t u re s ee s c ,
e i c ro e e n e o . er .

the w ll k ow cone e ch aracte i tic of pine and their

-
n n s so r s s

alli ( Fig 1 45 b
es E ach porophyll i
s . om e , a, ,
e, s s s

what leaf lik and at it ba e pon the pper ide are two
-
e, s s u u s

m ga porangia ( F ig
e s It i the e poran gia which are . s s s

pe liar in ach prod cing d r t aining a olitary large

cu e u an e s

m ega pore Thi m ga pore re emble a

s . lik e cavity in s e s s s sac -
1 78 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

the body of the po an gi m ( Fig 1 48 d ) and w at fi t s r u .

, ,
as rs

not recognized being a pore as s .

The e tr ct re had al o received nam e before th y

s s u u s s s e

were identifi ed with the corre pondi g tr ct re of th s n s u u s e

lower gro p T h m ega porophyll w

u s. called a p l
e s as ca r e ,

the mega porangia s l d the m ega pore an mb y ovu es , an s e r o

sa e ,beca e t h yo ng em bryo w ob erved to d evelop

us e u as s

within it ( F ig 1 4 7 m) .
, e .

The trobil of m ega porophyll therefore m y b

s us s s, , a e

c lled t h
a p l l t t
e bi l
ca r or e p ll
a e t A
s ro t h us ca r e a e con e . s e

carp l enter into the organization of a tr ct re known

e s s u u as

the pi t il to be de cribed later the cone i oft en called

s ,
s , s

the pi ti ll t s A the t m inate cone i

a e con e . om etime
s s a s s s

wrongly called a m ale cone the carpellate cone i

“
, so s

wrongly c lled a fem ale co e t h a

“
n ,
”
e

old idea being that the carpel with

it ov le repre ented the fe m ale s u s s se x

organ .

The tr ct re of the m g p s u u e as o

g i m or ov le m t b know
ra n u ,
u , us e n .

The m ain bod y i the ll ( Fig s n u ce us s .

1 48 1 49 ); thi en d t f ro
,
me, , no s s s ou

near it ba e an o ter m e mbra s s u ne

( i t g m l ) which i di tinct abo

n e n en s s ve

( Fig 1 4 8 b 1 4 9 covering the m ai s .

, n

part of the n cell and projectin g u us

beyon d it apex a prom inent neck s as

£ £
,

3
F
253 3
lG 0

1 the pa a g e thro gh which to the ape ss u x

“ mm“ ‘
( whi h b
A)
of the
h e he“ ?
ll i c a11 e d th e m w py l
t he
n u ce us S
'

ra e

littlee ars
gate
c
”
( ) ( gF i ) C
“
l ( )
o vu e whi h
B , in c are l 4 8 .
, a . en
m wi m p “ (
" the t lly placed within the body of t h
? a ), ra e
i m ) ll
n t e gu

mm m
ent
n cell
(b , n uce
the con
us
p c o u ca ty us 18 s i u us vi
—mm
( c) , a m o “ e ga ,

p s o re called the e mbryo

Ga a .

( Fig 1 48 d ) -
sac .
, ,

in reality the ret ined m e gaspore a .

The rela t ion between integ m en t m icropyle n cell

s u , , u u s,

and em b ryo ho ld be k ept learly in mind I n t h

-
sa c s u c . e
1 80 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

ov le develop di d not e cape early attention and it w

u s, s , as

called d p m m eaning within the eed The end

en os er , s .
”
o

s pe m f Gymno perm therefore i the fe m ale game t

r o s s, , s o

phyte .

At the m argin of the endo perm neare t the m icropy l s s e

reg lar fl k haped archegonia are developed ( F ig 1 49 )

u as -
s .
, a ,

m aking it re that the endo perm i a female gamet

su s s o

phyt e I t i evident that the neck of the e archegoni

. s s s a

( Fig 1 4. 9 ) are h t away

, f roem the approach of per
s m byu s s

s wimm ing and that om e new m eth d of approach m t b

, s o us e

d eveloped .

1 00 M al gam t ophy te — The m icro pore are develope d

. e e s s

in the porangi m in the al tetrad fa hion and are p

s u u su s , ro

d d and cattered in very great ab nda ce

u ce s It will b u n . e

rem embered that the m ale gametophyte d eve loped by t h e

m icro pore of S l g ll i contained entirely within t h

’

s e a t ne a s e

s pore and con i t of a ingle ordi ary prothallial cell

, s s s s n

and on eantheridi m ( In the pine it i no b et

u se e s

ter developed O or two m all cell appear which m y

. ne s s , a

be regarded repre enting prothallial cell while the re t

as s s, s

of the gam etophyte eem to b e a ingle antheridi m ( Fig s s s u .

1 46 D )
, At fir t thi antheridi m eem to con i t of a
. s s u s s s s

large cell called the w ll ll and a mall one c lled the a ce , s a

g t i
e n e ra ll Sooner or later
ve ce the gene
. tive cell divid e ra s

and form two m all cell one of wh ich di ide again d

s s s, v s an

form two cell calle d m l ll which eem to repre e t

s s a e ce s, s s n

the perm m other cell of lower plant The three activ e

s s s .

cell of the co m pleted antheridi m therefore are the wall

s u , ,

cell with a prom inent n cle and two m all m ale cell
,
u u s, s s

which are free in the large wall cell .

The e per m m other cell ( m ale cell ) do not form

s s s s

s perm within the ms there i no water connection b , as s e

tween them d t h archegonia and a new m ethod ofan e ,

tran fer i provided Thi i done by the wall cell which

s s . s s ,

develop a t b e known t h p ll t b Into thi t b

s u , as e o e n -
u e . s u e

the male cell enter and it penetrate am ong the cell

s , as s s
 SP E R M A T O P H YT E S : G Y M N O SP E R M S 1 81

which h t ff the archegonia it carrie the m ale cell

s u o s s

along and they are bro ght to the archegonia ( Fig

, so u .

E t c 1 50
. . b pi
T ip of p llo en t u e of ne , F m 151
. . Po ll en b pa i g t h
tu e ss n ro ug h th e
s h wi g t h e t w ma l c ll ( A B )
o n o e e s , , nec k of an ar ch g n i m
e f p c
o u o s ru e ( P ice a ) ,
tw l i ( 0 ) whi ch ac mp y
o n uc e co an an d i i
co n t a n ng n e a r i ts t ip t h e t wo ma e l
th m a d th
e n m f ood e nu e ro u s l i whi h
n uc e t c are o be di h
sc a rge di
n to the

( D ) t h t ip f t h e t b e
, ,

g ul
ra n es : e o u gg wh
e y t plose c o as m th e tu e b is j u st e n

i j
s t ab
us t t t th
ou ck fo en er e ne o w i g —A f te ST R
r n r A S B UR G E R .

th arc h eg
e i m —Ca n wz u
on u n .

1 01 . F ertilization — Before f ertilization

can take place
t h pollen grain ( m icro pore ) m t b e b ro ght
e -
near
s s s us u as as

p o i
ssb le to the fe m ale ga m etoph yte with it archegonia s .

The pore are form ed in very great ab nda ce are dry

s s u n ,

and powdery and are cattere d far and wi d e by the wind

, s .

In t h pine and their allie the pollen grain are winged

e s s -
s

( Fig 1 4 6 .D ) that they

, are well organized
, for wind
so d i s

t ib t i
r u Thi t ran fer of pollen i called p lli ti
on . s d s s o na on , an

tho e plant th at
s the wind an agent of tran fer are
s u se as s

s aid to be m ph i l or wind
ane o ou s ,

The pollen m t reach t h ov le d to in re th i it us e u , an su s

m t fall like rain

us To aid in catching the falling pollen .

the cale like carpel of the cone pread apart the pollen
s -
s s ,

grain lide dow their loping rface and collect in a

s s n s su s
30
1 82 P L A N T ST R U CT UR E S

little d i ft at the bottom of each carpel where the ov le

r , u s

are fo nd ( Fig 1 47 A B ) The flaring lip of the m i r

u .
, , . s c o

pyle roll inward and o tward they are dry or m oi t d u as s , an

by thi m otion om e of the pollen grain are ca ght d

s s -
s u an

pre ed down pon the apex of the n cell

ss u u us .

In thi po ition the pollen t be de elop crowd it

s s -
u v s, s s

way am ong the cell of the n cell reache the wall f s u u s, s o

the e mbryo and penetrating that reache the neck

-
sac, , s s

of the archegonia ( Fig 1 49 p t) ; crowding int the m .

, , o

( Fig . the tip of the t be open the m ale cell u s, s are

F ert ili i
zat on in p
s ru ce ( P lcea ) : B is an e gg . in th e t ip of w hich a poll e n
tub ( p) h n t d d h di ch
e as e e re an as s arge d i n to the c y pl to as m a m a e l l
n u c e us ( an ) ,

whi ch i t i te wi t h t h gg ( f m l l
a e ) n u c e u s ( on ) ; U, l a t e r s ta ge in w hich th e
i t i g —A f t S u t x
s o un e e e a

tw u l i are
o n c e un n er c pzn .

di charged
s m ale cell f e wi th the egg ( Fig
, on e us s .

and fert ilization i accom pli hed an oo pore being form ed

s s , s

in the venter of t h archegoni m e u .

It will b e noticed that the cell which act a m al s as e

gam ete i really the perm m other cell which doe

s t s , s no

organize a perm in the ab ence of a water connection

s s .

Thi pec liar m ethod of tran ferring the m ale cell by

s u s s

m ean of a
s pecial t be de eloped
s b y the antheri d i m i su v u
1 34 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

k nown the d l or t t ( Fig 1 5 3 ) T h e devel

as see coa , es a . a .

c pm t of th i
en te ta her m etically ealsthe tr ctsre with s s s u u s

in f rt her developm ent and a ti ity , u c v

are c h ecked and the living cell p , s ass

i to the re ting condition T hi p n s . s ro

Fm i 1 53a
t t d tr
P
ct re with
ne see d .
i t do m ant cell
ec e s u u s r s

i the
. .

d s see .

In a cert in en e the eed i a t an form ed ov le ( m eg

a s s s s r s u a

s por ngi m ) b t thi i tr e ly to it o ter fig

a u , u s s u on as s u con u ra

F lo 154 P i n e s e ed li n gs sh o wmg t h e l g h y p tyl d

on oc o an th e n u me ro us co t yl de o n s,

NS N
. . .

wi t h t h e o ld s e e d ca es s t ill t t
a h d A ft
ac e .
-
er A TK I O .
 SP E R M A T O P H YT E S G Y M N O SP E R M S 1 85

tion If the inte nal tr ct re b con idered it i m ch

. r s u u s e s s u

m ore It i m ade p of tr ct re belonging to three gen

. s u s u u s

ti
e ra f ollow ( 1 ) The old porophyte i repre ented
on s, as s s s s

by eed coat and n cell ( 2) the endo perm i a gam eto

s u u s, s s

phyte while ( 8) the em bryo i a yo ng porophyte It can

, s u s .

hardly be aid that the eed i i mple in tr ct re or that

s s s s s u u ,

any real conception of it can be obtained witho t approach u

ing it by way of the low r gro p e u s.

The orga ization of the eed check the growth of the

n s s

e mbryo and thi develop ment W ithin the eed i k nown

, s s s as

F IG . 1 55 . A cy ad
c h , s o wi n g th e pal m li k h ab it wi t h
-
e . muc h b ran c h ed lea ves an d

sca ly s te i n —F m P l t R e la t i
ro an o ns .
"

the i n f ra -
In thi condition the m
se mi n a l d evelopme n t . s e

b y m y contin e for a very long ti m e and it i a q e

r o a u , s u s

tion whether it i death or pe ded ani matio I a eed s su s n n . s s

alive ? i not an ea y q e tion to an wer for it m y be k ept

s s u s s , a

in a d ied t condition for year and then when placed

r -ou s,

in itable condition awak en and p t forth a living plant

su s u .
F m 1 68 A pi h i l h aft a d al t h e b nchi g
n e ( P l a ns ) s o w n g t h e ce n t ra s n so u n of th e
h s —F rom P l a t R lat ions
. .

l p
nee dle ea ve s to ward t h e t i s o f t h e bra n c e . n e .
"
 SP E R M A T O P H Y T E S : G Y M N O SP E R M S 1 89

extinct one The gro p di ff er widely from

s . u s so on e an

o ther i habit to how th at Gy mno perm can be very

n as s s s

m ch diver i fi ed
u They are all woody form b t they m y
s . s, u a

be trailing or traggling s

s hr b gigantic tree or
u s, s,

high clim bing vine ; and

-
s

their leave m y b e nee s a

dle like broad or fern

-
, ,
“

like For .
”
p rpo e it ou r u s

will be only nece ary to ss

define the two m t prom os

i
nen t gro p u s .

1 05 Cy cads . Cycad . s

are tropical fern li k e ,

-

form with large b ranched

s,

( co m po nd ) leave u Th s . e

s te m i either a col m nar

s u

s haft crow ed with a o n r

s et te of g eat branching r

leave with t h general

s, e

habit of tree f rn and -

e s

pal m ( Fig 1 55s s .

,

or they are like great t u

b er crowned in the am e
s, s

way In ancient ti me
. s

( the M e ozoic ) they

s were
very ab ndant form ing u ,

a c o pic o feat re of
ns u us u

th e vegetation b t w , u no

th y are repre ented only

e s

by abo t eighty form u s

s cattered thro gh b oth u

the oriental and id occ en

tal tropic dw ( v
m
F 1 59 Th e gian t ood Se q oi d oi
-

essm :
s

m
. lo . . re

The, very f m e

lik e in tr ct re s well u h —f u m as in g at the rig t A te r q eo s .

1 90 P L A N T ST R UCT URE S

as in appearance b t they prod ce eed and m t b, u u s s us e

a ociated with Spermatophyte and

ss the eed i ex s, as s s

po ed they
s Gy m no perm are A di co ery h been made s s . s v as

recently that trik ingly s

emph a ize their fern s s

li ke tr ct re In fer s u u .

t ili t i a pollen t b za on -
u e

develop de cribed s, as s

for pine and it allie s s,

b t the male cell u s

( per m m other cell ) s s

which it con t ain s or

g i per m and an ze s s,

the e per m are of s s s

th coiled m lticiliat e e u

type ( Fig 1 5 7 ) charac .

t i t i of all the F ter er s c

id ph y t except Cl b o es u

mo Thi ocia sse s . s ass

tion of the old ciliated

perm h abit wi t h t h s e

new pollen t b e habit -

u

i a very int re ting i s e s n

t m d i t or tran ition er e a e s

condition It h ld be . s ou

aid that the e p rm s s s e s

havebeen act allyfo nd u u

in b t two p cie of u s e s

th Cycad b t th re e s, u e

are rea on for ppo s s su s

ing that they m y be a

fo nd in all A other u . n

F M 1 60 i pi ( m An
one
arauc ar a n
o f the Gym no perm
ne A u ca ria ) ,
s

gro p repre ented t

. .

h wi s o l h fng th e l
c e n t ra s a t , an d the re g u ar u s, s o
y l b h p e di
c c e s of y di
ra n c
day
es s
only
r a
by theng in
m e ve r rce
co
i t b m
an d m ll l
e arin g n u
m o ly c ltivated m aid
on e ro u s s a e aves .

m Fl l i
ro P an t Re at o n s .
"
u u
F lu . 16 2
. A l a rc h (b -
ar ix ) , s h o i i f
w n g t h e co n t n u o u s ce n tral s h a t an d h o ri zo n t a l
b ran h c ge n e ra
es, t he l l
o u t lm e b e i n g d i s t i n c uy c o n i ca l
T h e arc h
is ec u arp li
—
.

amon g Con if e rs in per oi di lly h ddi

ca s e l
n g its ea ve s
. F ro m l l i
P an t R e a t on s .
 SP E R M A T O P H Y T E S : G Y M N O SI E R M S
’
1 93

the ca e of the comm on larch or tam arack which hed

s , s s

it leave every ea on ( Fig

s s There are Conif er s s . s,

al o which do not prod ce nee d le leave

s ,
in t h m u -
s, as e co

m onarb or vit who e leave con i t of m all clo ely over

-
ae , s s s s s s -

lapping cale li k e b odie s -

s

( Fig .

The two type of leaf s

arrangem ent m y al o b e a s

noted In m o t Conifer . s s

the leave are arranged s

along the tem in pi al s s r

fa hion no two leave

s ,
s

being at the am e level s .

Thi i known the p i

s s as s

ra l or lt t arrange a erna e

m ent In oth r form

. e s, as

the cypre e the leave ss s, s

are in cycle w m s, a s as en

ti d in connection with
on e

the H or etail the ar s s,

rang m nt bei g kno wn

e e n

as the y li or l l d c c c n zor e '

.

The character which

give nam e t the gro p
s o u

i the
s cone that i
— “
s,

the prom inent carpellate

co n e which b com e es so

con p c o s i u b i
us h wi
I ll C O D D CC P ro 1 68 Ar o r- v t a: s o ng a

b
. .

W ith the ri pening

t II f h wi h ly l ppi l O
ra n c t sc a o ve r a ng e a ve s ,

m ll ( b ili and ate s t ro

the eed T he e cone )
so e ca rp e co n e s .

s f sm m. s s A te r E a ,

generally rip dry d en an

hard ( Fig 1 4 5 1 47 b t o m ti m e
s . in j niper, , u s e s, as u s,

they b eco m e p lpy ( Fig t h whol cone form ing t hu . e e e

so call d b erry
-
e .

There are two gr t gro p of Conifer O p ea u s s . ne, re re

se nt d by the pin h tr cone which con l t h

e e s, as ue s ce a e
1 94 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

ov le and the eed ripen d y The other repre ented

u s, s s r .
, s

by the yew h expo ed ov le and t h eed eith er ri p n

s, as s u s, e s e s

fle hy or h a fle hy inve tm ent
s as s s .

F un 1 64 Th e co j ip ( J iper
mmo n un er un as commu n is ) : the b ra n ch t t h le ft b a i g
o e e r n

b ili ; t h t t t h ig h t h b ili b
. .

t mi
s a t t
n a e s ro a o e r i
e a r n g s ta m in at e s t ro a d ca p l
o ve an r e

l te t b il i b l w whi h l at t h a
a s ro e o , c er ve ma t ure d in t o the fl h y be rry li k fr i t
es ,
-
e u .

A ft
-
32 0er d S m nr
8 an cn .
1 96 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

elaborate ym biotic relation between flowe and in ect

s rs s s,

thro gh wh ich pollination i ec red In Angio perm

u s s u . s s,

therefore the wind i abandoned , an agent of pollen s as

tran fer and in ect are ed ; and in pa ing f om Gy m

s s s us ss r

n os p m toerAn g io per ms one pa e f ro m ane m ophilo sto s ss s us

t m ph i l
en o ( o in ect loving )
ou s plant T h i
“
doe not s -
”
s. s s

m ean that all A ngio per m are ento mophilo for om e are s s u s, s

still wind pollinated b t that the gro p i pre ili gly ento
-
, u u s va n

m ph il
o Thi fac t m ore than anything el e h
ou s . s , s , as re

su lt d in a va t varie ty in the tr ct re of flowe

e s char s u u rs, so

t i t i of the gro p
ac e r s c u .

1 09 Th plant b od y —Thi of co
. e e i a porophyt e . s urs s s ,

the gam etophyte being m in te and concealed in Gy m s u , as

n os p m The
er porophyte
s . repre ent the greate t
s po ible s s s ss

variety in habit ize and d ration from m in te floating , s ,

u ,
u

form to gigantic tree ; herb hr b tree ; erect pro

s s s, s u s, s , s

trate cli mb ing aq atic terre trial epiphytic fro m a few

, u , s ,

d ay to cent rie in d ration

s u s u .

R oot tem and leave are more elaborate and ari

s, s s, s v

ou s ly organized for work than in other gro p and the u s,

whole tr ct re repre ent the high s u u s s

t organization the plant body h es as

att ained A in the Gy mno perm . s s s,

the leaf i t h m o t vario ly ed s e s us us

organ howing at lea t fo r di tinct , s s u s

m odi fi cation ( )
1 foliage leave ( )
2 s : s,

cale ( 3) porophyll and ( 4 ) floral s s, s s,

leave The fir t three are pre ent s . s s

in Gy mno perm and even in P teri s s,

d ph y t b t floral leave are p l o e s, u s e cu

F m mm1 65
iar8
to A n io
g p er
“
m m aking
0,
the
he “ tr _
e s s, u

flower and b eing a ociated with

. .

b (v
an e m w) cy a r : A.
, ss en
f ro n t v e i w s h o wi n g tl la
t om O ph l ly
,

me n t ( f ) an d a n t h ( p) ;
er
.

B , bac k i v e w , sh wi g o n 1 1 0 M icrosporophy lla —

. The m icro
t he c o n n e c t ve i ( c) be
Sporoph yll f A n g i os m m ore
t we e n the p ll
o e n - s acs
O pcr s 18

definitely k nown a tam e tha

.

—A i t e r Sc n l n rn n . as s n n
 SP E R M A T O P H YT E S : A N G I O SP E R M S 1 97

that of Gym no per m d h lo t any e mblance to a leaf s s, an as s s .

It con i t of a tal k lik e portion the fil m t ; and a

s s s s -
, a en

spo angia bearing portion the th ( Fig 1 65 1 6 7 )

r -
, an er s .
, a .

F m 1 66 . . C ross i
s ec t o n o f an t
-
h er of t h or na ppl e ( Dat um ) , s h wi n g th e f o u r imb e d d ed
o

spora g ia n (a p) c on t a n ng i i m i c ro s p o re s ; th e pai r on e ac h s id e will me rge a n d

po ll n —A fte
,

d hi e l s ce a o n
g t he dp
e re ss on i b et we e n h
t em f or the di sc h arg e o f e r

N
.

F RA K .

The filam ent m y b e long or hort le der or b road or a s , s n ,

vario ly m odified or even wanting The anther i i m ply

us , . s s

the region of the porophyll which bear porangia and i s s s , s

F ro . i agramm t i c c
1 67 . D ct i s f a th a : A y g tag h wi g t h e
ro ss s e on o n e rs , o un er s e, s o n

f i mb dded p g i t h
o ur e t ts f t w
s o ran m d b t th
a, e th tw
c on e n
on o o re o ve , u e o er o c

t i i g p ll
a n n m t h c ll ( pm )
o en d d by t h t p t m ( t ) ; B
o er e s ld tag s urro u n e e a e u , an o er s e,

in whi h t h e m i ccp ( p ll g ai ) a m t
ros an d t h
o re s pai f pora g ia
o en r nS re a u re , e r o s n on

each id a m gi g t g t h
s e ret f m i g l po ll
er n o wi t h l g i t di nal
e er o or a s n e e n - sac on u

d hi e —A f t B LL N
s ce n ce d LU ssN er AI O an RRs .

therefore a com po ite of porophyll and porangia and i s s s s

often of ncertain li m itation S ch a term i con enient

u . u s v ,

b t i not exact or cientific

u s s .

31
1 98 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

I f a yo ng anther b e ectioned tran ve rsely fo r p a

u s s u s or n

gia will be fo nd i m bedded beneath the epiderm i a pair

u s,

on each ide of the axi ( Fig 1 66

s W h en they reach s s
.
,

m at rity the paired porangia on e ch ide

u , ally m erge to
s a s u su

gether form ing two pore containing cavi tie ( Fig 1 6 7 B )

, s -
s .
, .

The e are generally called pollen c and each anther i

s -
sa s,
”
s

said to con i t of two pollen c altho gh each i made

s s -
sa s, u sac s

up o f two m erged porangia and i not the eq i ale

s t o f t h , s u v n e

pollen in Gymno perm which i a i gle porangi m

-
sac s s, s s n s u .

F m 1 67 a V ar i o us f or ms of stamen s : A, f
h owi ng d e h isceu ce b y
ro m Solari um , s

te m i a l pore ; B f rom A rbu t us s h wi g an t h e rs wi t h t rm i

. .

r n s l p re s an d
o n e na o

C from B erberis : D f m A therosper ma s h owi ng d e hi

, ,

h orn s ro nc by sce e

f om A q ilegi a h wi g l ongit ud i nal d e h i c ; F from

, , ,

u pli f te d a l es ; E
v v r u s o n sc e u e ,

—
, ,

P opowi a h ,
i s p
w ng ol e
ol n sa cs n ear t h m i d-
d l e of t h e s t am n A f te
e En ma e . r e

an d P R A NT L .
2 00 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

gether form a comm on ova y while the tyle m y al r , s s a so

combine to form one tyle ( Fig 1 6 9 or they m y rem in s .

, a a

m ore or le di tinct ( Fig 1 6 9 B ) S ch an o ry m y

ss s .
, . u va a

contain a ingle chamber if t h carpel had i t d edg

s , as e s un e e

to e d ge ( Fig 1 7 0 A ) or it m y cont in many chambe

.
, a a as rs

as there are con tit ent carpel ( Fig 1 7 0 B) s tho gh u s .

, , as u

each carpel had form ed it own ovary b efore coale cence s s .

In ordinary phra e an ovary i either one celled or s s

“ -

everal celled b t the word cell h a very di ff er

s -
,
”
u as
”
as

ent application the ovary cham b er had better be alled

, c a

l l
ocu u s , m eaning a compart m ent O varie . s,

F m 1 70
. . D iagramma nc i
se c t o n s o f o varies : A, i
cros s -sec t on o f an o var y wi t h on e

l ocu l d th
us a nca p l re e r e s, t h e t re e h l
d to b e at tach ed to t h e wall
se ts o f o v u e s sa i

( pa i tal ) ; B c
r e ti ross - sec on o f an o v ary wi t h t h l oc li an d th carp l th e
re e u ree e s,

f B — A f te r Sc a m
,

l b i g i th e c te
ovu e s e n n en r ( ce n t ra l ) ; C l ng i tu d ina l se c t i on
, o o .

PER .

therefore m y have one loc l or everal loc li Wh ere

, a u us s u .

there are everal loc li each n

s ally repre ent a con
u o e u su s s

s t it uent carpel ( F ig 1 7 0 B) ; where there i one loc l .

, s u us

the ovary m y co m pri e one carpel ( Fig 1 69 A ) or everal

a s .
, , s

( Fig .1 7 0 A ) ,
.

T here i a very co venient b t

s t a cienti fi c word n u no s ,

which tand for any organization of the ovary and the

s s

a ccom panying part and that i pi t il A pi til m y be s, s s . s a

on e carpel ( Fig 1 6 9 A ) or it m y be everal carpel

.
, , a s s or

g i
an ze d to g et h er ( Fig 1 6 9 B C ) the for m er ca e b eing
.
, , , s a

s i mpl pi t il the latter a o p

e s , d p i ti l In other word c rn ou n s . s,
 SP E R M A T O P H Y T E S : A N G IO SP E R M S 2 01

any organization of carpel which p s a

p are ingle organ with one ovary

s as a s

i a pi til
s s .

Th ov le ( m ega porangia ) are

e u s s

developed within the ovary ( Fig 1 7 0) .

either from t h carpel wall when they e ,

are foliar or from the t m axi which , s e s

end within the ovary when they are

s ,

a line (
c u T hey are i m ilar
se e s
F ‘G 1 7 1
i
se c t on
~ A d ifl gmmmafi c
f an o l f
in tr ct re to tho e of Gy m no per m o vu e o
s u u s s s, A ng i o p m
s er h wi g
s, s o n

with integ ment d m icropyle u an , nu ou te r i te gum t ( 00

n

i nn i te g ume t ( ii )
en ,

cell and e mbryo

u s,
( m ega pore ) -
sa c s ,
er n

mic ro py le ( m ) u ce llu s
n

n
,

except that there are oft en two i t g

,

n e u ( k ) a d e mb y we
.
n r o or

m
m ent an o ter and an inner ( Fig ( ”W -
"
M
s, u .

112 . Th e male gamet oph yt e — W

hen the pollen grain .
-

( m icro pore ger inate

s there or ed
) within
m sit the imis f m s

p l t k
esno wn ga m etophyte ( Fig N trace of the . o

F lo . 1 72 . i nat i on of microspo ( p lle n grai ) i d ck w d ( L a n a ) : A

G e rm re o n n u ee n ,

sp re wi t h it n uc l e
o ; B n cl
s f p di i d i g ; 0 tw uc l e i re l t i g f m
us , u e us o s o re v n , o n su n ro

th di i i
e ; D
v s ona l a ge an d sm ll
, ce ll f llrwi g t h n c l e a d i i
a i f m i g t h o o n e u r v s on , or n e

t wo c ll e d mal e game t phy t ; E d i i s i

- e f s m ll
o ce ll ( g ene rat i
e ) to f m t h e
v on o a er ve or

ll c mpl t d and lyi ng near t h e la g tu b

,

tw m l ce l ls ; F
o a e the tw m l ,
o a e ce s o e e r e e

n uc l eu — C u n wm
s . . .
 P L A N T ST R UC T URE S
2 02

ord inary t itive cell of the gam etoph yt e emain and

nu r s r s,

th whole tr ct re ee m to repre e t a ingle antherid

e s u u s s s n s

i m u At fir t it con i t of two cell the large wall cell

. s s s s s,

and the mall free gene ative cell ( Fig 1 7 2 D ) L ter

.

s r .
, . a

the gener tive cell di a

vide ( F ig 1 7 2 E ) s .
, ,

either while in the

pollen g ain or af t er - r

e tra ce int the pol n n o

len t be and t w m l -
u , o a e

cell ( per m m othe s s r

cell ) are form ed ( F ig s .

1 7 2 P ) which do t , ,
no

organize pe m b t s r s, u

which f nctio di rect u n

ly gamete as s .

W he polli ation n n

occ r and the pollen u s,

h been tran ferred as s

fro m the pollen c -

sa s

to the tigma it i d s , s e

t i d by the m in t a ne u e

papill of the tig a

e s

m atic rface which su ,

al o excrete a weet s s s

i h ticky fl id T hi s s u . s

fl id i a n trie t u s u n se

F m . 1 78 m . D iag ra i h h l ti for the m icro

o f a lon gltu d ina l se c t o n t roug u on
p l ill f ili i w h p
a ca r e

in pl i m
,

yl
ac e : a, s t
to
y
u st ra te

gp or e
a
t
e rt

; 9,
hst
begza t o n

e
t
; 0,
it
o var
all art s

; a t , ii ,
s s’ lu o

i
o u t e r an d i m b n ne r
p t t
n t e gutheir t be
e n ts ; 1 1 , ase o f n u ce l u ou u s .

lu sf f i l , ip d l ll
un c u u s d A pollen
; b,
t
an t
be p
o a
n ce s ; 0, e n o
u e e
m
s pe l “ m
n uc e us ; p “ k , e gg and o n e a id ; p,
b h i
le n -t u w f m i m
e, av ngp d trate t h
gro n rog h th est g a an d ass e s
‘
l 0 ll
th hro ugmi pyl ( m) t he —f tigm tic rface
cro e to th e e gg A te r
s a su e u _

L vl
ter am ong the t i e
a ss n n .

s ssu s

of the tyle which i om eti m e very long lowly or rap

s , s s s , s

i d ly traver e the len gth f the tyle pplied with food by

s s o s su
2 04 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

sac ( Fig 1 7 5 at left ) E

. ach of the e , clei di ide ( Fig . s nu ! .

1 7 5 at right ) and two n clei appear at each end of the

, , u

sa c ( Fig 1 7 5 at m i d d le ) . E ach of the,fo r n clei divid . u u e

F IG . 1 75 . L ili um P h il ad d ph icum : t o t h e l e ft is an e m b ry o- sac wi t h a ga me t o te phy

l i
n uc e u s n eac h en d ; to t h e r i gh t t h e se t wo n u c e l i di idi g t f
are v n o o rm t h e t wo

nu cl i h e s o wn in eac h e nd o f t he s ac in t h e m iddl fig e —C LDWELL

e ur A .

( Fig at left ) and fo r n clei appear at each end ( Fig

. 1 76, ,
u u .

1 7 6 at m i d d le ) W hen eight n clei have appeared n clear

,
. u , u

di i ion top Then a re m arkable pheno m enon occ r

v s s s . u s.

O n cle from each d the two b eing called polar

ne u us en ,
“

nu clei m ove toward the center of the

,
”
the two meet
s sa c,

and f e ( Fig 1 7 6 at right (J) and a ingle large n cle

us .
, , , s u us

i the re lt
s su .

The three clei at the end of the eare t the m icro

nu sac n s

pyle are organized into cell each b eing d efinitely s, su r

ro n d ed by cytopla m b t there i no wall d the cell

u s , u s an s

remain naked b t d i tinct The e three cell con tit te u s . s s s u

the gg pp t ( Fig 1 7 6 at right A ) the central

e -
a a ra u s .
, , ,
on e ,

which ally hang lower in the u su than t h other bei g s sa c e s, n

the egg the two other being the y gi d or helper

,
s s n er s, s.

H ere th erefore i an egg witho t an archegoni m a d i

, , s u u ,
s

t i g i h i g feat re of A ngio p r m
n u s n u s e s .
 ‘
SP E R M A T O P II Y I E S : A N G I O S P E R M S
'

205

The three n clei at the other end of the are al o u sac s or

g i d into
an ze cell and ally have wall The e c ell are s, u su s . s s

k own tip d l ll ( Fig 1 7 6 at right

n as a n o a ce s .
, ,

B) The large n cle

. ear the center f u us n o

the form ed by the f ion of the

sa c , us

F lu 1 76 L il i a n : P h ila d elph iw m , i ti f m g po s h o win g l as t s tag e s o f g e rm na on o e as re

mb y
. .

b f f t ili at i
e o re th er c t t h l ft
z t i
on : p i f
e e l ii
r o sa h o e e co n a ns t he a r o n uc e n ea c

en d i a ta t f di i i
n p p rat y t t h tag p
s e o t d b y t h m iddl fi g
v s on re a or o e s e re re se n e e e u re ,

in whi h t h f c l i t h d ; t h fi g t t h i gh t h w
e re are o u r n uc e amb y e ac en e u re o e r s o s an e r o

t i i g
sac c o n a n n g m t phy t b t dy f f t ili t i wi t h t h gg pp t
a a e o e a ou re a or er za on, e e a a ra u s

(A ) mp co d f t h t w y g id d gg ( t l a d l w ) t h t h
o se o e o s ne r t ip s an e c e n ra n o er , e re e an o

dal ll ( B a d t h t w p l
ce s l i f i g ( C ) t f m t h p i m y d p rm
). n e o o a r n uc e us n o or e r ar en os e

l
n uc e u s .

polar n clei i know u , s n as the pr i ma r y en d osperm n u cleu s

or the d efi i t i l n ve n u c e u s .
206 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

Thi complete the fi t

s s rs

period of gam etophyte de

l pme t and it i r ad y
ve o n , s e

for fe rtilization .

F ti li t i
er Th za on . e

pollen t be carrying the

-
u ,

two male cell h pa ed s, as ss

do wn t h e tyle and s en

te red t h e micropyle ( Fig .

I t the reache t h n s e

wall o f the e mbryo -

sac ,

pierce it and i i con

s , s n

ta t with the egg app

c -
a

rat us U ally it pa e
. su ss s

along the ide of one of s

the ynergid ( Fig

s s .

feeding pon and d i u sor

g i
an z ni g it W h e n i t .

com e ear the

s n pi con s cu

ou s n cle of the egg

u us ,

the tip of the t b e break u s

and one male cell i d i s s

charged into the cyt o

pla m of the egg ( Fig
s .

Th egg and t h e e

m ale cell now f e d us ,

an

an oo pore which inve t

s ,
s s

it el f with a wall i t h
s , s e

re lt
su .

S d p i d
econ — Af t er er o

fert ilization the gam et o

1 77 F e rt ili i
z at o n in t h e co t t o n p lan t phyte begin it eco d s s s n
h wi ng t h po ll t b ( P )
.
,

a D i yl d
co t e on . s o e en u e
period of developm e t n
pa i g t h gh t h e mi cr pyl e a d
ss n ro u o n con
.

ta i i g a s i g l
n n p rm (mal c ll ) an d h
n e s e e e , av The pri mary endo perm s
ing
wi t h
t ed t h
e n er mb ry o s c i i c ta t
e e

f t h sy ne gid ( S ) n its way t

- a s n on c
n cle begi a erie of
u us ns s s

divi io and a re lt
on e o e r s o o

th e egg ( E ) A ft r Du
.
-
an e eo .
s n s, as su
 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S
208

appear very oon after they are for m ed ; b t ometi me

s u s s

they b eco m e very active and eve divide and form a con n

sid bl a m o nt of ti
e ra e e aiding the endo per m i no
u ssu , s n ur

i h i g t h yo ng e m b ryo
s n e u .

1 1 4 Dev lopme t o e
. f m b ry o — W
e hile the endon p rm is s e

form ing the oo pore h ger m inated and the poroph yt e

,
s as s

e mbryo i developing ( F ig s U ally a pen or mor . su su s s , e

or le di tinct b t ever prom inent in Gymno per m

ss s , u n so as s s,

i for m ed ; at the end o f it t h e s

emb ry o i developed ( F ig s .

which when co mpleted i m ore , , s

or le r o nded by no ri h ss su r u u s

i g endo perm ( F i g n s .

The two gro p of A gi u s n e

perm d ifi widely in the tr s s er s ue

t re of the e mbryo I n M o o u . n

cotyledon the axi f the m s s o e

bry develop the root tip at e s -

on e

end and the eed leaf ( coty s -

led o ) at the other the tem tip n , s -

ari ing from the ide of t h axi s s e s

a lateral m e mber ( Fig as .

Fw 1 80d mb y T hi
C u rve elation of organ ecall
e r o - 88 °
s r s r s

$2731 f fl fiifi the e m br o of I (

’

y t s oe es see
y mb y
o un g h e
N at rally t h ere can b e b t
r o, in t h e ot er
e u u on
ip d l ll
e nd

b,m m a
t h e an t

1 d cotyledon“
o a
nder
an d
ce
ch c rc
s c u t o ff

“ at te n
m u su i u

ta ce and the gro p h b ee

.

h h w
t ro u g wf the e a fe re e e n s n s, u as n

if?
“
na m ed
ce ns ‘_
M
M te ' SCH
ty l d
”
on oco e on s .

In D icotyledon the axi of s s

the e mbryo develop the root t ip at one end and the t e m s -

s

tip at the oth er the cotyledo ( ally two ) appearing as , ns u su

a pair of oppo ite lateral me mber on either ide of t h e s s s

stem tip ( Fig -

Thi recall t h relation of par t in
. s s e s

the e mbryo of S l gi ll ( A the cotyledo s

e a ne a se e s n

are lateral m e mber their n mber m y vary I Gym s u a . n no

s
per m who e e
s,m bry o are of this type there are o ft e s s , n
 SP E R M A T O P II YT E S : A N G I O SP E R M S 2 09

several cotyledon in a cycle ( Fig 1 5 4) and i Di t yl s . n co e

don there m y b e one three cotyledon ; b t a pair

s a or s u as

of oppo ite cotyledon i al m o t witho t exception in the

s s s s u

gro p it i ua m ed,
D i ty l d s n co e on s .

The axi of the e mbryo b etween the root tip and the
s -

cotyledon i called the hyp ty l ( Fig 1 5 4 1 93

s s which oco s .
, ,

F IG . 1 81 . p f e mb y o
D eve lo me n t o r of s h e ph e rd sp se ( Capsella ) a D ic t yled on
’
ur , o

b gi i g wi t h I t h e y g t t
e nn n ,
oun es s a g e , an d f ll wi g t h
o o q n c to VI t h e ld
e se ue n e ,
o

est s tage pre se ts t h s p

, v re n e su e n so r, c t h e c t yl d
o th
e t m t ip w t h ro t
o ns, s e s e -
,
e o ,

It t h e roo t -ca p N ot e t h e roo t -t ip at o ne e n d f t h a is a d th

o t e m t ip at t h e
e x n e s
—A ft
-
.

ot h be t w
er een t h e co t yl e d on s er H a n s'rs m .

m ea der the cotyledon a region which how p l

ns un , s s e cu

iar activity in connection with the e cape of the em b yo s r

f ro m the eed Form erly it w called either

s . li l or as ca u c e

ra di l I n D icotyledon the te m tip b etween the coty

c e . s s -
21 0 P L A N T sT s ucr us s s

le d on s oft e organize t h r di m t f b eq t leaves

n s e u en s o su s u en ,

f orm ing a little b d which i c lled the pl m le u s a u u .

E mbryo di ff er m h to m s uc as co

p l t o f their develop m t w i t h in
e e n e ss en

the eed In ome pla t e pe ially s . s n s, s c

tho e which are pa a itic or pr s r s sa o

ph yt i the emb yo i merely a m l l c, r s s a

m a o f cell wi tho t y or g a i ss s, u an n za

tion of root te m or leaf I n ma y , s , . n

ca e the embryo becom e highly d s s s e

l p d the endo perm being ve o d e , s u se

p d the cotyledo t ff ed wit

u h an ns s u

f ood material the pl m le o tai , u u c n n

i g eve al well orga ized yo g n s r -

n un

leave d the e mbryo co m pletely s, an

fil li g the eed cavity The m n s . co

m b ea i a good ill tration f on n s us o

thi la t ca e the whole eed with i s s s , s n

F m . 1 82 . m y the integ m ent co i ting of the two

Y oun g e br o of u ns s
w pl i ( m )
a te r
1 arg e
an t a n A li s
fi hy oty led o n
a , a
be tW eS O 8, can
yl d
M onoco t th e root
which lie the hypocotyl d a pl
e on ,

bie ng i organ ze d at o ne an u
eh ( d n e xt p ) m le o f everal leave
t h e su s e n s or .
u s s .

th e i l yl d ( ) — C '

at h
th e
s ng e

ot m
co t

e r. an d
1 1 5
e
Th e ”
on
9
t h e ste 6 A in G ym o : S n

t ip ii f m l
ar s n g perm while the proce e abo e
ro a a t e ral s s, ss s v
w" A r "

de cri bed are tak ing plac with i

f te H ‘N '

s e n

the ov le the integ m ent or i t gu u , u n e

m e t are be o m ing tran form ed into the te ta ( Fig

n s c s s .

W h en thi hard coat i f lly developed the

s tivities s u , ac

within cea e and t h whole tr ct re pa e i to that

s , e s u u ss s n con

dit ion of pe ded a i m atio which i

su s n little d r n n s so un e

stood and which m y contin e for a long ti m

, a u e .

The te ta i vario ly developed i eed ometimes

s s us n s s, s

being m ooth and gli tening ometi m e pitted ometime

s s , s s , s s

ro gh wi t h wart or ridge Som eti m e prominent appe d

u s s . s n

age are prod ced which a i t in eed di per l

s u the ss s s -
s sa , as

wing in U t lp or Big
s a a i ( F ig a or the t ft of non a . u s
21 2 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

wall m y inve t it clo ely another a s as s as

integ m ent and a eed like f it i u , s -

ru s

the re lt — fr it which never open su a u s

and i practically a eed S ch a s s . u

fr it i known an k d i u s as a en e, an s

very characteri t ic o f the greate t s s

A ngio per m fam ily the C m p it s , o os es,

to which nflower a ter golden su s, s s,

rod d ai ie thi tle d a delion s, s s, s s, n s,

etc b elong D y f it which do .

, . r ru s

not open to di charge the eed often s s

b ear appen d age to aid in d i per al s s s

by win d ( Fig 1 86 or by ani mal s .

,
s

( Fig .

Cap le pod d ak ne are id su s, s , an e s sa

to be dry fr i t b t in m any ca e u s, u s s

fr it ripen fle h y In the peach u s s .

,

pm . mw A pl m cher
po d 0 ,y and flall ordinary
ee d
tone u , r , s

p i
m p
( E pilobi u
pl m d
fr it the
) o m o d ified ovary wall
e n in g a n d
u s,
”
or

w
ex

m m
o s n g i ts

h ich w by g two
u
layer
u

pm
the
e d se e

d
m ner b
s
e g an i ze s s, in

w
t he in d very hard form ing the tone the
.
-
A fe u L .

, s ,

o t r b eing p lpy ( Fig or vari u e u .

ous ly m o d ified ( Fig In the tr e b e rie the

. u r s, as

grape c rrant to mato etc the whole ovary b ecom e a

, u , , .
, s

thin kinne d p lpy m a in which the eed are i m b edded

-
s u ss s s .

In o m e ca e s s s

the e ff ct of f rti e e

li t i
za in chang
on

ing tr ct re i s u u s

felt beyon d the

ovary In the p . a

ple pear q inc

, , u e,

and ch fr it su u s,

the p lpy part i u s

th e mod ifi d e

calyx ( one f t h Wi df iO m pl — fe F lo 1 86 . n ge ru t of a e A te r R u l in g .
 SP E R M A T O P H Y T E S A N G IO SP E R M S 21 3

fl o al leave ) the ova y d it ont ined eed being p

r s ,
r an s c a s s re re

sented by the core In other ca e the end of the te m

“
.
”
s s, s

bearing t h ovarie ( recepta le ) b ecom e e larged d

e s c s n an

p lpy
u in the trawber y ( Fig
, as Thi e ff ect o m e s r . s s

tim e involve even

s s

more than th 0

part o f a ingle
s s

flower a whole ,

fl ower cl ter -
u s ,

wi t h it axi and s s

b ract b eco m ing

s,

an enlarged p lpy u

ma ss, in the as

p i n e a p p l e ( Fig .

The term
fr it therefore
u ,
”
,

F lo . pe dan d e li h ead sh owi g t h ma f

A ri on , n e ss o

pl um a f w d li k f u i ts ( k ) wi t h th i
e s, e se e -
e r a enes e r

pl mes t ill attach d t t h e re c p tacl a d t w

u s e o e e, n o

fall e n fi —A f te KI R N BB
o . r .

P ro 1 88 An a k e n e of beg F lo 1 89 T o th e l e ft
peach ( frui t )
a sec t on i of a

h wi g p lp an d st n f rme d f m
. . . . ,

gar t ik
h wi g th t w
c s, s o n e o s o n u y w ll o e o ro o va r a

b b d app d g whi h
,

ta i e d e e d (k l ) ; t t h ig h t
f it of al mond whi h ip n d un—
ar e en a es c an d the con n s e rn e o e r

lay h ld f a i ma l s —A f
o o n . th e ru A ft , c r e s er

te r Bt u . G e ar .
21 4 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

is a very indefinite one far t h tr ct re it incl des , so as e s u u s u

are concerned I t i i m ply an e ff ect which follow f . s s s er

t ili t i and involve m ore or le of the tr ct re adja

za on , s ss s u u s

F xo . 1 90 . F ru it o f n u t me g ( M y ris ti ca ) A , se c t i o n of f i t h owi g s d wi t hi t h e
ru ,
s n ee n

h ea y w ll B
v a i
se c t o n of se e d h wi g p ls o n e c u i ar c lu te d a d h rd d os pe m
o n vo n a en r
—
, ,

( m) in whi ch an e mb y r o (n ) i si m b d d d A ft
e e er Ba s e an d Ge rm a n.

cent to the eed A h bee een thi e ff ect m y extend

s s . s as n s ,
s a

only to the ovary wall or it m y incl d e the calyx or it , a u ,

m y b e p cially directed toward the a s e

receptacle or it m y e m brace a whole , a

fl w cl ter It i wh at i called a o e r- us . s s

ph y iological e ff ect rath er than a d fi s e

ite m orphological tr ct re n s u u .

117 . Germinati on of th e seed —It

poin t ed t 1 03) that the h as b een ou

called germ ination of the eed se -

s

i not tr e germ ination like that of s u

Fm m m sr w
1 91
pore It the aw ken
of
ng t
d s s . 18 a i an PS

c pe of the yo ng porophyte wh h
. . a .

w
h wiy ,
g na ng t h e pe r . a u s , lc

p lpy
larg e d p l
h long b efore pa e d thro gh it as ss u s

whi h
in m g c m
u
‘ t
nu tage re c e

e ro u s s i
t ac
m
e
er n a l on S '

f
ple a n d d ry m By vario
ru it s
devic eed are epa us es s s s
k c n e s i are i1 n h c d d e d
Mm m rat
8
d fro m"
the parent plant are d
.

e , ls

ore or l w dely and find

.

p d m i e rse e ss ,

lo d gm ent If the lod gm ent i itable there are m a y

. s su , n

d vice for b ri l
e ch twi ting talk
s d a wn b
u a , su as s s s an s, ur
 21 6 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

soil the hypocotyl ag in rapidly elongate d de elop a

, a s an v s
strong arch one of who e li m b i nchored d the other
, s s s a , an
i p lling pon the cotyledon Fig Thi p ll na ly
s u
(u fi l s . s u

fre t h cotyledon the hypocotyl traight n the cotyle

es e s, s e s,

F ro . 1 98 . G e rm inat i on o f b i
th e gard e n ean , sh ow n g t h e arc o f t h e h hyp c tyl ab ve o o o

grou nd , its p ll
u on t he seed i yl d
t o e x t r cat e t h e co t e o ns an d u mu pl l an d t h fi nale, e
s t ra igh te i ng
n of p i
t h e s t e m and e x an s on o f t h e y ng hea
ou v en —A f t A r mu u er so .

don are pread t to the i and light d the yo ng

s s ou a r , an u

s porophyte h b eco m e independent ( Fig as .

In the grain of corn and other cereal often ed in s, so us

t h laboratory
e typical M onocotyledon b t really
as
p s, u e xce

ti l one the e m bryo e cape ea ily

on a s, it i placed on s s s , as s

one ide of the eed near the rface The hypocotyl and
s s su .

ste m plit the thin co ering and the m ch m d ifi d cotyle

s v ,
u -
o e

don i left within the grain to ab orb no ri h ment

s s u s .

In om e ca e t h cotyledon do not e cape fro m t h

s s s e s s e

seed either b eing di tor t d with food torage ( oak b ck

,
s e s , u

ey e, or being retained to a b or b no ri h m ent fro m s u s

the endo p rm ( pal m gra e s e In ch ca e t h s, ss s , su s s e

stem t ip i li berat d by the elongation of the petiole of t h

-
s e s e
 SP E R M A T O P H Y T E S : A N G IO S P E R M S

cotyledon and the eed coat containing the cotyl don

s, s e s

re m ain lik a lateral appe dage pon the t aightened xi

s e n u s r a s .

It i al o to be ob erved in
s s s

m any ca that the yo ng root se s u

y tem after gripping the oil

s s ,
s ,

contract drawing the yo g s, un

plant deeper into the gro nd u .

S u m m a r y from An gio
118 .

sperms — At the beginning o thi

. f s

chapter 1 07 ) the character o f s

the Gy mno perm were mmar s s su

i d which d i ting i hed the m

ze s u s

from Angio perm who e con s s, s

tras t i g character m y be t ted

n s a s a

as follow s

( )
1 The m icro pore ( poll n s e

gr in ) chiefly by in ect pollina

a ,
s

tion i bro ght into contact with

,
s u

the tigm a which i a receptive

s ,
s

region on the rface of the car su

pel and there develop the pollen

, s

t be which penetrate the tyle

u , s s

to reach the ovary cavity which

cont in the ov le (m g p
a s u s e as oran

gia) The i mpo ibility of con

. ss

t ct between pollen and ov le im

a u

P li esi l d ov l
n c O SOand h ence ) h wi
li
u es
h
p im
l ( F lo.

pi n us
Se ed ng o f aze Ca r
ary roo t
ed and there fore the nam e s
,
o ng r
se s,
( w) b i l (w ) k ear n g ro o t e t s
u
Angio p rm s e p .
”
w
i
hi h m u on c are nu e ro u s

) hyp yl )
2 Th e f m l e ga m etophyte
roo t ha rs (r ,
o c ot (h ,

yl
e a
( y m co t e d o ns c) , oung s te

i b t lightly developed before

s u s an fi ( . an d rst I) an d se co n d

m w w mw m
fe tilization the egg appearing
r , gx
l ’ r sc u

ve ry ea ly r .

( )
3 The f e m ale ga m etoph y te p od ce s o archegonia r u n ,

b t u ingle ak ed gg
a s n e .
 CH A P T E R XIII
TH E F L OW ER

119 . general the flower m y b

General ch araot era — In a e

regarded a modified branch of the porophyte te m bear

as s s

ing porophyll and

s ally floral leave It repre enta
s u su s . s s

tive am ong the P teridophyt e and Gy m no perm i the tro s s s s s

b ll which h porophyll b t not floral l ave Among

u s, as s s u e s .

Angio perm it b gin in a i m ple and om ewhat indefinit

s s e s s s e

way grad ally b com e m ore co m plex and m odified ntil

,
u e s ,
u

it appear an elaborate tr ct re very fli i t for it

s as s u u e c en s

p rpo e
u s .

Thi evol tion of the flower h proceeded along m y

s u as an

line and h re lted in endl e diver ity of tr ct re

s, as su ss s s u u .

The e diver itie are largely ed in the cla ification of

s s s us ss

A ngio per m it i ppo ed that near relat ive are indi

s s, as s su s s

t d by i m ilar floral t r ct re
ca e s well by other fea s u u s, as as

t re The igni ficance of the e diver itie i ppo ed to

u s . s s s s s su s

b e connected with ec ring proper pollination chiefly by s u ,

in ect and favorable d di trib tion

s s, se e s u .

Altho gh the vol tion of flower h proceeded along

u e u s as

several lin i m ltaneo ly now one feat re and now

es s u us ,
u

another being e m pha ized it will be clearer to trace om e s , s

of the important line parately s se .

1 20 F loral leavea — I the i m pl t flower floral l eav

. n s es s es

do not appear and the flower i r pre ente d only by the , s e s

sporophyll Both kind of porophyll m y b a ociated

s . s s s a e ss ,

in which ca e the flow r i aid to be p f t ( Fig s or e s s e r ec .

they m y not both occ r in the am e flow r in which ca e

a u s e , s

one flow r i t mi t and the other pi t ill t ( Fig

e s s a na e s a e .

21 8
 B
F ro . 1 99 . Common fl ax ( L i nu m)
A . e n t re i fl o we r , s h o wi n g ca ly x
ll ; B fl l l
an d co ro a , o ra e a ve s re

m d h wi g tam
o ve , s o n s e ns an d

sy p p i ll ; 0
n ca r o u s
‘
s ,
a mat u re
P ro 1 98
. . F l
we rs o f e lm Ulmu s) A b ran ch
o a su e s
, n o e u — A f te r
c p l pli t t i g p .

bea ri n g c uste rs o f fl o we rs and sca ly b ud s

l Sc n m r a n .

B s i ng l e fl owe r s h o wi n g s i m pl e pe ria nt h
, ,

a n d s ta me n s be i n g a s t a m i n a t e fl o we r ; 0
, ,

fl owe r sh owi n g pe rian t h sta me n s an d th e two di ve rge nt st yl e s st igmat i c on i n n e r

, ,

su rfac e b e i n g a p e rfec t fl o we r ; D se c t i on t h ro ug h p e rfe c t fl o we r s h o wi n g pe ri

an t h st ame n s an d pi s t il wi t h t wo l o cu li eac h wi t h a s i n g l e ovu l e — L

, . ,

, ,
A f te r E N G E R .

A fl w
o e r of p y sh wi g th f se t s of fl l ga : k t h pal
e on , o n e ou r o ra or ns , e se s,

ge t h e r ca ll d t h
e e caly x ; c th p t l t g t h e ll d t h
e a s, ll ; a t h m
o e e r ca e e co ro a e nu e ro us

t w ca p l s wh i h co t ai t h e vu l es —A f te r Sm a n t m olm
, ,

s t ame n s ; g, t h e o r e , c n n o . s .
 THE F LO W E R

the yo ng porophyll b t they are all alik e form ing wh at

u s s, u ,

i called the p i
s th ( Fig 1 9 7 er a n s .
,

In till higher form the perianth di ff erentiate the

s s s,

inner flo al leave b eco me more delicate in text re larger

r s u ,

and generally brightly colored ( Fig 1 99 A ) The o ter .

, . u

se t m y re main cale li k e or beco m e li k e

a s m all f oliage
-
, s

leave W hen the dif

s .

fe re n ti ti of the peri
a on

an th i di tinct the
s s ,

o t er t of floral leave
u se s

i called the
s ly each ca x,

leaf b eing a p l ; the se a

inner t i the se ll s cor o a,

each leaf b eing a p t l e a

( Fig . S o m eti m e s,

as in the lily all the ,

floral leave b eco m e s

u niform ly large and

brightly colored in ,

which ca e the term s

perianth i retained s

( Fig . In other
ca e the calyx m y be
s s, a

th e large and colored

se t b t whenever there
. u

i a clear di tinction
s s

between et th o ter s s, e u

i the calyx the inner

s ,

the orolla c .

Both floral et m y s s a

not app ar and it h e ,

as

b om e t h c tom to
ec e us

regard the mi ing t ” —

ss
lily se
yl F lo L An eas i e r - a M on oc o t ed o n ,

the corolla ch
. .

as h w p ( )
,
m
su i m ( s o i ng e rian t h a , sta e ns ( b), st g a c) ,

flower b ing c lled fl w ) p l f p o er b ud ( d an d a car e a te r the e ri

a
b li k i m
,
s e
f ll wi h an t h h as a en ( I) , t its k no e st g a,
eanin
-

a p t el a m g
o u s,l yl l d y o ng s t e , an d s en e r o var .
2 22 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

with o t petal u It i not alway po ible to tell whether

s . s s ss

i —
a flower apetalo that i wh ther it h lo t a floral
s us s, e as s

se t which it once had — i i mply one who e perianth h or s s s as

no t yet di ff erentiated in which ca e it wo l d be a p im i , s u r

ti ve type .
”

The line of evol tion therefore extend from flower u , , s s

witho t floral leave or k d fl w to tho with a d i

u s, na e o er s, se s
t i t ly di ff ere n tiated calyx and corolla
nc .

1 21 Spiral t o cy cli c fl owers —I the i m ple t fl ower t h

. n s s s e
s porophyll and floral leav ( if any ) are di trib ted ab o t
s es s u u

an elongated axi in a piral lik e a cce ion o f leave s s , su ss s.

Tha t part of the axi which bear the fl oral organ i f s s s s or

conve ience called the pt l ( Fig

n A the r ce p r ece ac e . s e

F m see
. . A b u t te rcu p (Ra n u ncul us) : a , co m pl e te fl o we r , s h wi
o n g se pal s p t l ta , e a s, s

me n s , an d head f m o nu l
e ro u s carpe s o n a l g ar e re c e pta lc e ; b se t i n h wi ng
, c o s o

l i
re a t o n o f p rt s ; hyp gy
a a o n ou s , p lyp tal us ap
o e o p
o car ous , ac ti m rph ic fl w
no o o e r.
—A f t
,

er Ba i L L O N .

tacle i elongated and capable of contin ed growth an i

s u , n

definite n mber f each floral organ m y app ar e pecially

u o a e , s

of the porophyll W ith the piral arrange m ent there

s s . s ,

fore there i no d fi it
, in the n mber of floral organ
s e n e n e ss u s

there m y b e one or very m any floral leave or tam en or

a s, s s,

carpel T h piral arrange ment d indefinite n m ber

s . e s an u s

are feat re of the ord inary trobil and therefore ch

u s s u s, su

flower are regarded m ore pri m itive than the other

s as s .

I n higher form the receptacle b ecom e horter t h e s s s ,

spiral more clos ely coiled ntil finally the et of organ s ,

u s s
22 4 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

y l e d ou s the n u mb er
often fo appear fi ve pre ail v s, b ut ur s,

forming p t m or t t m
en a flower ( Fig
erou s e ra e rou s s .

Thi d oe t mean that t here are ece ily j t three

s s no n ssar us ,

fo r or five of e h org n in the flower for there m y b

u , ac a , a e

two or more cycle of om e one organ For exam ple in t h s s .

, e

comm on l ily there are i floral leave in two et i t s x s s s, s x s a

m en in two et and three carpel ( Fig

s s s, s .

In the cyclic flower it i al o to be noted that each t s s s se

alternate with t h ext t o t ide ( Fig

s e n The pet al se u s . s

are not di rectly op po ite the s se

pal b t are oppo ite the pace s, u s s s

between epal ; the t men in s s s a s

t rn alt nate with the pet l i f u er a s

there i a econd t of t men s s se s a s,

it alternate with the o ter t s u se ,

and on If two adjacent et so . s s

are fo nd ppo ing one another u O s ,

0 it i ally d to the fact that s u su ue

F “, m h
ag“
a t
,
between
of
h
s uc
di appeared
a se as s .

l
w
no
p
lily h wi
cr as

p m
th e For e
.
asm ple if a
o
t of t m e
n g re
x , se s a ns
atio n

o rg, “
of

m
th e
art s
oppo te
pe r
h r“ , in t h e
u
the t of petal os t
t
,
h 1s s1 se s, e l er

whi h
of fl w w
c th e an o ter t men t or an inn r
o er o ns : u s a se e
bl k b l w i di
iis t
ac

m
o u of
d ot
m p “e
e o
petal
; “o
n
t h
ca t e s
d po
pp
, art s in
d se as 1 sa e are .

h t rees l
an d iin fi ve Thi line of evol tion ther
a te rnat ng s u ,
e

a m t rl p y li
e ro u s , w
fore
e n t ac
extend c
fro
c
m flower who e
do , s s s

— f
sr . A te r So n nu n part are pirally arranged po
n . s s u n

an elongated receptacl d i e an n

d efinite in n m b er to tho e wh o e part are in cycle

u ,
d s s s s an

definite in n m b er u .

1 22 H ypogy nous t o epigynous fl owera — I

. the i mpl n s er

flower the epal petal and t m en ari e from beneath

s s s, s, s a s s

t h ovary ( Fig
e 1 9 7 2 02 205 I ) s A in
. ch ca e t h
, , , . s su s s e

ovary or ovarie m y be een di tinctly above the origi s a s s n

( i t i
n se r ) of the on other part ch a flo wer i often a i d t s, su s s o

have a perior ovary The m ore

su al te m however . u su r , ,

m aning in e ff ect nder the ovary refe ”

i hyp gy
s o nou s, e u ,
r
 TH E F L O W E R

ring to the fact that the i ertion of th other part i ns e s s

un der the ovary .

H ypogyny i very largely di played a m ong flower b t s s s, u

there i to b e ob erved a tendency in ome to carry the

s s s

in ertion of the o ter part higher p W hen the o ter

s u s u . u

pa t ari e fro m the im of an

r s like o t growth from the
s r u rn - u

F lu . 205 . F l ily 1 a hy pogyn o s

o we rs o f R o se f am : , u

fl w f P b te ttlla pal p t l a d t m
o er o n , se s, e a s, n s a e ns

a i i g f
r s n m b ea t h t h h ea d f a p l ; 2 a
ro en e o c r e s ,

p igy
er fl w f A l hem illa pal p ta l
n ous o er o c se s, e s,

a i si g f
,

a d n tame s m rim f ns li k p r n ro o u rn - e ro

l g ti
on f th
a c pt
on o l whi h d th
e re e ac e , c su rro u n s e

ca p l ; 3
r e pigy fl w f th c mm
,
an e n o us o er o e o on

appl i whi h ll th parts m t is f m

e, n c a e see o ar e ro

th t p f th
e 0 y t w f wh l li are
o e o var ,
o o os e ocu

m— A f t F o a l
se e er c .

receptacle which rro nd the pi til or pi til the flower

, su u s s s s,

i id to b e p igy
s sa ( Fig m eaning aro nd
er n ou s s . u

the pi til Finally the in ertion i carried ab ove the ovary

s .
, s s ,

and epal petal and tamen eem to ari e from the top
s s, s, s s s s

of the ovary ( Fig 205 ch a flower being pigy .

, su e n ou s ,

the o ter part appea ing pon the ovary In ch a

u s r u .
”
su

ca e the ovary doe not appear within the flower b t b elow

s s , u

it ( Fig 205 252 s and the flow r i often aid to h ave

.
, ,
e s s

an inferior ovary .

1 23 A pocarpous t o sy carpo
. fl ow rs —I the i m pl r n us e n s e

flower the carpel are entirely d i tinct each carp l org n

s s s , e a
 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

izing a im ple pi til a ingle flower containing many

s s ,
s as

pi til
s there are carpel
s as in t h b tterc p ( Fig s, as e u u s s .

2 00 , S ch a flower i aid to b e p p m
u eanin g s s a oca r ou s ,

carpel eparate There i a very trong tendency

s s . s s ,

d h b ( Caly ca th us) : A t ip
Swe e t -
sce n te s ru n ,
of b ran ch be i ar n g fl o wers ; B ,

s ti
ec th gh fl w
on h wi g m ro u fl ll o e r, s o n nu e ro u s o ra e a ve s , s t a me n s , an d car e s , an dpl
l t h d l pm t f t h
a so e p t c l b t th
e ve o en o e re ce a e a ou e pl
car e s , ma k i n g a pe i gy r n o us

fl w —A f t
o T n m a mxr
er . er n .

however for the carpel of a flower to organize togethe

, s r

and form a ingle co m po nd pi til In ch a flower ther

s u s . su e

m y be everal carpel b t they all appear

a s one orga s, u as n

( Fig 1 9s5 0.1 9 7 1 9 8 D 1,

99 B ) , d the flo wer i , i d , , , , an s sa

to be y p s m eaning
n ca r carpel together
ou s , s .
”

1 24 P olyp t alo . t o sy mpet alo fl ow s —The tendency

e ns us er

for part of the am e t to coale ce i not confined to t h

s s se s s e

carpel Sepal often coale ce ( Fig

s . sand om eti m e s . s s

s tam en b t the coale cence of petal em to b e m o

s, u s s se s re

i m portant A m ong the low r for m the petal are entirely

. e s s

s eparat d ( Fig 1 99 A 202 203

e a condition whi h
s .
, , , , c
228 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

at e d into two region ( Fig 2 1 0 b) a m ore or le s t b l s .

, , s u u ar

portion t h t b d a m ore or le flaring port ion the limb

, e u e, an ss , .

1 25 . A ct in omorphic

the impl era —In s er

flower all the m m s e

b er of any cycl s on e e

are alik e ; the petal s

are all alik e t h , e

tam en are all alik e s s ,

etc L ook ing at t h . e

center of the flo wer ,

ll the part are re a s

p t d a b o t it li k e ea e u

th part of a radi e s

ate ani mal S ch a . u

flower i ti m s ac no or

y mp l
l w m i l ( m ) wi h
F
ll pli p h wi
o
p
e r of
h i m eaning orn n g -g o ry Ipo csa ,

t h e fi ve
t
c,
“
ra

h
s

m
a t t ac
e ta ous c o ro

p i
ed sta y wi h diate and i
e ns , an d
often
a s t o e n, s

t h e su e r or o var
o ng

t ,
”
s
p m royl
y mp l
im
in e n t fl w
i m ph
called
st
a e an d
reg lar
st g a ; th e o er is h y u

f
pogy n ous ,
A ter M s xss x xa
fl
s
ower Altho gh
e ta o u s , an d act n o or ic .

. u

the term t i m
.

ac no or

phi trictly applie to all the fl oral organ it i e pecially

e s s s, s s

noteworthy in connection with the corolla who e change , s s

will be noted .

F lo 21 0 p pb ll h i a l fl
A grou o f sym e ta o us owe r orms : a , a o we r o f h are e , s ow n g f fl
b
. .

b ll h p
e -
s l fl phl
a e d c o ro la ; b a h i
o we r o f p i li b a
o x , s ow n g a t u e an d s read n g
,
m ; c,
fl we r o f d ad t t l h wi g y gom rphi t w lipped
o e -
ne e, sll ; d a fl we r f
o n a z o c o- c o ro a o o

ll a a d al a pu f rm d b y t h bas f t h e
,

t oad n x h wi g a t w lippe d
-
a , s o n o- c o ro , n so s r o e e e o

c ll ; a fl we of t h s apd rag
oro a e . h wi ng th t w lips f th c roll a cl ose d
o r e n on , s o e o o e o .

-
A f te G R A Yr .
 TH E F L O W E R 22 9

I n m any a
the pet l are not ll l ik e d the adi
c se s a s a a , an r

t
a e c haracter with it im ilar p rt repeated bo t a , s s a s a u ce n

ter i lo t In the
, s s .

c omm on violet for ,

example one o f the ,

petal develop a p r s s s u

( Fig 2 1 1 ) in
. the
s weet pea the p t l e a s

are remarkably nu

like one b eing broad

,

an d erect two m all , s

er a n d d p n g p y
’
l 0O 1
i F lo 21 1 T he a ns ( V iol a t r icolor) A, sec t on

dow ward and the

. .

n h wi p l
,
p l () whi s o n g se a s (l , e ta s 0 o ne of ch

p d p fl w b i
t h er two m h m d ( ) m ro uc e s a s ur cs , the o er e n g zy g o or .

O II C O l
m f i ( p l ) p i Pt : B. a t u re ru t a ca su e an d e rs s t e n t

fl d to form together
e ly ( ) h b h p l ca x k ; c. t h e t re e oa t - s a ed va v e s o f

a b oat like tr ct re _
f i p m
s
d (
u
) i u
th e ru t o e n, os t o f t h e se e s 8 hav ng

b di h — f arge d A t e r SA cn s
the
een sc .

wh h l
0

lc 1 n c ose s

s porophyll S ch flower are called yg m phi m eaning

s . u s z o or c,

yoke form and they are often called ir g lar flower

-
,
“
re u s .

W hen zygo m orphic flower are al o y m petalo the s s s us

corolla i often c rio ly haped A very co mm on form

s u us s .

F lo . 21 2 l w f a mi n t ( M e /Ila aqu atica) : A th e t i re fl we r h wi g cal yx

. F o er o n ,
e n o . s o n

of i te d p l
un e q a l pe t l setam a d
a s, u nt yl wi t h t w
u t i gm l b ;B
a s, s ens, n s e o s a o es . a

c ll a pli t p
oro h wi g p tal
s it d a d th f
o en, s o ta m n tt
e h ed to t h e
s un e n e o ur s ens a ac

tu b ; the fl w ie ymp ta l o d y g m phi c —A f te W n a x l N o

er s s e ou s a n z o or . r .

33
2 30 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

is the or t w lipped in which two of the pet ls

bila bia te, o -
,
”
a

us u ally organize to form one lip and the other three f o m , r

the other lip ( Fig 2 1 0 s .

,

d 21 2 The t w c, , e, , o

lip m y b nearly eq l s a e ua ,

the pper m y tand hig h u a s

or overarch the lower t h , e

lower m y project more a or

l w b (
P ro 2 1 8
s
.

h wi o ly
. F
l d pl
m)
le
n g t h e ca
o e r of a

p ly t
L a ia t e
x o f coa e sc e
Te ucri u
se a s,
,
ss CO D S l O U O fl S , e c °

t he s y mpe t l a d t w h pp d ( b la b i
a o us n o- e l 1 26 . I n fl or e s c e n c e .

at ) c e lla wi t h t h p t l ( middl
o ro
ery ften fl owe r are 1
re e e a s e on e
V O s 80 1
la g t ) i t h l w lip d t w mall
r es n e o er an o s

o i t h e p pe an d t h
nes n tary either
ta m
u s d r, the end f e s en an , 011 O
s t yl e m g i g t h ugh li t t h p
pe s i d
e

f th t b ;
er n
te m or branch ( Fi
y mp t l u a d
ro

e
a s on e u
a s g
o
s

in t h
r e o e u a s e a o s n

zy gom phi c fl w —A f t B 1 Qu r
or 231 o er .
i1 er lt s
'
. , 01
'
e 3X

of a leaf ( Fig B t . u

su ch ca e grade in en ibly into other where a defini t

s s s s s e

region of the plant i t a ide to prod ce flower ( Fig s se s u s s .

25 3 , S ch a region for m what i called the i fl u s s n o

resce n ce The vario way in which flower are arrang d

. us s s e

in an inflore cence have received technical name b t th y

s s, u e

do not enter into p rpo e here They are i mply d if ou r u s . s

f t way in which plant

e re n eek to di play their flowe
s s s s rs

so as to favor pollination and eed di tri b tion s s u .

Th ere are everal tendencie however which m y b s s, , a e

noted Som e gro p incline to loo e cl ter either elo

. u s s us s, n

gated ( Fig 26 0) or fl t topp d ( Fig . other pref a -

e . s er

large and often olitary flower ( Fig 25 8 ) to a cl ter f s s . us o

s m aller one b t in the highe t gro p there i a d i tin t

s u s u s s s c

tendency to red ce the ize of the flower increa e th e i u s s, s r

n mb er and m a the m into a com pact cl ter Thi t

u , ss us . s en

den y reache it highe t expr ion in t h greate t famil y

e s s s e ss e s

of the Angio per m the Com po it of which the n flow

s s, s es , su er

or dandelion can be taken an ill tration ( Fig 26 1 as us s .

,

in which n mero m all flower are clo ely packed togeth

u us s s s er

in a com pact cl ter which r m ble a ingle large flowe us e se s s r.

It d oe s n t f ol low t hat all very co mpact in flore scences in

o
 CH AP T E R XIV

M O N O CO TY L E D O N B A N D D I C O TY L E D O N S

1 29 . Cont rast i ng reat gro p of

charact ers — The t wo g u s

A n gio per m are q ite di tinct and there

s s ually no dif s ,
is u su

fi lt y in recognizing the m
cu The monocotyledon . s are

u su ally regarded the older and the i mpler fo m and as s r s,

are repre ented by ab o t twenty tho an d pecie The

s u us s s.

D icotyledon are m ch m ore ab ndant and d iver ified con

s u u s ,

t ining abo t eighty tho and pecie and form the d omi
a u us s s,

nant vegetation al m o t everywhere s .

The chief contra ting cha acte s r rs

m y b e tat ed f ollow a s as s

M n ty l d ( )
1 E m bry o oco e on s . o

with terminal cotyledon and lat

eral te m tip Thi char cter i s -
. s a s

practically witho t exception u .

( )
2 V a c lar b n dl e o f te m s u u s s

cattered ( Fig Thi mean s . s s

tha t there i no ann al incre e in s u as

P ro i
21 4 m
the
Sec t
dia m eter of the woody te m s s,

m
co
.

h wi m m e “
.

s o
and nong
on
t
of

e
w
st e

sob h
,
of

g b t ex en s e ran c ln ,
u
i di d b y b l
,

d
b un d le s
by
.
to thi
n
there
ca t e are o m e except ion
ac k s s s .

li
o ts

l i di l
nes
in
in i ( )
3
o ng
L eaf
c ros s - s e c t io n , an d

tu na
f m g
se c t o n
l o ed ve l n s or ln 8 C s
— m l y te m ( Fig 2 1 5 fig re to left )
.

F l i
ro
“
P an t Re at on s .
"
s s .
, u .

A a r le there i an evident t s u s se

of vein which sapproxi m ately parallel and intricately

ru n ,

branching b etween the m i a y te m of min te veinlet not s s s u s

readily een The vein y te m doe not end freely i t h e

s . s s s n

232
 M O N O C O T Y L E D O N S A N D D IC O T Y L E D O N S 233

ma rgin of the leaf b t form a clo ed enation that

, u s s v , so

the leave ally have an even ( ti ) m argin There

s u su en re .

are ome notable exception s s

to thi haracter s c .

4 C
( ) y cli fl owe tri m c rs

r The three pa ted o cus .

-
r

P ro 21 5
. T wo t
. yp
es o f ea l f v en at on : i fi gu
l f t is from Sol om n s seal
th e re to t h e e o
'
,

a M o nocoty le d o u , an d s h ow th e pri nc ip l
i ns parall e l th ry mi nute c ss
s a ve e ve ro

y ; t h a t to th e ri g h t is f rom a will w
,

v e i l ts be i n g i n i i b l e t o t h e n ak ed
n e v s e e o , a

D i c t yl d n a d sh ws n t te d
o e o n o i ns t h mai cen t ral i ( m i d ib) se nd i g t
e ve e n ve n r n ou

i f pa ll l b h which are co ected wi t h one anoth er by a n tw k

, ,

a se r es o ra e ran c e s, nn e or

of i l t s —A f te r E r r m e n a usl N
ve n e . s .

fl o wer s o f cyclic M onocotyledon are q ite characteri t ic s u s ,

b t there are o me tri m ero

u D icotyledon
s us s .

D i ty l d co E mbryo with lateral cotyledon and

e ons s

term inal te m tip s -

.

( )
2 V a c lar b ndle
s u o f t m for m i g
u a hollow cylinder s s e n

( F ig 2 1.6 w ) Thi
,
m ean an
. ann al increa e in
s the dia m s u s
234 P L A N T ST R UCT URE S

eter of woody tem ( F ig s s .

2 1 7 w) and a po ible , , ss

increa e o f the b anch s r

y tem and foliage di s s s

play each year .

( )
3 L ea f vein f or m s

ing an open y te m ( Fig s s .

2 1 5 fi g r e t o r i g h t) , u .

The network of m aller s

veinlet b e t w e e n the s

F i
216 y wi
Sec t
larger vein i all y of
s s u su
lo

l
.

b ox h wi f
e
.

m
d e r, i s
on

o very ng evident
across

t he e pecially
a ou ng

o u r st e
t
re g
g
ons , s
pi m
6, e p by
der h y on the nder
is , re rese n te d rface o f the ea v u su
b di li l
i d n pi
o un
—
er ; m l
ng

p l i th
the lea
F
f
ro
gge “ ting
ne ; c, cort e x ; to , vasc u ar cy l

P
t h
an t Re a t on s , su s e

name net vein ed

, .

“ -
”

leave in contra t to the parallel veined leave of M on

s, s -
s o

cotyledon The vein y tem end freely i the margin of

s . s s s h

the leaf form ing an open venation In con eq ence of

, .
”
s u

thi altho gh the leaf

s, u

m y re m ain entire it
a ,

very c o m m o n l y b e

come toothed lob ds ,

e ,

and divided in vario us

way Two main typ

s . es

of venation m y be a

noted which infl e ce ,

u n

the form of leave I n s .

one ca e a ingle very s s

prom inent vein ( ib) r

r n thro gh the mid

u s u

dle of the blade and ,

i called the m id ib
s i w i r l . F ro . 21 7 . Se c t on across a t g of b ox e d er
h y h wi h l i
F rom thi all the m i
t re e e a rs old , s o ng t re e a n n ua r n gs ,
s
wh i l yli or g ro t r n gs , in t h e v as c u a r c n d er ; t he

nor v e i n a r i e di i li
s ( m ) whi h s as ra at n g ne s c cros s t h e vascu lar

i w) p pi h y p
branche ( Fig 21 8 s
i f ms .
pi h ,
re g on

pal on e s e xt e n d ng
( re re se n t t he
ro
t
the
ra s ,

t
t he rin ci

to th e cor
and ch a le f ( ) su m l l i a te x c .
-
F ro P an t Re at on s .
“
236 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

It i the co mb ination of cha acte

s r rs which det erm ine s a

gro p u .

M o n oc or v L E n on s

. great gro p give evidence of

1 30 Introd uct ory .
— Thi s u s

several di tinc t lin of development di ting i hed by what

s es , s u s

m y b e called the working

a t o f di ff erent idea In thi ou s . s

u —
way n mero f mi li have re lted that i gro p ofus a es su s, u s

F lo 219 A l f
ea of h on e yl ocust , h
t o s ow t w cei pi n n at e b ra n c hi
ng ( b ipi nnate leaf )
W LL
. . .

CA L D E .

fo rm swhich eem to b elong together on acco nt of i milar

s u s

s tr ct re Th i i m ilarity of tr ct re i taken to m ean

u u s . s s s u u s

relation hip A fam ily therefore i made p of a gro p

s .
, , s u u

of nearly relat d form O pinion m y di ff er to what e s.

s a as

f orm are nearly relat ed that they de e ve to con ti

s so s r s

t te a di tinct fam ily A i gle fam ily of om e bot a i t

u s . s n s n s s

m y be
a pli t p into two or m ore fam ilie by othe
“
s u
”
s rs .

D e pite thi diver ity o f opinion m o t o f the f m ilie a

s s s , s a s re

fairly well recognized .

 M O NO CO T YL E D O N S A N D D ICO T YL E D O NS 237

W ithin
a fam ily there are maller gro p indicat ing s u s,

clo er relation hip known

s g s in
( g lars, g ) as en er a s u , en u s .

F or xam ple in the great fam ily to which the a te belong

e ,
s rs ,

t h di ff erent a ter re e mble one another m ore tha they do

e s s s n

an y other m e m b er o f the fa m ily and hence are s g ro ped , u

together in a g n A t In the am e fam ily the golden

e us s er . s

rod ro
s are
g ped together in the
u g n S li d g T h e us o a o . e

d i ff r t kin d of A t
e en or of S lid gs called p i s er o a o a re s ec es

( i
s n g lar l uo p i ) A
a s gro p of r lated
s
p
ec es i there
. u e s ec es,

f r form a g
o e, and a gro p of related g
s en u s form a u e n e ra s

technic l name of a plant i the combination of it

The a s s

g n ric and p cific nam e the form er alway being written

e e s e s, s

fir t For exam ple Q

s . lb i the nam e of t h m , u er cu s a a s e co

m on white k Q b ing the na m e of the gen

oa ,
to
u er cu s e us

wh ich ll oak b long d lb the pecific nam which

a s e ,
an a a s e

di t i g i h th i oak from other oak N oth r name

s n u s es s s . 0 e s

are n c ry e two genera of pl nt can bear the ame

e ssa , as n o a s s

nm a e .

I the M onocotyledon abo t forty fam ilie are recog

n s u s

i d containing n m ero
n ze ,
genera and am ong the e u us , s

g n ra the tw nty tho nd pecie are di trib ted It i

e e e u sa s s s u . s

evid n t th t it will b e i mpo ible to con ider ch a va t

e a ss s su s

a rr y of form even the fam ilie being too n m ero to

a s, s u us

m ntio
e A few i mportant fam ilie will be m entioned
n . s ,

which will erve to ill trate the gro p

s us u .

131 P n d w d s The e are b m erged aq atic fo nd

e —. o e s su u s, u

in m o t fre h water ( om e are marine ) and are regarded

s s s s ,

as a m ong the i m ple t M onocotyl don Th y

s lender s e s . e ar e s ,

b r nching herb gro wing nder water b t often having

a s, u , u

fl ti g leave and ending the i m ple flower or flower

oa n s, s s s

cl t r ab ove the rf ce for pollination d eed d i t i

us e s su a an s -
s r

b tiu The com m n pondw ed ( P t m g t ) contain

on . o e o a o e on s

n m ro
u pecie ( Fig
e us while N i ( naiad ) and
s s . a as s

Z i h lli
ann c ( horned pondweed
e )
a are co m m on genera in
po d and low water
n s s s .
238 P L A N T STE CO T URE S

The i mple character of the e form i in di cated by th ir

s s s s e

aq atic hab it and al o by their flower which are m o t ly

u s s, s

naked and with few poroph yll A flower m y con i t f s s . a s s o

a ingle tam en or a ingle carpel or there m y be ev l

s s , s a s e ra

s tam en and carpel a ociated b t witho t any coale c

s s ss , u u s e n ce

( Fig 2 2 0.B ) ,
.

In the am e gene al line with the pondweed b t wi th

s r s, u

m ore co m pl x flower are the ge era S g itt i ( r w

e s, n a ar a ar o

P o n wee d d ( P otamog to ) A bra ch wi t h cl ste ( pi k ) f simpl e fl owers

e n : n u r s e o

t h b ad fl oa t i g l a
.
,

sh wi
o ng a so l e ro d th
n e w b m ged nes ; B a sin
ve s a n e n arro su er o ,

g le fl owe r s o n h wi g t h e i c pi c s p i n t h l b ( c) th h o t stame ( a )
n on s u ou er a o es e s r ns

t g mat i c s f ces — A af te s
, , ,

an d t h e t wo s or s h t tyl es wi t h pi c on s c uo u s s i nn ur a . r

f
n A c n ; B a t e r L s M A O UT an d D s cu s x s .
240 P L A N T ST RUCT UR E S

leaf) and A li m ( water plantain ) in whi ch t here i a di

s a -
, s s

tinct calyx and corolla The gen Tgpk ( cat tail ) i al o . us a -

s s

an aq atic or mar h form of very i m ple type t h fl w

u s s , e o

being i n d e n e e rs s

cylin d ical cl te r us rs

(p i k ) the pper s es , u

flo wer con i ting of s s s

tam en the lower of s s,

carpel th forming s, us

two very di tinct s re

gion of t h pik s e s e

F
( gi .

1 32 . G r a s se s .

Thi i one of the

s s

large t and probably

s

one of the m o t s u se

f l gro p of plant
u u s s,

as well one of the as

m o t pec liar
s It i u . s

world wide in it d i
-
s s

t ib t i
r and i
u on , s te

m arkable in it d i s s

play of individ al u s,

often g r o w i n g so

den ely over large

s

area to form a
s as

clo e t r f I f the
s u .

gra like edge be

ss -
s s

a ociated with them

ss

there are ab o t i u s x

t h o a n d pecie
u s s s,

F ro . 222 . A c o mm on mea d o w grass ( F es t uca) : A , r pre enting nearly

e s
p rt i
o f fl w
on o l t ( pi k l t ) h wi g th
o e r c us e r s e e , s o n e
one third of the M on
bract in ths, il f t w f whi ch fl w
e ax s o o o o e rs are

exp d ; B a i gl fl w wi t h it
o se s n l p e o er s e n ve o oc ot yl d H ere
e on s .

i g b
,

wh
t h wi g th
rac

yb tw
. s t m
t yl b
o

ch
an d n pi t il
wi t h much
re e s a e ns, a s
belong the ario v us

cereal gar ca es
o se o v ar e a rs o s e ra n es

bran h d t igmas —A ft Sr m nu on
c e s . er s a a .
s, su n ,
 M O N O CO T YL E D O N S A N D D I CO T Y L E D O N S 24 1

bamboo and pa t re g a e all of them i m m en ely

s, s u r ss s, s u se

f l plant
u s .

T h flower are very i mple ha ing no evident pe ianth

e s s , v r

( Fig . M o t co m m only a flower con i t o f

s th ee t a s s s r s

m en rro nding a ingle carpel who e ovary ripen into

s, su u s ,
s s

the g i the characteri tic eed like fr it of the gro p

ra n , s s -
u u .

Th tam n ho w v r m y b of y n mb er fro m one to

e s e s, e e ,
a e an u

i
s x .T h flo w r th r for are nak d with indefinite
e e s, m e e e, e , nu

b r and hypogyno in d icating a comparatively i mple

e s, u s, s

typ It i l o not worthy that the gro p i ane mophilo

e . s a s e u s u s.

O of t h ot wo thy feat re of the gro p i the

ne e n e r u s u s

pro m in nt d v lop m nt of p c li r le v ( b d ) in con

e e e e e u a a es ra s

n ec ti with t h flow r E ach flow r i co m pletely pro

on e e s . e s

t t d or ev n inclo d by
ec e of th e bract
e d the se on e es s, an as

b r ct
a ally overl p
s u su anoth r the flow r invi ible a on e e e s are s

u nti l t h b r ct pr ad apart and perm it th long da gling

e a s s e e n

t m n to how the m elve Th e bract form the

s a e s s s s . es s so

c ll d h ff of whe t and other cereal where th y

a e
“
c a
”
a s, e

p r i t d m or or le env lop the grain ( ripened ovary )

e s s an e ss e .

A th y
s ally call d gl m the g a e and edge
e ar e u su e u es, r ss s s s

are sa id to b gl m plant e u aceou s s .

Gr e are not alway lowly plant for in t h tropic

ass s s s, e s

th b m boo and cane for m growth that m y well b e

‘

e a s s s a

c ll d fore t The gra e con tit te the family G mi w

a e s s . ss s s u ra ne ,

an d the edge the fa m ily Cyp m w s s

'
e ce .

1 33 P lms — M ore th an
. atho nd pecie of pal m on e u sa s s s

are gro ped in the fam ily P lm

u The e are t h tree a a cea v
. s e

M n cotyledon and
o o very characteri tic of the tropic ,
s, a re s s

only t h p l m etto getting far north

e a G lf State as as o ur u s .

The hab it of b ody i like that of tree fer d Cycad a s -

ns an s,

t ll n b r nched col mnar tr nk h i g at it m m it a

a u a u u ear n s su

cr wn of h ge leave which
o pinn te or p l m ate in ch r
u s a re a a a

a ter d often plitting

c , an to appe r lob ed or co mpo nd
s so a s a u

( F ig 223 s .
,

The flow r cl ter are ally very large (Fig

e us s u su .

and e ch cl ter at fir t i inclo e d in a h ge bract which

a us s s s u ,
F ro 223 . Ad a tepal m h wi g t h e u b an h d l umna t run k c re d wi t h
,
s o n n r c e co r o ve o ld l eaf
base s , a d wi t h a c l
n t f h g pi
us e r o t l uat t h
e t pn na e ly t h l w
ea ve s e o , on e o es t po r
ti ons o f whi h c are h w ; tw f th
s o n
y h a y f uit cl us te rs are also
o o e ve r e v r

F ro m P l n t R e l at i s
"
a on ,
 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

flower are ally very i mple often b ing nak ed

The s u su s ,
e ,

with t w to ni e ta m en and one to fo r carpel ( Fig

o n s s, u s .

F lo . 225 . k i t h p l pi t ( A rta m
J ac -
a -
e -
u
-
r ac ) . s h o i
w ng the ove ra rc hi ng s p th
a es ; in o ne

cas e a s id i w h w t h k d t ip
e v e s o s e na e of the p j i
ro ec t n g s p di x —A ft
a . er A rx
'
m sou .

They are i con pic o and clo ely t pon t h n s u us s se u e

lower part of a fle hy axi which i naked above and oftes s, s n

 M O N O CO T YL E D O N S A N D D I CO T YL E D O N S 24 5

m odi fied in a re markable way into a cl b h pe d or t il like u -

s a a -

often b rightly colored aff ai Thi ing lar fl w cl t r r . s s u o e r- us e

with i t fle hy axi i called a p d i

s s The flower oft en s s s a x . s

i cl de b t one ort of porophyll and ta m inate and

n u u s s , s

pi tillate flower hold d i ff erent po ition pon the pad ix

s s s s u s

( Fig .

The padix i enveloped b y a great b ract which

s s ,
su r

ro nd and overarche like a large lo e hood d i c lled

u s s os ,
an s a

the p th The pathe i excee d ingly

s a e . s s

variable in form and i often p i , s con s c

u ou sly colored for m ing i the Calla , n

lily t h con pic o white part withi

e s u us ,
n

which the p d ix m y be een ne r th s a a s , a e

b e of which t h flower are fo nd

as e s u .

I nJ k i the p lpit ( Fig 225 ) it i

ac -
n- -
u . s

the overarching p the which gge t s a su s s

the p lpit The padix and p the

u .
”
s s a

are the characteri tic feat re of the s u s

g o p and t h pathe i vario ly

r u ,
e s s us

m odi fi ed in f orm tr ct re and color , s u u ,

for in ect poll ination

s i the peri m wi h p h ,
as s
F lo

A
.

ru
226 . Spad ix
t s at
of

e r e

a th of other entom ophilo gro p

,

u m d h wi us u s .
o ve ,
s o ng c lus te r

k d i ill
Aroid f rther p c liar in hav
s ar e b j bu
w
e u
of n a

c rs a t
e p st
ase ,
a te

u st a
flo
ove

ing b road net veined leave of t h D i l - mi s e a c u s te r o f s ta n a te

cotyledon type A ltogether they form fl w

.
l b o e rs , a n d th e c u

s h a pe d t ip of the s pa

a rem arkably di tinct gro p of M — f W m s u on d ix . A t er

,

oSs L o.

ocot yl e d on s .

ie
1 35 L il s —
. Th lily and it allie are ally regarded e s s u su

as the typical M onocotyle d on form The perianth i s . .

s

f lly dev eloped nd i very con pic o either diff

u , a s s u u s, un e re n

t i t d or with di tinct calyx

a e d corolla and the flower i s an , s

well organized for in ct pollination The flower are eith er se . s

s olitary or few in a cl ter and corre p ndingly la ge or in us s o r ,

m ore co m pact cl ter and m aller In any event the us s s .

,

p rianth i the con pic o th ing r ther than pathe or

e s s u us , a s s

gl mu es .
24 6 P LA N T ST R UC T UR E S

In the general lily alliance compo ed of eight or i , s n ne

fam ilie there are m ore than fo r tho an d pecie re p

s, u us s s, t e

senting ab o t one fifth of all the M onocotyledon and t h y

u s, e

are d i tri b ted everywhere They are al m o t all te re t ial

s u . s r s r

herb d are pro m inently g fl i l

s, an ( earth lover eo z ou s
“ -
s
’

that i they d v l p s, e e o

b l b root tock t u s, s s, e c .
,

which enable the m t o

d i appear fro m a b v s o e

the rface d ring su u nu

favorable con d iti on s

( cold d o ght ) d or r u , an

then to reappea p r ra

i d ly pon the ret u u rn

f favo a b le con d i t io o r ns

( Fig 22 7 2 2 8 23 1 s .
, , ,

In the reg lar li l y u

fam ily ( L i li ) t h a ce a? e

flower are h yp gy s o

no and t i m
us ac no or

phi ( Fig e th . e

i p rianth part
s x e s ar e

m o tly alike and o m

s s e

ti m y m petalo (
es s us as

in t h lily f t h l e -
o -
e - va

F m k bi
W a e ro n ( T ril li u m ) s o w ng ro o t
-
h i l y h yacin t h ea t
e s er
b hb
.
,
, ,
s t oc k f
ro m w ic h h
t wo ran c e s arise e a c h
ear
,
1 1 1l ) F
( g 2 01
,

l S
y

y l h l h l
in g a c c e ( w o r ) o f t re e e a v e s an d a s n g e i l - ’ .

. am en are
t rime ro u s d o we r —A t e r A r x m s o n
f '
. th e st s 11 8 11

ally i ( two t ) s x se s ,

and t h thr e carp l e yncarpo ( Fig 204

e e s are s us s .
,

Thi i a high r com b ina tion of fl r l cha ac ter than

s s e o a r s

any of t h pr ceding gro p pr nt H ypogy y and

e e u s e se s . n

ac t ino m orphy l w b t con pic o p rianth y

a re o , u a s u us e , s n

c ar py d o c,ion l
an y m p t ly in d
c ic te
as con id rab l d s e a a s e a e a

vanc m nt e e .
F l o 229 Th e Ja pan li ly sh wi ng t b l pe ri ant h th e p arts of the peri an th
—
. . , o a u u ar ,

i
s i
d t c a
n t bove F rom F i el d F re s t an d W
,
o
,
a
y s id e F l o wers ,
“
 M O N O C O T YL E D O N S A N D D ICO T Y L E D O N S 24 9

cie of I i ( flag ) ( Fig

s C
r s Gl d i s . r ocu s , a olu s ( Fig 2 33 s .
,

etc the flower are not only epigy no

.
, s u s, b t om e of
u s

t he m are zygo m orphic .

W hen plant h a as

r h d b th epigyny
e ac e o

an d ygo m orphy in it
z s

fl w r
o it m y b
e s, a e re

g rd ed f high r nk
a as o a .

1 36 Or c h i d s— I. n

nu m b r of p cie thi
e s e s s

( O r c h i d a ce w) is t h e
gr t f m ily mo g
e at e s a a n

th M ono otyledon
e c s,

th p ie s b i g v ri
e c es e n a

ou sly ti ted fro m

m es m i m
a m i
m h wi h
y F . 230 . D agra at c c ro s s -se c t io n o f o var

S i tho nd t t e
X u sa
l li h whi h w O l (m 11
of

oc u
L ilia n a P h il ad e lph ic u
in e ac of c a re
,
s

t
o ng

o ovu e s
th e t re e

e ga

tho nd p
,

u sa t g p i )
re l i m
re se n l n s o ra n g a ; 4, o vu e ; B, n t eg u e n ts ; 0, na

L
.

—
,
m
b tw n third d m ( w t “ “ ; A e b ry o '
sfl c N e sc as CA D
e ee on e an

on e h lf of ll known a a

M t yl d n
o n oc o I di play of individ al
e o s .h w th n s u s, o e ve r, e

r hi d not to b co m p r d with the gr e or even

.

o c s are e a e a ss s,

with lili f t h v io pecie

e s, what call d rare
or e ar us s s a re are e
“

pl t —
anth t i s t xten ively di t ri b t d and often
a s, no e s s u e ,

v ry m ch re trict d A ltho gh there

e u s om e bea tif l
e . u are s u u

r hi d in t m per t r gi on
o c s pecie of H b
e
(
a e rein e s , as s s a en a rza
’

r h i ) ( Fig
o c s P g i C lp g . C lyp Cyp p o on a , a o o on , a s o, ri e

l m ( l d y lipp r m occa in flower ) ( Fig etc

'

( zu a -
s e or s
'

. .
, ,

by f t h g t t di pl y and div r ity

ar e re a e s in the tropic s a e s are s,

wh r m y of the m
e e b rilli ntly flowered epiphyte
an are a s

F
( gi .

O r h id
the m o t h ighly peci lize d of M
c s are ty s s a on oco

l d
e d th ir b rilli nt color tion and biz rre for m
on s , an e a a a s are

i t d with m rv lo d pt tion for i ct vi it tion

a ssoc a e a e us a a a n se s a

( P
se e l t R l ti pp 1
an 34 T h fl we
e a are i
p gy on s , .
,
e o rs e

n d trongly zygo m orph ic

ou s an Os of t h p tal i . ne e e s s re

m k b ly m odified form ing a con pic o

ar a lip wh ich i , s u us s
F lo . 231 . Th e co m -
h l , h i l
mo n d og t oo t v io e t s o w n g th e a rg e m o t t e ldl e a v e s an d con

s pic u o us flo we rs w hi h
c a re s e n t rapidly f
a b m e t h e s u rf a c e b
ro m t h e s u t e rran ean

b lb (
u see l l
c u t in t h e le f t o we r c orn e r) a so s o me
. p le t a s an d sta me n s an d t h ep l
is ti
dissecte d ou t . F ro m
-
l i
P an t R e la t o ns
"
.
252 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

an d tigma tic
s face into an indi ting i hable m
su r s u s as s in
the center of the flower The pollen g ain in ea h s .
-
r s c sa c

are ticky and cohere in a cl b hape d ma

s u -
s ss

which i p lled t and car i e d t another flower b y

s u ou r o the

F IG . %5 . Afl o we r of an o rc hid ( H ab e n a
pl t fl w i h w
r i a ) : at 1 t h e c o m e e o er s s o n ,

wi t h t h e p l b hi d a d t h p t
re se a s e n n re e e »

si i f t th l w t
s n ro n f whi h h a
, e o es on e o c s

d l p d l g t ap—h ped p rt i n
e ve o e a on s r s a o o

( lip ) d t ill l an ge p p ti t h
a s on r s ur or on , e

p i g t whi h i
o en n ot th b f c s s ee n a e a se o

th t p d b hi d t h
e s ra ,
p th l g
an e n e s ur e on

i fe i n y ( pigy s h a t )
r or o va r e n ou c rac e r

t h t w p ll e o f th o i gl t m e n s ac s o e s n e s a en

a re i th se e n t f th fl w
n di e ce n e r o e o e r,

gi g d w w d a d b tw
ve r n o th m
n ar n e ee n e

f ; th l
,

t t h
s re c th t i g ma es e s s u r ace e re a

ti b t w p ll
on e a d
ee n t igm o e n sac s n s a su r

f i h w i 2 ; wi t hi
ace s s o h p ll n n n eac o en

i a m
sa c f
s t i k y p ll a ss ( p lli i o s c o en o n

m ) e di g b l w i a t i k y di k
u , n n e o n s c s ,

whi c h may b e see n in I an d 2 ; a p ll m ( a ) i h wn t i k i g t

o en as s h s s o s c n o eac

e y e o f a mo t h —A f t e r G R A Y .

iting in ect The whole tr ct re in d icate a ve y

vi s s . s u u s r

highly pecialized typ ela b orat ly organized for in ect

s e, e s

pollination .

A nother int re ting epi gyno and zygom orphic trop

e s us

ical gro p b t t elab orat e t h orchid i p

u ,
u no so as e s, s re re

sented by the canna and banana ( Fig com m on i

s s . n

c ltivation foliage plant

u as d the aro m atic ginger s, an s .

From the i m ple pondw e d to the com plex orchid the

s e s s

evol tion of the M onoco t yledon h proceeded d b

u s as , an e

tween the m many prom inent and cce f l fam ilie hav su ss u s e

been worked t ou .
 l
c um p of h i
lad y mlippe rs ( Cyprimd i u m i s o w n g t h e h bi
a t of the pl an t
SN
.

a nd t h e ge n e ra l y phi
s t ruc t u re o f t h e z g o mo r c fl o we r —
. f
A te r G IB O .
2 54 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

F m 237 Ag ro u p of orc hid s Ca t tley a ) , s h o i w ng t he ver y yg m phi fl w

z o or c o e rs , t h e

t p t l) —
. .

lip b i e ng we ll s h o wn in t h e fl owe r to t h e l ft (l
e o we s e a C a
. s:LL A .

D I CO T Y L E D O N S

1 37 Introduct ory —D icotyl e d on s for m the greate st gro u p

.

of plant in rank and in n m b being t h m o t highly

s u e rs . e s

organized and containing ab o t ighty tho and pecie

, u e us s s .

Th y repre ent the d o m inant and cce f l vegetation i

e s su ss u n

all region and are e pecially in t h pre ponderance in t m

s, s e e

p erate re gion They are h r b h r bs d

. tree of eve y e s, s u s , an s, r

variety of ize and hab it d the rich di play of leaf form

s , an s s

i not bly con pic o

s a s u us .

Two great gro p of D icotyledon are recog ized t h u s s n ,

e

A h i / l my d
rc and the Sy mp t l In the form er there
e t a e te e a c
e .

i either no perianth or it part are e parate ( p lyp t

s s s s o e a

lo ) in the latt r the corolla i y mpetalo

us Th Archi
e s s us . e

ch l my d a are the i mpler form b eginning in i m ple a

e aa s s, as s

fa hion s do the M onocotyledon ; while t h Sy mp t lw

as s e e a
25 6 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

te m perate region f her belong the oak ( Fig

s, or hi k
e . c

ory waln t che tn t b eech poplar birch lm ( Fig 1 9 8

, u , s u , , , , e s
.
,

willo w ( Fig etc The pri m itive character i i

. . s n

d i t d not m erely b y the floral tr ct re b t al o b y t h

ca e s u u s, u s e

general ane m ophilo hab it us .

In the poplar ( P p l ) and it allied form the will w

o u us s , o

( S
a l im) the
, flower are naked and hy
s p ogyno ( Fig us .

F ro . me An e lm in f l iag
o e —F ro m P la
nt Re l ti
a o ns .
”
 M O N O C O T YL E D O N S A N D D IC O T Y L E D O N S 25 7

the tam en are ind efinite in n m b er ( two to thirty ) and

s s u ,

the pi til i y carpo ( t w carpel ) The tam en d

s s s n us o s . s s an

F m 240 . . F l o we r l
c u s t e rs o f wi ll ow ( amen t s ) ; t h at t o t h e l ft i pi t ill
e s s at e , th e ot h er

s ta m ina t e — A f t e r W a a m rxo .

pi til are not only parated in di ff er nt flo wer b t pon

s s se e s, u u

d i ff r nt plant
e e o m e plant being ta m inate and other
s, s s s s

p i s tillate ( Fig The flo w r are cl . tered pon a long e s us u

axi d each one i

s, an s

pr t ct d by a pro m i
o e e

n nt b act It i th e
e r . s es

scaly b r a c t wh ic h s

give character t t h o e

cl ter which i call d

us , s e

an m t or t/ i
a en ca c n,

an d the plant which s

p rod ce uch cl ter su us s

are ai d to be m t
s a en o

cee n a The e a m ent

. s s

of poplar p y s,
“
u ss

willow and the s,

”
m ld ( m b h F ro A e n ts of a er A lu ) : a, ra n c

al d r and b irch are wi m

.

e s m pi l
es m th s ta i na t e a e n ts ( n), s t i la t e a e n ts

v ry fa miliar o bj ct
e
y ( p i l m
e s
(m) . an d a o u ng b ud k) ; b is t l a t e a
. e n t at

im i h i h wi p mi t e of d a rg n g se e d s s o ng t he ro

Fi
sc .

( g 2 4
s 0 .
,b —A f W m m ne nt rac ts te r a ‘ o .
25 8 P L A N T ST R UCT U R E S

The only advanced character in the flower de i b d s as scr e

ab ove i the yncarpo pi til b t in the great allied pe pp

s s us s , u er

fam ily ( P ip ) o f the tropic with it one

er a ce ae th d s, s o u sa n

specie and m o t nearly repre ented in

s, flo a b y t h
s s our r e

F ro 242 O vu le of h beam ( Carpi usi sh wi g c h l

o rn n o n a az og a my : m , th e m i cro pyl e
b which m y b t ed t o i ts tra
. .
,

pt t h poll e e n tu e, a e rac en n ce i n to t h e e mb ry o sac a t i ts

-

—A f te r M A R Y
,

a t ip d al
n o e n d , an d th c p wa d t h gh t he c t
en e u r ro u sa o ward t h e egg
E wa s r .

lizard tail ( S -
) of the wa m p ( Fig the flower
au r u rus s s . s

are not merely nak ed b t al o apocarpo and the whol ,

u s u s, e

str ct re i m ch like that of the i m ple t M c tyl

u u s u s s on o o e
 h m ig ld
M a rs ar o a me m b e r of t he Bu t te rcu pf am ily l, a so s h o w ng i
fl l di g m i wi h t h fl
o ra a ra n nc e o ra ll e a ve s a re fi ve b u t t he s ta me n s p
a n d a oc ar p
o us

e ro u s —
, .

pi t il
s i d fi i t ly m
s are n e n e nu A f t e r A rx m s o n '
.

F ro . 244 . phi fl w f l k p
Z y g o mo r c o er o ar s ur F m . i ag m f t h zy g mo ph ic
D ra o e o r

d h pi m d h w
h i n i u m i wit
. se s s re o ve . s o fl w f l k p ( Delph i i m) h w
o e ro ar s ur n u . s o

in g t wo p t l wit h p m i t p
e a s rod nen s u rs , a n m g th p d l p dby
e s ur pa l d
e ve o e a se an

nu me ro u s s a t m —A f t BA LL N
e ns er I O i l i g t h t w p t l p —A f ter
n c os n e o e a s urs

LL
.

BA I O N,
 M O N O C O T YL E D O N S A N D D ICO T YL E D O N S 2 61

with one or m ore of the part the D icotyl n m ber ( five ) s, u

appear ( Fig 243

s b t with no pecial co t ncy
s .
, u s ns a .

In certain genera of the b t terc p fam ily ( R l u u a n u n cu u

ceae) zygo m orphy appear in the lark p r ( p

D l h i i m ) s, as s u e n u

wit h it p rred petal and epal ( Fig 244

s s u and the s s s s .
,

m onk hood ( A
s i f m) with it hooded epal ; and in the
con u s s

F m 246
. . The bb age ( Brassica) a m mb f t h m tard
common ca A ,
e er o e us ,

fl w cl t h wi g b d at t ip pe fl w be l w wi t h f
o er us e r s . o n u s p adi g p tal
,
o n o e rs o our s re n e s,

and f rm i g p d b l w; B m t
o n o p d wit h t h p rs i t t t yl ; (J pod pe i g
s e o a u re o e e s en s e o n n

by tw al a d h wi g see d at ta ch d t t h f l e part i t i —A ft W R M I N G
, , ,

o v ve s , n s o n s e o e a s on er A .

water lily fam ily ( N y mpk

-
) and poppy fa m ily ( p
P s a e ece
c a a

w) yncarpy appear
ve r a ce s In thi alliance al o b long s . s , s ,
e

the w e t cent d hr b ( C ly tk ) with their p igy

s e -
s e s u s a e an us , er

no flower containing n m ero part ( Fig

us s u us s .

35
 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S
26 2

The o t pecialized large gro p in thi allia

m s s i u s n ce s

the m tard fam ily ( C f w) with tw lve h d d

us ra cz e r ,
e un re

specie to which belong the m tard cre e

s, h p us s, ss s , s e

herd p r e p ppergra radi h cabbage ( Fig

’
s u s ,
e t ss , s ,
. e c .

The epal are fo r in two et t h s s u s s, e

petal fo r in one t t h t m s u se ,
e s a en s

i with two hort one in an t s x s s ou er

t and fo r long one in an i se u s nne r

t d carpel who e ovary b se ,

an on e s e

co m e divid d into two loc li b y s e u

what i called a fal e pa titio s

“
s r n

( Fig 24 6 ( J d ally b s an u su e

azm
,
.
,

f zfiasfigs: coi
m an elongated
'

h
pod ( Fig
f
r
2 4 6 es .
,

p
of f p
a rt s f ; A B) our Thi pecialized tr ct
se a ls , our
,
. s s S u ure
”m e mm
“ ?
of the
“
flow r d i tinctly m a k t h
"s '
e s r s e
p lw h f p
ca r e it a a ls e a rt i t i on

fam ily who nam e i gge te d

.

—f W
A te r A R x l No .
,
se s su s

b y the fact t h at the fo r pread in g u s

petal often for m a M alte e cro ( F ig 24 6 A ) T h p l

s s ss .
,
. e e on

iar tam en charact r fo r long d two hort tam en i

s e , u an s s s, s

calle d t t d y m m e ra fo r t rong r ou s u s

1 4 0 R o es — Thi. f m ily If s ) of one tho nd s a os a oe c

e u sa

sp cie i of
es the b e t kno w
s on e and m o t f l g ro p of s n s u se u u s

th te m perat region In it are ch form

e e Spi s . su s as rce a ,

fi ve fi n ge r
-
( P ot e n

ti lla ) , s trawb erry

( F r aga r za
'

) ( Fig s .

1 91 , ra pb rry s e

F
( gi . an d
b l a c k b e r r y ( Il a
I ms ) ro se ( R os a )
, ,

hawthorn ( C i ’
ra c
s

g ) a
as p pl and
, e ,
F ro 248 The co mmo n ras p b y th
e rr : e fi gure t o t h e
e r ( I ) F
( g
.

p a t T ZI S l l ft h
e swin g fl o we r s ta
o - lk ly ca x, o ld s ta me n s

l rry
,

p u m , ch e ,
w . an d p
ro m in e n t re c e pt l f ac e , ro m w hi h c th e
f ”H M O ? m ll f it h
l
‘ ”
r uit in of s ta s o ne ru s e ac
a1 11 1 O li d um wh b
.

pe —A f t e r
~
}
re pre se n t n g ll i carpe l) h as ee n re mo ved

P ru n a s ) . Bu m .
2 64 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

fr u it s ( d rapes ) , as apricot s, peache s F

( gi . pl u m s,
cherrie s.

1 41 .
—Thi s is far
the great t fam ily ( L g m i
L egumes es e u

)
n oses of the A h i h l m y d w containing aborc t even th c a e , u s ou

sand pecie di trib ted everywhere and of every habit It

s s, s u .

i the great zygo m orphic gro p of the A h i hl my d m

s u rc c a e ,

b eing elaborately a d apted to in ect pollination The m re s . o

Al pl a t ( L t ) h wi g fl w i g b ra
e gume n o us ,
s o n o er n nc h i l fl we ( 2 )
a s ng e o r

sh wi g y
o n phi
z ll t h l t f t t m
g o mo r c co ro a, e c us e r o en s a ens ( 3) whi ch wi t h t h ca p l e r e

i i
s l d d i t h k l t h li t y a p l U) whi h d
nc u e n e ee ,
e so ar c r e . c e ve o l p i t th p d l
s n o e o or e

g m u ( J ) et h p t l, ( 6 )
e di t d
e a s p t d h w i g tss e
c e a ar an s o n s an d a d ( a ) wi gs ( b ) d
r , n , an

th tw l w
e o p t l ( ) whi h f ld t g t h
o er e a s tc f rm t h c o o e er o o e k l d th fl l d i
ee , an e o ra a

g m
ra — A ft W D er osst LO .

pri m itive form of the L eg m ino the m i m o acacia

s u sae , sas, s

( Fig etc
. very m ch re e m b le tr. e,
ro e and the b t u s u s s u

te rc u
p with their
s,hyp ogyno r g l ar flower and us e u s nu

m er ta m en b t the va t m ajority are P pil form '

cus s s, u s a io s

with v ry irreg lar ( zygom orph ic ) flower and few t men

e u s s a s
 M O N O C O T YL E D O N S A N D D I CO T YL E D O N S 2 65

( F ig . The petal are ery di i m ilar the pper one s v ss , u

( t d
s an d ) being
arthe l ge t and erect or preading the two ar s , s ,

late al one ( wi g ) obliq e and de cending the two lower

r s n s u s ,

one coherent by their edge to form a projecting boat haped

s s -
s

body ( k l) which ee ,

inclo e the ta s s s

m en and p i t i l
s s .

From a fa cied n re

s emblance to a b t u

t fly
er c h flower su s

are aid to be p pi l
s o

ion a ceou s .

The whole f m a

ily i f rther char

s u

t i d by t h
ac e r ze i e s n

gle carp l which e ,

aft er fertil ization

d e v e l o p a pod s

( Fig 2 5.0 which ,

often becom e s re

m k b ly large
ar a as

com pa ed with the

r

carpel It i thi . s s

pec liar pod ( l

u e

g m
a ) ewhich h as

given to the fam ily

it technical na m e
s
i pl F h wi A t ive A caci a
( )IG se n s an t s o ng

and
-
.
,

L g mi
e u n os a fl w wi h i pi p l oy e rs t nco n s cu o us e ta s an d ve r nu

the omm o name m m pi ly b h d

e ro u s s ta e n s , an d the n na t e ran c e se n
c
—f
L eg m e u
? s .
l ’
alti ve e av e s A te r M a n n an d Sc a v n a n n .

W ell known m e m ber of the fam ily are l pine ( L pi

-
s u u

n ns ) clover
, ( if
T li m ) loc t ( R bri i
o
) Wui t i , pea us o n a , s a r a,

( P i sum ) bean ( P h
, l ) tragacanth ( A t l
a s eo u s
g ) vetch , s ra a u s ,

Vi i )c a redb d ( C i ) enna ( C i ) honey loc t

, u er c s , s a ss a ,
-
us

( G l dei t l i ) indigo
sc z a
( I d ig f ), en itive plant n
( A i o er a , s s -
s ca c a ,

M im etc ) ( F ig
osa , etc . .
.
26 6 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

1 42 .
—
o t highly o g i d
Umb elli fers Thi s is . the
m s r an ze

fam i ly ( Umb llif ) of the wh i h m y e er te A rchic h lamy d e se , c a

be aid to extend from P epper to U m bellifer T h L

s s s . e e

g m e adopt zygom orphy b t re m ain hypogyno

u s d i ,
u us an n

some of t h R o e epigyny appear ; b t the U m b l l i f

e s s s u e e rs

with their fiftee h ndr d pecie are all di tinctly pig y n u e s s s e

F xo . 25 2 . The co m mo n h beari ng t h e c mp un d
c arro t ( Da w ns Caro/a ) : A . b ran c o o

nmb l ; B a i gl
e s pig y fl w h wi g i f i
, s n e e y d p di g
n o us o e r, s o n n e r o r o v ar ,
ve s re a n

p ta l fl t m
e s l t at i g wit h t h p t l
ve s a d th tw
e ns a t yl s f t h b i
e rn p l
n e e a s . an e o s e o e car c

l y pi t il ; ( 7 t i
ar f fl w
s h wi g l t i se c f p t
on d l
o th m i
o t e r. s o n re a on o a r s , an a so e nu e

y dj tb p t s —A fte W R M N
.

sepa l a t h t p f t h
s ne r e th tho th
o e o va r an us e nea e o er ar r A I G .

no ( Fig 25 2 B C ) b eing one of the ve y few pigy

us .
, , , r e

no fam ilie am ong the A h i hl my d

us In addition s rc c a e aa .

to epigy y the cyclic arrang m ent and definite D icotyl

n , e

n m ber i e ta bli hed there being fi epal five pet l

u s s s , ve s s, a s,

fi tam en and two carpel the highe t kn own floral

ve s s, s, s
26 8 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

Sy mpet a lcs

1 43 . are the highe t and the m t

Int roduct ory —The se s os

recent D icotyledon W hile they contain n m ero h r b s . u us s u s

and tree in the tropic they are by no m ean ch a hr b

s s, s su s u

and tree gro p in the tem perate region uare the A c h i s as r

ch l my d w The flower are con t ntly cyclic the

a e . m s s a ,
nu

ber five or fo r i e tabli hed and the corolla i ym pe t

u s s s , s s a

lo the t men
u s, ally being h m pon it t be ( Fig
s a s u su o e u s u s .

2 08 , 209 ,
There are two well d fi d g o p s of Sy m p t l d i ti -
e ne r u e a ai, s n

g i
u sh d fro meone another by the n m b r of cycle and t h u e s e

n mber of carpel in the flower The gro p containin g

u s . u

the lower form i p t y li m eani g cycle fi s s the

en a c c c, n s ve , re

being two e t of tam en In it al o there are fi carpel

s s s s . s ve s,

the floral form la being Sepal 5 P etal 5 St m en 5 5u , s , s , a s ,

Carpel 5 A the carpel are the am e in n m b er

s . s th s s u as e

other part the flower are called i s,

p i m eaning s s oca r c, ear

pel am e The gro p i named either P t g l or 1

s s .
”
u s en a c c ce 30

ca rp and contain
ce , abo t ten fa m ilie and pecie
s u s s s .

The high r gro p containing abo t forty fam ilie d

e u s, u s an

pecie i t t y li m eaning cycle fo r

s s, s e ra c d c c, s u ,
”
an

i
a n s oca rpi m aning carpel not
c, the ea m e the flora l s s ,

for m ula being Sepal 5 P etal 5 Sta m en 5 Carpel 2, s , s , s , s .

T h gro p na m e ther fore i T t

e u
y l or A, i p e , s e rac c re n soca r ce .

1 44 H t hs —.The H eat h fam ily ( E i

ea .
) and it allie r ca cete s s

repre ent abo t two tho and peci

s u They are m o tly us s es . s

shr b om eti m e trailing and are d i played chiefly in

u s, s s , s

tem perate and arctic or al pine region in cold and d am p s,

or dry place often b eing pro m i ent vegetation in h g

s, n o s

and heat h to wh ich latter they give name ( Fig

s, The .

flow r are p ntacyclic and i ocarpic w ll m o tly hyp

e s e s , as e as s

ogy and
n ou s actino m orphic It i intere ting to note th at . s s

som e form are not y m petalo the petal being di tinct

s s u s, s s ,

showing a clo e relation hip to the A h i h l myd

s O s rc c a e aa . ne

of t h m ark d characte i tic of the gro p i the dehi cen ce

e e r s s u s s
 M O N O C O T YL E DO N S A N D D ICO T YL E D O N S 26 9

of the pollen c by terminal pore which are often pro

-
sa s s,

longed into t be ( Fig u s .

P ro 254 C h
i i h th pl t : A B C
ara c t e r s t c ea an s L y on ia s h
wi ng sy m pe ta l ou s fl owe rs
o

f m th l b d y c p
. . .
, , ,

an d i tyl
s n gl e s e ro e o e s n ar o u s o v ary ; t wo f o rm s o f Cass iope ,

sh wi g t il i g h b i t
o n ram ll l ppi g l
n a . s a o ve r a n e a ve s a n d s y m pe ta l o u s fl o we rs b u t in
, ,

th m ll
e s f m th p t l
a er l m t d i ti
or e e a s a re a os s n ct —A f te r D a n n a .

on repre entative of the fa mily are follow

Com m s s as s

h kl b erry ( G gl
uc e i ) cranberry and bl e b erry
a V
u s sa c a , u ac

ci i m) bearberry ( A
n a , i o t phgl ) trailin g arb t ( p
E i rc s a os , u us
 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

g a m) intergreen
, W (i a u ltk er ia
) , heather ( C ll a u na ) , m o un

t in la rel
a u A za lea , R h od od en d ron ( Fig .

In di an pipe ( M t on o r opa ) , etc .

F lo . 25 5 . l owF f h t h pl t (E i
e rs o ) h wi g c mpl t fl w ( A ) t h ta
ea an s r ca , s o n o e e o e rs , e s

me n s wi h t w h t d th whi h di h g p ll
o- orn e th g h t mi
an lp
e rs c sc ar e o en ro u er na o re s ,

an d th l b d y
e p o e y w t h i g l tyl a d p m i t t rmi l t igm
s n c ar o u s o var i s n e s e n ro ne n e na s a

( B, C, —A f tcr D ru ms .

1 45 forms The well k no wn m orning glory

.
— Convolvulns - -

( p
I oma m
) ( g
F i 209 ) m a
y be ta k en as a t y pe of the
. Con vol
2 72 P LA N T ST R UC T U RE S

1 46 . L ab iatea—
Thi g eat fam ily ( L bi tw) and it lli s r a a s a

repre ent m ore than ten tho and spe ie The

an e e s s us c s . con

sp i feat
cu ou s re i the u s

zygo m orphic flower dif ,

f i g in t h i regard fro m
er n s

the Convolv l form u us s,

which th y r e m ble i e es n

b eing t tr cyclic e d ani a an

soe arpi well he , as

yp gy as o

n ou s Th . irreg larity e u

co i t i org nizing the

ns s s n a

m o th of t h
u ym p t lo e s e a us

coroll into two lip

a
“
s,
”

re lti g in t h l bi t or
su n e a a e

F m 257
. . A co mm on d og ban e ( A pocy n um) .
—F rom
~
F i ld
e , F ores t , an d W ays id e
F l ow rs
e ,
F ro 258 The h d g b i d w e d Con od vulua) sh owin g th e twi i g hab i t n d th e c
e e n e n n a on

ous f n l form roll as —F rom F i l d F ores t and W ay s id e F l w rs

. . ,
”
spicu u ne co . e , ,
o e .
27 4 P L A N T STR UCT URE S

bi la l na te tr ct re ( Fig 2 1 0 d ) and gge ting t h

'

s u u .
, c, , e , su s e

nam e of the do m inant fam ily The pper lip all y . u u su co n

tain two petal and the lo w r three the two lip are o m
s s, e s s e

ti m wid ly eparated and om eti m e in clo e contact d

es e s , s s s , an

di ff er wi d ely in relative prom inence .

A ociate d with zygo m orphy in thi gro p i a f eq e t

ss s u s r u n

red c t ion in the n m b r of tam en which are often fo

u u e s s, u r

( Fig 2 1 2.
) or two The whole tr ct re i highly peci l . s u u s s a

i d for t h vi it of in ect and thi great zygo m orph i

ze e s s s s, s c

alliance hol d the am e s s

relativ po ition am ong e s

Sy m pe t al i h ld ae as s e

by the zygo m orphic L e

g m e am ong A rchi
u s

c h la my d e aa .

In int fam ily t he m ,

as t h L a b iat
e are often es

called th re are ab o t
, e u

two tho nd even h u sa s un

dred pecie incl ding s s, u

m int ( M t / ) ( Fig on ta .

d ittany
hy o p ( H y p ) m
ss sso us , ar

joram ( O i g m) r a n u ,

F m 25 9 F l o we rs d d of ea ne tt e l ( La F m 260 A l bi
p l t ( Teu ium) how
a at e an cr s

b h wi t h fl w l t rs ( A ) nd
. . . . .

m i um ) : A . en ti b il b i
re a ate fl o we r in g ran c o e r c us e , a

B . s e c t oni o f fl w o h e r, s owin g re al sid i w f f w fl w ( B ) h wi g

e v e o a e o e rs ,
s o n

t io n o f p a rts —A f t W a er nu m a . th i b l b i t
e r h t —A ft q u a r
t a a e c arac e r . er
'
.
F IG . 26 1 . F l o we rs of pp pa t bea i g a
A r ni ea : A o we r , l p art o r s t e m , an d u er r r n

h ad i whi ch
e ,
n arey d t h di sk ; i gl y fl w
s e e n t h e c o ns ic u o u sp r a s an e s n e ra o e r,

sh wi g t h
o n ll a t b la t b d t p h ap d ab
e c o ro , u t h t w part ed t yl
u r a ase a n s ra -
s e o ve , e o- s e.

th et ft f p app
u h ai a d t h i f i
o y wh i h d l p i t a d li k
us rs , n e n e r or o v a r c e ve o s n o see -
e

f i t ( k ) ; E i g l di k fl w h wi g t b l c ll wi th p adi g lim b
ru a e ne s n e s o e r, s o n u u ar o ro a s re n

t b
. ,

th etw p t d t yl
o- m gi g f m th t p f th
ar e s e t m
e er t h p mi
n tro e o o e s a en u e, e ro ne n

p pp a d t h i f i
a us , n y k ; C i gl t m — A f t H os mu m
e n e r o r o va r or a ene , a s n e s a en . er
-
.

2 76
 M O N O CO T YL E D O N S A N D D I CO T Y L E D O N S
27 7

ray fl w i the broad expan e pplied by a very m ch

-
o e rs s s su u

b roadened axi and know the d i k ( Fig 26 1 A ) which

s, n as s .
, ,

i clo ely packed with very n m ero

s s m all and reg lar u us s u

t b lar flower k no wn d i k fl w ( Fig 26 1 )

u u s, as s -
o er s .
, e .

The co mmo n da n d e li o n ( Tam acm n ) : 1 , t wo fl o we r s ta l k s ; in one the h ead

is c ose d l ,
s h
d bl i n l o th i
i n rec t t h
w ng t h e t fl d i t he
ou e vo u c r e
e n er e , e ou t r r e
e xe ,
n

o th th er d e h
p n h wi g t h at all t h fl w a t p h a p d ;
ea o e s o i gl
n e o e rs r e
s ra -
s e
°
a s n e

ll a stame t b
, c ,

fl w h wi g i f i
o er s o y pappn d t w p t d t yl ;
n e r o r o va r us co ro n u e , an o- ar e s e

e k ; 1 h d f m whi h ll b t e f th k e h a b
, . .

J a m t
, a ur a e t te 4, a ea ro c a u on o e a n es ve e e n re

n ov
t ed h wi g t h pi t t d ec pta l
, s o n d t h e p omi t pappus bea k —A f t
e e r e c e an r ne n er

Sr a a s a va o zn .

divi ion of l b among the fl ower of a ingle head

T he s a or s s

i plainly m ark d and o m eti m e it beco m e q ite

s m e , s s s u co

plex The clo ely pack ed flower have re lted in m odify

. s s su f

ing the epal extremely Som eti me they di appear en

s s . s s

86
27 8 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

o eti m e they becom e a t ft of deli ate h i

t ire ly ; s m s u c a rs , as

in Fig 26 1 D E ) thi tle ( O i ) and d n d el i

A r n t ca (
'

.
, , , s n on s , a on

( T m arm ) ( Fig r
a cum o nting t h eed like k . su u e s -
a en e

and aiding in it tran portation thro gh the air om ti m e s s u s e s

they are conve ted into two m or tooth li k e and f t r or e -

o e n

F l
dande li n showi ng act i on of styl e i re mo i g poll n f m t h e
o we rs o f o , n v n e ro

st ma t b 1
en t yl h a i g e l
u g t d th
e : . s g h t h t be a n d
e v n yi ng p ll ; 2 on a e ro u e u ca rr o en ,

styl b ra h b g i i g t ec
e nc es ; 3 s t yl e b ran ch e s compl te ly recu ed
nn n o r urve , e e rv .

F rom F i ld F re t an d W ay sid e F l owers

e , o s , .
"

barb ed proce e ari ing from the ak ene ss s in tick ee d s , as s

and b eggar tick ( Fig 1 88 ) or Spani h needl -

s . s es

( B i d ) to lay
en s hold of
, pa ing ani m al ; o m eti m e the y ss s s s

beco me bea tif lly pl mo e b ri tle u in the blazing t

u u s s s, as s ar

( L i t m a) o m
’

etism e they i msply fo m a m ore le con s s r or ss

s pi p
c u ou s cu or t of cale crowning the a k enese In ll s s . a

of the e m odification the calyx i called p pp

s s s a us .

The tam en wi thin the corolla are o ganized into

s s r a

t be b y their coale cent anther ( Fig

u and di charg s s . s e

their pollen within which i car ied to the f e of t h , s r su r ac e

 CH A P T E R XV
D IF F E R E N T IA T I O N O F T IS SU E S

1 48 Introduct ory
.
— A m ong the si m ple st Thalloph y t es

the cell s form ing the b ody are practically all alike b t h , o as

to form and work W hat one cell doe s all do and th

.
, e re

i very litt le dependence of cell

s pon one another A s u . s

plant bodie beco me larger thi condition of thing can t

s s s n o

contin e u all of the cell can not be p t into the a m e

, as s u s

relation I s ch a b ody ce tain cell can be related t

. n su r s o

the external food pply only thro gh othe cell and t h su u r s, e

body becom e di ff erentiated In fact the elating of c l l

s .
, r e s

to one another and to the external food pply m ak e la g e -

su s r

bodie po i ble
s ss .

The fir t di ff erentiation of the plant body i that whi h

s s c

separate n tritive cell from reprod ctive cell and thi i

s u s u s, s s

accom pli hed q ite com pletely am ong the Thallophyt

s u es .

The di ff erentiation of the ti e of the n tritive body ss u s u ,

however i that which pecially conc n in thi chapt

, s s er s us s er .

A ti e i an aggregation of i milar cell doing i mil r

ssu s s s s a

work Am ong the Thallophyte t h n tritive b dy i p

. s e u o s rac

tically ti e altho gh in om e of t h large Thall

on e ssu ,
u s e r o

h
p y t the
es o ter and the inner cell
u di ff er o m ewhat Thi s s . s

pri m itive ti e i co mpo ed of cell with thin wall d

ssu s s s s an

active protopla m and i called p s hy m , m e in g s a r en c a, an

parent ti e ssu .
”

A m ong t h Bryophyte in the leafy gam etopho e and

e s, r

i the porogoni m th re i oft en developed con iderab le

n s u , e s s

di i m ilari ty am ong t h cell form ing t h n tritive b ody

ss e s e u ,

b t the cell m y all till b e regarded

u s a parenchyma It s as .

280
 D IF F E R E N T IA T I O N O F T ISS UE S 28 1

is in the porophyt e of the P teridophyt es and Spermato

s

h
p y t t hat
es thi difl t i ti of ti e s beco m e extre m e
e re n a on ss u s s ,

and t i e are organized which d i ff er decidedly f rom

ssu s

parenchyma T hi di ff erentiation m ean divi ion of labor

. s s s ,

and the m ore highly organized the body the more ti e ssu s

there are .

All the other t i e are derived f rom parenchyma and

ssu s ,

as th work of n t ition and of reprod ction i alway

e u r u s s

ret ined by the parenchyma cell the derived ti e are

a s, ssu s

f or m echanical rather
than for vital p rpo e u s s .

T here i a long li t of
s s

the e derived and m

s e

c h i l ti
an ca e om e of ssu s, s

them be ing of general

occ r ence
u r and othe , rs

m o e re tri cte d an d
r s ,

there i every gradation

s

between the m and the hy m d l hy m m F ro 264 P are n c a an sc e re nc a f ro

—
. .

parenchym a f rom W hich m

m
P i i the
“ Bu
st e of
-
ier s , in cross -se ct on Ca u t

they hav come W e . e

shall note only a few wh ich are di tinctly di ff erentiated s

and which are comm on to all va c lar plant s u s.

1 49 P arenchyma —The parenchym a of the va c ul ar plant

. s s

i typically m ade p o f cell which have thin wall and who e

s u s s s

three dim en ion are approxim ately eq al ( F igs 264

s s u .
,

tho gh om eti m e they are elongated U ntil abandoned

u s s .
,

su ch cell contain very acti e protopla m and it is in them

s v s ,

that n tri tive work and cell divi ion are carried on S
u s . o

long the e cell retain the power of cell di i ion the

as s s v s

ti e i called m i t m or it i aid to be m i t m ti
ssu s er s e , s s er s e a c,

f om a G ree k word m eaning to divide

r W hen the cell .
”
s

stop dividing the ti e i aid to be p m t The

, ssu s s er a n en .

growing point of organ tem root and leave are

s s, as s s, s, s,

compo ed of parenchyma which i m eri tem atic ( Fig 26 6

s s s s .
,

and m eri tem occ wherever growth i going on

s u rs s .
 P L A N T ST R UCT U R E S

1 50 H . the plant b dy h
esten e and st ereome .
—W hen o e

com e complex cond ctive y t e m i nece ary

s a th t u s s s ss , so a

the di ff erent region of the body m y b e p t into com m ni s a u u

ca tion The m aterial ab or b ed . s

by the root m t be carried t s us o

the leave and the food man s, u

f t d in the leave m t ac u re s us

be carried to region of growth s

and torage Thi b ine f s . s us ss o

tran portation i provided f s s or

by t h pecially organized e s ve s

el refe red to in precedin g s s r

chapter and all cond cting t i s, u s

f wh atever kind i pok n su e , o , s s e

of collectively m t m as es o e .

If a co mplex body i to main s

tain it for m and e pecially if s , s

it i to tand pright and b s s u e

com e large it m t develop , us

tr ct re ri gid eno gh to f s u u s u ur

ni h m ech anical pport All s su .

t h ti e wh ich erve thi p e ss u s s s ur

po are collectively known se as

F m 265 Same t i s s ue s as in pre s t er eo me .

The porophyte body of

. .

ced ng i fl g ure , in l ong i t di l

u na se c
s
i p hy m wm
t on ,

—
n u c le L m
the
mm C tt a
P teri
are n c

as a
d o phyte and
a
Sper
sh o
m ato g
s

therefore o tly
.

h
p y t i m e s, , s s

m ade p of living
u and working parench y m a which i , s

traver ed by m ec h a ical m e to m e and tereo m e

s n s s .

1 5 1 Dicoty l a d Conif r stoma

.
— The t m of the e two
n e s e s s

gro p uare s nearly alike in

so general plan that t h ey m y a

b con idered tog ther

e s In f t t h re m blance were e . ac ,
e se s

o ce tho ght to b e
n u i m portant th at th e two gro p so es u s

w re p t tog ther and kept di tinct fro m M onocotyledon

e u e s s

b t thi
u w b fore t h ga m etophyte tr ct re wer
s as e e s u u s e

known to b ar very di ff erent te tim ony

e s .
284 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

below them are the three e mbryonic region derm atog s, en ,

perible m and plerom e ; and farther below the e th

, s re e

region pa into permanent ti e organizing the pid

s ss ss u , e er

m i cortex and tele

s, The three em b ryonic region
, s . s a re

u su ally not di tinct in the Conifer te m in the D i

so s s as co

tyl te m b t b oth tem have epidermi cortex and te l

s , u s s s, , s e .

E pi d mi —The epider m i i a protective layer wh

er s . s s , os e

cell do not beco m e m ch m odified b t that they m y

s so u u a

b e regarded parenchyma It give ri e al o tas p . s s s o su er

fi i l part
c a hair etc In the ca e of tree the epiderm i
s, as s, . s s, s

doe not ally k eep p with the increa ing d iam eter d
s u su u s , an

di appear Thi p t the work of protection pon t h

s s . s u s u e

cort ex which organize a perficial ti e called k

, s su ssu cor , a

pro m inent part of the tr ct re k nown b / s u u as ar c .

C t — The cortex i characterized by containi g

ar oon s n

m ch active parenchy m a or pri m itive ti

u e being t h , ss u , e

chie f eat of the life activitie of the te m It perfici l

s s s . s su a

cell at lea t contain chlorophyll and do chlorophyll work

s, s , ,

while it deeper cell are

s ally te m porary torage plac s u su s es

for food The cort ex i al o cha . s s r

t i d b y the developm ent f ac e r ze o

tereom e or rigid ti e for m s , ssu s e

h i l pport The tereom c an ca su . s e

m y b race the epider m i form i g a s, n

the hyp d mi or it m y form o er s a

b and and trand W ithin the s s s c or

tex ; in fact it am o nt and , s u ar

rangem ent d i ff er widely in diff e r

ent plant s .

The two principal tereome t i s s

F te . m
267 ll h m
. So
e are ll
e
h m
co
and e nc
l y a
su s co sc ere n
e y nc a

m
mm
c e lls f

k m
on
m“
d och wi
wt he
hy m (R m ean ng
i
st e

heath t e
l ess) , s
n
;
o
e

ng e a, i s -
i ssu
th ell hi k dce s
and
t
h dc
t ee ne
t
at
l
th e a n

m
an g lm m m u n pu y el i ssu re s e c l ve .

In collenchy ma the cell are th ck

fi

s i

ened at the angle and have very ela tic wall ( Fig s s s .

m aking the ti e well dapted for pa t which are growing

ssu a r s
 DI F F E RE N T IA TI O N O F TISSUE S 285

in lengt h The chief m echanical tis e for part which

. su s

have topped growing in length i clerenchym a ( Fig 2 64

s s s s.
,

T h cell thick walled and

e ally elongated s are -
, us u

d with tapering end incl ding t h e called fibe ”

’

an s, u se -
rs .

F to 268 Sec t i
h rough an O pen col lateral as cu l ar b u dl e f m a sunfl we t m ;
on s t v n ro o r s e

g i t di a l sect i o : t h e l e tte rs i b t h e fe rri g t t h e sa m

. .

A c oss sec t i
, r -
; B l on . on u n n n o r n o e

s t ruct ures ; M pi t h ; X xy l m c n ta i i ng spi ra l ( s s ) a d pi t ted ( t t ) e se l ;

, ,
e ,
o n ,
’
n ,
’
v s s

0 camb l m ; P phl m c n ta i n i g s ie
, u , oe sse l s ( ab ) ; b
, o mass f h t fi be rs
n ve ve , a o as or

s cl e c hy ma ; i c pi t h ray s b t wee n t h e b
er n d l e s ; e t h b n d l e sh at h ; R cor
e un e u e

t e x —A i te r m
, , ,
'
. s .

Si d e — The characteri tic feat re of the tele or central

s u s

cylinder is the developm ent of the m e tom e or va c lar s s u

286 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

ti e of which there are two prom inent k ind

ss u s, Th s. e

t h y
r a c ea r l are for water
vesse s cond ction and ll u , are ce s

with heavy wall and ally large diam eter ( Fig

s u su .

The thickening of th wall i not un iform giving the m e s s , a

very characteri tic appearance the thick ening takin g t h

s , e

form of piral b and ring or retic lation ( Fig 26 8 B )

s s, s, u s .
, .

O ften the retic lation h ch clo e m e he that the ll

u as su s s s ce

wall h the app ara ce of b eing covered with thin p t

as e n s o s,

and ch cell are called pitted ve l The ve el wi th

su s sse s .
”
ss s

s piral and ring are ally m ch maller in diam eter th n

s s u su u s a

the pitted one The tr e tracheary cell are m ore or l

s . u s e ss

elongated and witho t t apering end fitting end to d u s, en

and form ing a contin o longit dinal erie gge ting

u us u s s, su s a

trachea and hence the name In the Conifer there

,
. s a re

no tr e t acheary cell in u r s, as

the D icotyledon except f w s, a e

m al l piral ve el which s s ss s are

for m ed at fir t in the yo g s un

tele b t the tracheary ti s , u ssu e

i m ade p of t h i d m ea s u ra c e s, n

ing trachea like di ff erin g “ -

,
”

from t h or tr e trachea y ra c ea; u r

ve el in having tapering end ss s s

and in not for m ing a con tin u

erie ( Fig The wall ou s s s . s

of the e tracheid are pitted s s

”

in a way which i characteri ti s s c

of Gy m no per m the pit s s,

“
s
”

appearing two concentri as c

ring called b ordered pit s, s .

”

E tc % . h9 f mw
. T rac The other pro m inent
e id s ro o od of 111 9 8

tome ti e developed in the ss u

tele i t h i l for the s s e s eve ves se s,

cond ction of organized food chiefly proteid ( Fig

u
, s .

Sieve cell are na m ed b eca e in their wall pecial area

s so us s s s

are organized which are perforated like the lid of a pepp er

28 8 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

connecting the camb i m in the b ndle and th f m i g u u s, us or n

a mbi m y li d which eparate the xylem and phl m

ca u c n er , s s oe

of the va c lar cylinder Thi ambi m contin e the f

s u . s c u u s or

F IG . 27 0 . i
C ro s s f o pe c ll at ral a c l
-
s e c t on o b dl f om ste m of caste r o il
n o e v s u ar un e r -

pla t ( Bi d
n ) h wi g pi t h
n us , ll ( m ) xyl m c
s o n t i i g spi ral ( t ) an d pi t te d ( g )
ce s , e on a n n

l amb i um f b dl ( ) d f pi t h y s ( ob ) phl m c tain i ng s ie

ve ss e s , c o un e c an o ra , oe on ve ve s

se sl ( y ) t h b dl r b t fi b
, re e un l chym a ( b ) t h b dl h th
es o es e rs o r s c e re n , e un e s ea co n

t a i i g s ta rc h g a i
n n d t id
r f it p
n s , anhym f th c t x ( ) —A i t r S
ou s e o a re n c a o e or e r .
'
e a ca s .

m ation of xyle m ti e on the one ide and phloem ti ssu s ssu e

on the other in the b dle and new parenchy ma betwee un s, n

the b ndle and the te m increa e in diam eter If th

u s, so s s s . e

ste m live fro m year to y ar the addition m ade by the m

s e ca

b i m each ea on i m arked ff fro m that of the previo

u s s s o us

sea on giving ri e to the called g owth i g or

s , s l se -
r r n s an n ua

i g
r n con pic o a feat re of the cro ection of tre
s , so s u us u ss s -
e
 D IF F E R E N T I A T I O N O F T I SSUE S 28 9

tr nk ( Fig
u s T hi conti .o addition to the ve el s nu us ss s

increa e the capacity of the tem for cond ction and p

s s s u , er

m it the f ther exten ion of branche and a large r di play

s ur s s s

of leave s
.

The ann al addition to the xylem are dded to the i

u s a n

crea ing m a of wood The older portion of the yle m

s ss . s x

ma ss grad ally abandoned by the a cending water

are u s

sa p often change in color and for m the h t w d , ea r -

oo .

The yo nger portion thro gh which the p i m o ing i

u , u sa s v , s

the p w d It i evident however that the ann al d

sa -
oo . s , , u a

d it i to the phloe m are t in a po ition for perm anency

on s no s .

T h e new phloe m i depo ited in ide of the old and thi to s s s , s,

gether with the new xylem pre e pon the old phloem , ss s u ,

which b eco m e r pt red in vario way and rapidly or

s u u us s,

ve y grad ally peel ff being con t antly renewed f ro m

r u s o ,
s

within It i the p otecting layer of cork ( thi ection

. s r s se e s s

u nder C t ) the old phloe m and the new phloem down

or ex , ,

to the cambi m which con tit te the called b k of

u , s u se -
ar

tree a tr ct re exceedingly com plex and extre mely ari

s, s u u v

ab le i di ff erent t ee
n r s .

The tele al o f eq ently develop tereom e ti e in the

s s r u s s ssu

form of clerench ym a The e thick walled fiber are often

s . s -
s

clo ely a ociated wi th one or both of the va c lar trand

s ss s u s s

of the b ndle ( Fig u and le d to the old nam e fib

s . a ro

va s cu la r bu n d les .

To m p the tem of D icotyledon and Conifer are

su u , s s s s

characterized by the developm ent of a va c lar cylinder in s u ,

which the b ndle are collateral and pen perm itting

u s O ,

increa e in diameter exten ion of the branch y tem and

s , s s s ,

a contin o inc ea e in leaf di play

u us r s s .

1 5 2 H onoeoty l st oma —I
. the te m of M onocotyledon n s s s

there i the am e apical developm ent and di ff e entiation

s s r

( Fig . Th cha teri tic di ff erence fro

e m the D icotyl rac s

and Conifer type j t de cri b ed i in con ection with the , us s , s n

develo pm ent of the va lar b ndle in the tele In tead scu u s s . s

of o tlining a hollow cylinder the b ndle are cattered

u , u s s
2 90 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

thro gh the tele ( Fig

u Thi lack of reg larit y w
s . s u ou ld
interfere with the organization of a cam b i m cylin d u e r, an d
we find the b ndle collateral t l d that i wi t h
b u — s u c ose s, no

m eri te m left b etween the xyle m and phloe m ( Fig

s .

F m 2 71
. . Cro s s -
d ll t ral b ndl from th t m f c rn h owi g
i
sec t o n o f a cl o se co a e u e e s e o o . s n

th y l m wi t h
e x e l ( ) pi l ( ) d p it t d ( g )
an n u ar l ; t h phl m t i
r s ra s an e v e ss e s e oe co n a n

l ( ) d p t d f m t h yl m b y i t i g mb i m ;
, ,

i g i
n s e ve v e ss e s r an se ara e ro e x e no n e rve n n ca u

b t h yl m d phl m d d by m
.

o x e an oe f l chy m ( fi b rs ) ; d i
s u rro u n e a as s o sc e re n a e an n

ve sti g n l d fib th
ve s s e s p an hy m p) f t h pi t h li k t iss t h ro g h
e rs e are n c a o e -
e ue u

whi h t h b dl
c e di t i b t d —A f t 8 3
un e s a re s r u e er 5 0 9 .

Thi lac k of cam b i m m ean that t m livi g for

s u s s e s n se v

e ral year do not increa e in diam t r b t b com e col mn r

s s e e ,
u e u a
2 92 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

In E q t m and I t the va c lar b ndl e m y b e

u i se u soe es s u u s a

said to be collateral in the Seed plant b t the h , as -

s, u c a r ac

t i t i P te i dophyt e ty pe i very di fferent

er s c r In f t t h s . ac , e

va c lar ma e can hardly be co mpared with the b d l

s u ss s un es

of the Seed plant altho gh they called b n d le f

-
s, u are u s or

convenience In the tele one or m ore of the e b d l

. s s un es

are organized ( Fig the tracheary ve el ( xyle m ) b i g . ss s e n

in the center a d co mpletely inve ted by the ieve n l s s v e ss e s

F te . 273 i fC ro ss -
s e c t on o c o n ce n t ric vasc u a r l b dlun e of a f e rn ( P tcfl s ) : t h e i
s ng le

row f h d d ll i
o s t a e ce s n ve s i n g th e oth e rs b dl sh h
is t h e un e l
e at ; t h e a rge an d hea y v

w ll d ll wi t hi tit xyl m ; an d b t w e n t h xy l m an d bu d l
h t h i t h phl m —
a e ce s n co n s u te the e e e e e t he n e

s ea Cu
s e oe lt u s a m m .

( phloe m ) Thi i called the . t i b d l ( Fig s s con cen r c un e .

as d i ting i h d fro m the collateral b ndl

s u s of Seed plant
e u es -
s,

and i characteri tic of P t eridophyte te m

s s s s .
 D IF F E R E N T I A T I O N O F T ISSUE S 29 3

1 54 .
—
R oot a Tr u e
root appear only in connec t ion with s

t h va c lar plant ( P te idophyt e and Spe m atophyt e )

e s u s r s r s

an d in all of the m the tr ct re i e entially the am e s u u s ss s ,

an d q ite di ff erent from te m tr ct re

u A ingle p s s u u . s a

i cal cell ( in m o t P teridophyt e ) ( Fig 2 7 4 ) or an apical

s s .

g ro p ( inuSper m atophyte ) ally give ri e to the three s u su s s

—
em bryonic region dermatogen periblem and plerom e s , ,

( Fig
/
.

(
A fo rth region how u p p P 9
,

ever pec liar to root i

, u , s

u su ally added The apical .

F ro . 27 4 . h h Sec t i on t roug root - t ip o f F to . 275 . A lon git ud inal se c t i on th ro ugh

P leris : t h e ce ll ih l w t a n uc e us is t h e t he t ip of h ph e rd s purse
’
ro o t -
s e ,

i g l api ca l c ll which i f
s n e e , n ron t h as h i
S ow n g t h e pl m ( pl ) e ro e ,
s u rro un d
cu t f! ll s which gan i e t h e
o ce or z root e d b y th e p i b l e m ( p) er ou ts id e f o
—C u a u a nm u
,

ca p . . u .
pe ri b l m t h e e pid m i
e ( er s e ) whi ch
di appears in t h ld p rt s f th e
s e o er a o

cell gro p c t ff t l
01
'
u u s O 8 S
root an d t h e p ro mi
, t t ca p ( c) n en roo - .

su e in front of it el f ( Fig s .

k nown the lypt g or cap prod cer for itas ca r o en , u ,

organize the t p which protect the delicate m eri

s r oo -
ca , s

ste m f the growing point

o .

Another tri k ing feat re i that in the tele there i

s u s s s

organized a ingle olid va c lar cylinder form ing a to gh

s s s u ,
u

central axi ( Fig from which the ally well devel

s . u su -

oped cortex can be peeled ff a thick rind In th i o as . s vas

l
cu ar axi which i called a b n d le for convenience b t
s, s u u

doe not repre ent the b ndle of Seed plant te m the ar

s s u -
s s,

range m ent of the xylem and phloe m i entirely nlik e that s u

87
294 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

F to 27 6 Cross -
i
se c t o n o f th e l i
v as c u ar a x s o f a roo t , s h wi
o i
n g rad at e t pey of bu n dl e
—A f t e r Sa cu s
. .

the x yl e m ( p) an d phl oe m ph ) a lt i
e rn a t n g .

fo nd in te m The xylem i in the center and end t

u s s . s s s ou

a few rad iating ar m between which are trand of phloe m s, s s ,

form ing the call ed se -

"

di t b d l ( Fig ra a e un e .

Thi arrange ment b ring s s

the t r a c h e a r y ve el ss s

( xyle m ) t the rface f o su o

the b n d le region which u ,

i not tr e of either t h s u e

concentric or collate l ra

b n d le Thi ee m to u . s s s

b e a ociated with the ss

fact that the xyle m i to s

receive d cond c t the an u

F lu . d 277 . b h water ab orb e d fro m the

En o ge n o u s o rigi n of roo t ran c s
h wi h m
e s, s i f m
o ng
1
t
It e
h ld be
(n) a ris n g ro t he ce n

l i (f )
t ra b ki h h
ax s an d
dre a ng t ro u g th e
8 01 “ S O ll Ba l

( ) —
c o rt e xf e r that thi haract e i ti
. A t r t as . s C r s c
296 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

1 55 .
—
L eaves L e ave s
ally develop from a a pi l
u su n ca

region in the am e general way s do tem and t as s s r oo s,

m odified by their comm on do ivent al ch r ter C m rs r a ac . o

pa ing the leaf f an ordinary eed plant with it t m it

r o s -
s s e ,

will be noted that the three region are repre ente d ( F ig s s .

( )
1 the epider m i ; ( )
2 the cortex epre
s e t d b y , r s n e

the me ophyll ( 3) the tele repre ented by the vei

s s , s n s.

In the ca e of collateral b ndle where in the t m t h

s u s, s e e

xyle m i alway toward the center and the phloem i t w d

s s s o ar

the circ mference in the leave the xylem i towa d the

u , s s r

upper and the phloem toward the lower rface su .

 CH A P T E R XV I
P L A N T P H Y SI O L O G Y

1 56 . be t d ied f o m everal
Introduct ory —P lants
. m ay s u r s

poin t f view each f which h re l t ed in a d i tinct

s O , O as su s

divi ion f Bot ny The t dy f the form f plant and

s O a . s u O s O s

their tr ct re i M O R P H O L O G Y and it i thi pha e f B t

s u u s , s s s O o

any which h been chiefly con idered i the previo chap

as s n us

ter The t dy f plant at work i P SI O L O G and

s . s u O s s H Y Y, as

str ct re i i mply preparation for work the preceding

u u s s ,

chapter have contained om e P hy iology chiefly in refer

s s s ,

ence t n trition and reprod ction The t dy of the cla

O u u . s u s

sifi t i ca f plant i T A XO N O M
on O and in t h preceding
s s Y, e

page t h larger g o p have been o tlined The t dy of

s e r u s u . s u

plant to their exter al relation i E CO L O G a bject

s as n s s Y, su

which will be pre ented in the following chapter and which

s ,

i the chie f
s bject f P l t R l t i su The t dy of the O an e a on s . s u

di ea e f plant and their re m edie i P A TH O L O G their

s s s O s s s Y

t dy in relation t the intere t of m i E CO N O M I C

s u O s s an s

BO T A N Y .

e ide the e gene al bject which apply to all plant

B s s s r su s, s,

the di ff erent gro p form t h bject of pecial t dy The

u s e su s s s u .

t dy f t h M orphology P hy iology or Taxonomy f the

s u O e , s ,
O

Bacteria i B t i l gy f the A lg
s A lg l gy of the
ac er o o O ae, oo

F n gi M y l gy
u ,
f the Bryophyte B y l gy
co o f the O s, r o o O

f o il plant P l b t y or P l phy t l gy etc

ss s, a aeo o a n a xo o o ,
.

In the pre ent chapter it i the p rpo e to give a very

s s u s

brief o tline f the great bject of P lant P hy iology not

u O su s ,

with t h expectation f pre enting it fact adeq ately b t

e O s s s u , u

wi th the hope that the i m portant fi eld th pre ented m y us s a

297
29 8 P L A N T ST R U CT UR E S

attract to f rther t dy It i m erely the opening f a d

u s u . s O oo r

to catch a fleeti g gli mp e n s .

A co mm on divi ion of the bject pre ent it de fi s su s s un r ve

head ( 1 ) St bility of form ( 2 ) N trition ( 3) R e pi

s a , u , s ra

tion ( 4) M ove m ent ( 5 ) R eprod ction

, ,
u .

ST A BI L I T Y OF F OR M

1 57 . a re m ark able fact that plant d

Turgidity — I t is . s an

part f plant com po ed entirely f cell with very thin d

s O s s O s an

delicate wall are rigid eno gh t m aint in their f m

s u O a or .

It h already been noted (

as 2 0) that ch active ll se e su ce s

exert an internal pre re pon their wall Thi ee m t ssu u s . s s s o

be d to the active ab orption f liq id which ca e t h

ue s O u , us s e

very ela tic wall to tretch s in the blowing p f

s s ,
as u o a

bladder In thi way each gorged and d i tended cell b

. s s e

com e co mparatively rigid and the m a of cell retain it

s ,
ss s s s

form It ee m evident that t h active protopla m greedi ly

. s s e s

p ll li q id thro gh the wall and doe not let it e c p

u s u u s s a e so

ea ily If for any rea on the protopla m f a gorged ell

s . s s O c

lo e it b ld pon t h contained liq id the cell collap

s s s o u e u se s .

1 5 8 T nsio of tissues —The rigidity which co m e t

. e n s o

active parenchy ma cell t hro gh their t rgidity i increa ed s u u s s

by the ten ion developed by adjacent ti e F or ex m

s s ss u s . a

ple the internal and external ti e of a te m are pt to

,
ssu s s a

i crea e in vol m e at di ff erent rate ; the fa ter will p ll

n s u s s u

u pon the lower and the lower will re i t and th b

s , s s s , us e

tween the two ten ion i developed which help to k eep

a s s s

the m rigid Thi i tri k ingly hown by plitting a dande

. s s s s s

lion te m when the inner ti e relieve d om ewh at from

s , ss u , s

the re i tance of t h o ter elongate and ca e the trip

s s e u , s us s s

to b eco m e trongly c rved o tward or even coiled E p i

s u u . x er

m ent with trip f ro m active twig incl ding the pith

s s s s, u ,

will ally de m o trate the am e c rve o tward Ten ion

u su ns s u u . s

Of ti e i chiefly developed of co r e where elongation

ssu s s , u s ,

i taking place
s .
300 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

In ch plant the carb n di o ide i ab orb ed dir ctly

su s o x s s e

from the air by t h foliage leave who e exp n e of e f s, s a s su r ac e

i s asim po t nt for thi p rpo e r a f or expo ing chlorophyll s u s as s

to light Wh en the work f fol iage leave i m entioned it

. O s s

m t alway be nder tood that it applie

us s well to y
u s s as an

g reen ti e di played by
ssu the plant s .

The water wi t h it di olved alt i ab orbed f om t h

, s ss s s, s s r e

s oil by the root O nly t h yo nge t pa t f the root

s . e u s r s O

y tem can ab orb d the ab orbing capacity of the

s s s , an s se

part i s ally tly increa ed by the developm ent f

s u su vas s O

n m ero
u t h i j t behind the growi g tip ( Fig
u s r oo a rs us n .

The e root hair

s ephemeral new o e b eing contin
s are , n s u

ally p t t the tip advance and the older one d i p

u ou as s, s sa

pea ing They com e in very clo e cont ct with the oi l

r . s a s

p rticle and
a ck in the water which inve t e ch
s, su s s a

particle a film as .

1 6 2 Transfer of W ilt on
.
— The water and it d i olved alt s ss s s

ab orbed by the roo t y tem m t b e t an ferred to the foli

s -
s s us r s

age leave where they are to be ed along with the rb o

s, us , ca n

dioxide in the m an fact re f food

, u u O .

H av ing entered the epiderm i o f the ab orbing rootle t s s s

the water pa e on to the cort ex and t aver ing it ent

ss s , r s e rs

the xylem y te m f the ce t al axi In ome way thi

s s O n r s . s s

tr fer i accompanied by pre re know

an s s t p ssu , n as r oo r es

su r e, which becom e very evident when an active te m i s s s

t ff near the gro nd The t m p i aid t bl ed “ ”

cu O u . s u s s o e ,

and end t water s s p ou i f there were a f o sa as rce

p mp in the root y te m Thi root pre re do btl

u -
s s . s ssu u e ss

help to lift the water thro gh the xyle m of the root in t

s u o

th tem and in low plant m y po ibly be able to end it

e s , s a ss s

to the leave b t for m o t plant thi i not po i bl

s, u s s s s ss e.

W h en the water enter the xyle m f the root it i i s O s n a

contin o y te m o f ve el which ex t end thro gh t h

u us s s ss s s u e

ste m and t into the leave The move ment f the ah

ou s
. O

sorbed water thro gh the xyle m i called the t pi t i u s ra n s ra on

t or very co m m only the a cent f p A x “ ”

cu r r en , s O sa . n e
 P L A N T P H Y SI O L O G Y 301

pe ri me n t dem on t ating thi a cent of p and it ro te s r s s sa s u

thro gh the xyl em will be fo nd de cribed in P l t R l

u u s an e a

ti on s,p 1 5 1 H w it i that t h tran piration c rent

. . o s e s ur

m ove thro gh t h e xyle m i not certainly kno wn

s u s .

ti
1 6 3 Transpira n
. o — W hen the water carrying di olved ss

salt reache the m e ophyll cell om e of the water and all

s s s s, s

O f th alt are retained for food m an fact re H owever

e s s u u .
,

m ch m ore water enter the leave than i needed for food

u s s s ,

thi exce having been ed for carrying oil lt W hen

s ss us s sa s .

the oil alt have reached their de t ination the exce f

s s s s ss O

water i evaporated f om the leaf rface the proce being

s r su ,
ss

called t pi t i For an experi m ent de m on trating

ra n s ra on . s

tran piration
s P l t R l ti 26 se e an e a on s , .

Thi tran piration i reg lated according to the need

s s s u s

O f the plant If the water i ab ndant tran piration i

. s u ,
s s

enco raged ; i f the water pply i low tran piration i

u su s , s s

checked O f the chief way f reg lating i by m ean

. ne O s O u s s

O f the very m all b t exceedingly n m ero

s tom ata ( u u us s se e

79 wh o e g ard cell becom e t rgid or collap e and

s u s u s so

determ i e the ize of the opening b etween the m It h

n s . as

been e ti mated that a leaf f an ordinary nflower contai

s O su ns

abo t thirteen m illion tomat b t the n mber varie widely

u s a, u u s

i di ff erent plant
n In ordinary dor iventral leave the t
s . s s s o

m ata are m ch more ab ndant pon the lower

u rface than u u su

u pon the pper from which they m y be lacking entirely

u , a .

I n erect leave th ey are di tri b ted eq ally pon b oth

s s u u u su r

face ; i floating leave they occ r only pon the pper

s n s u u u

su rface in bm erged leave they are lacking entirely

su s .

The amo nt of water th evaporated fro m active

u us

leave i very great I t i e ti mated that the leave f a

s s . s s s O

su nflower high a m evaporate abo t one q art of

as as an u u

water in a warm day ; and that an average oak tree in it s

fi active m onth evaporate ab o t twenty eight tho and

ve s s u -
us

gallon I f the e fig re b e applied to a m eado w or a

s . s u s

fore t the re lt m y indicate the large i mport ance of thi

s su a s

proce ss .
302 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

1 64 . Ph ot osy nth esis —

the proc by wh ich Thi s is ess car

bon dioxide and water brok en p their ele m en t are

“
u ,
”
s

r eco mbined t form a carb ohyd ate and o me oxygen give

O r , s n

o ff a wa te prod ct the mechan ism being the chloropl t

as s u , as s

and light It h been ffi ciently de c ibed in 5 5 d

. as su s r , an

al o s P l t R l ti
in pp 2 8 d 1 5 0
an e a ons , . an .

1 6 5 F ormati on of proteids
.
— The carbohy d rate fo m ed . s r

by photo ynthe i ch s tarch gar etc cont ins s, su as s , su , a ca r

hydrogen and oxygen O t of the m t h living ell

.

b on , , . u e c s

m t organize proteid and i the recon tr ction nitrog e

us s, n s u n

a d n lph r and o metim e pho phor are added This

su u , s s s u s, .

work goe on both in green cell and other living cell

s s s, as

it doe not eem to be entirely dependent pon hl pl t

s s u c orO as s

and light .

1 66 T ansfer of carb ohy drat es

. r —
d proteid a The tw an se o

f orm f food having been m an f act red they m t b

s O u u ,
us e

car ied to the region of growth or torage In order to b e

r s s .

tran ported they m t be in ol bl form and if not alre d y

s us s u e , a

s ol ble they m t be d ig t d in ol ble t rch bei g o

u us es e , s u s a n c n

verted into ol ble gar etc In th e e dige ted form

s u su , . s s s

they are tran ported to region where work i going s s s on ,

m —
and there they are i i l t d that i tran formed i t a ss a e s, s n o

the eno m o ly complex working b t nce protopl m ;

r us su s a as

or they are tran port d to region f torage d th ere th y

s e sO s an e

are recon vert d into in ol ble torage form e tarch t s u s s, as s , e c .

The e food pa thro gh b oth the cortex and phloem

s s ss u

in every direction b t the long di tance tran fer of p ,

u -
s s ro

t id
e fro m leave to root ee m to be mainly thro gh
s, as s s, s s u

the ieve ve el
s ss s
.

R E SP I R A T I O N

1 67 .
— Thi s
an e e tial proce in plant
R espirati on is ss n ss s

as well in ani m al and i really the phenom enon f

as s, s o
“
b reathing The exte nal indication of the proce i
.
”
r ss s

t h a b orption of oxygen
e s d the giving t o f carb on d i an ou

oxide and it goe on in all organ day and night W h s s, . en

304 P L A N T ST R UC T U RE S

rapidity I n the ca e the part concer ed de l p

. se s s n ve o s a

c r at re and by vario c rvat re it attain it l t im t

u v u ,
us u u s s s u a e

po ition The e c rvat re are not nece rily per m

s . s u t u s ssa an e n ,

f or a perfectly traight te m re lt from a e ie f s s su s s r s o ou r

v t re near it apex C rvat re m y be develop d b y

e a s s . u u s a e

u neq al gro wth on the two ide f an organ or by

u q l s s O , un e ua

t rgidity f the cell of the two ide or by the

u O q ls s s, un e u a

power f the cell wall to ab orb water

O s s .

1 6 9 H ygrosoopie movement s
.
— The e movem ent o ly s s are n

exhibited by d y ti e and hence are not the direct

r lt
ssu s, re s u

O f the activity of protopla m The d y wall ab orb m i s . r s s o s

t re and well p and if thi ab orption f m oi t

u s u , d s s O s ur e an

it evapo ation i
s neq al on two ide of an organ
r s u r u s s a cu va

t re will re lt In thi way m any eed e el are p

u su . s s v ss s ru

ture d the po angia f fern are opened t h operc l m f

,
s r O s ,
e u u o

m o e i lifted ff by the peri to m e the hair like p pp

ss s s o s ,
-
a us

O f certain Co m po ite i pread or collap ed ce t in eed

s s s s s , r a s s

are di per ed and b ried etc O of the pec liariti f

s s u , . ne u es o

thi hyg o copic power of certain cell i that the re l t

s r s s s su

m y b e b tained thro gh the ab orption f the m oi t e f

a O u s O s ur o

the air and the hygro copic awn of certain fr it h

, s s u s av e

b een ed in the m an fact re f ro gh h ygrom et

us u u O u e rs

m ea re f m oi t re
su s O s u

1 7 0 Growt h mo ments
.
— G ro wth it elf i a great phy i
ve s s s

ological bject b t certain m ove ment which accomp ny

su ,
u s a

it are referred to here Two kind f growth m ove m ents . s O

are apparent .

O m y b e called
ne t tia by which i m eant that t h nu a on , s e

growing tip of organ doe t adva ce in a traight

an s no n s

line b t b end now toward one ide now toward the oth er
, u s s , .

In thi way the t ip d e cri b e a c rve which m y b

s s s u , a e a

circle or an ellip e of varying breadth ; b t t h tip i

, s u as e s

advancing all the ti m e the real c r e de cribed i a pir l , u v s s s a

with circ lar or elliptical cro ection The weep of

u ss s-
. s a

yo ng hop vine in earch of pport or of vari o t n d ril

u -
s su , us e s,

m y be t a k en
a extrem e ill tration b t in mo t
as us s, u s cases
 P L A N T P H Y SIO L O G Y 305

th e tation f growing tip only becom e apparent thro gh

nu O s s u

p rolonged e peri m ent x .

The other prominent growth m ovement i that which s

p lace or g an
s in proper relation s for their wor k endin g s , s

ro ot into the oil and tem into the air and di ecting
s s s s , r

leaf plane in vario way F or ex m ple in the germina

s us s . a ,

t ion f an or di na y eed in whatever direction the pa t

O r s , r s

e m erge the oot c rve toward the o il the te m t rn

r u s s , s u s

u pward and the cotyledon pread t horizontally

, s s ou .

The m ovement f n tation eem to be d largely to O u s s ue

internal ca e while the movement which direct organ

u s s, s s

are d largely to external ca e known t im li Some

ue us s as s u .

O f the pro m inent ti m li concerned in directing orga s are u ns

as follow s

H li t pi m —
e I th i ca e the tim l
o ro s . i light and n s s s u us s ,

u nder it infl ence a erial pa t are largely directed P lant

s u r s . s

g rowing in a window f ni h plain ill t ation of helio ur s us r

tropi m In general the te m and petiole c rve toward

s . s s s u

the light howing p i ti h li t pi m ( F ig

, s the os ve e o ro s .

leaf blade are directed at right angle to the ray f light

s s s O ,

s howing t h li t pi m while if there are h ld

r a n s ver se e o ro s e

fa t or a erial root they

s s directed away from the light s are ,

s howing g ti h li t pi m The thall b odie f fern

ne a ve e o ro s . us s O s,

liverwort etc are tran ver ely heliotropic

s, .
,
ordinary s s , as

leave a po ition be t related to chlorophyll work If the

s, s s .

light i too inten e leave m y a me an edgewi e or pro

s s , s a ssu s

fil po ition a condition well ill trated by the

e s ,
called us SO -

com pa plant (
ssS P l t R l t i p s .
” '

ee an e a on s, .

G t pi m
eo r o— I thi ca e the ti m l i gra ity and
s . n s s s u us s v ,

it infl ence in directing the part of plant i very g eat

s u s s s r .

All pward gro wing plant

u ordinary te m ome leave s , as s s, s s,

etc are g ti ly g t pi growing away from the ce ter

.
, ne a ve eo r o c, n

O f g a ity r vTap root are notable ill tration of p i ti

.
-
s us s os ve

g t p
eo r o i m g o w isng toward ,
the o rce
r f gra ity with s u O v con

s id bl force
e ra L ateral branche fro m a m ain or t p root
e . s a -
,

however are ally t , ly g t pi

usu r a n s ver se eo r o c .
 Su n fl o we r s t e ms wit h t he u pp p
er art o f t he s te h ply b t t w d th
m s ar en o ar e

ligh t g i i
,
v ng t he l e a ve s b e t t e r e x po s u re , the s te m s h i i h li t pi m
o win g po s t ve e o ro s .

A fter S n
c arr u zn .
308 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

f oliage lea f tamen etc I t i intere ting t ote that th

, s ,
. s s O n e se

m ove m ent have been c lt ivated by b t f ew f am ilie no t

s u u s, a

ble among the m bei g the L eg me n u s

T he e m ove m ent f mat re organ

s o me of which e s O u s, s ar

very rapid are d to change in the t rgidity of cell A

, ue s u s . s

already m entioned t rgid cell are in flated d u s an

rigid and when t rgidity c ea e the cell collap e and the

, u s s s s

ti e become flaccid A p cial orga for varying t

ssu s . s e n ur

g id it y k nown the,p l i i ally a ociated wit

as h u v n u s, s u su ss

the m otile leave and leaflet T h p lvin i practically s s . e u us s

a m a of parenchym a cell who e t rgidi ty i made to va y

ss s, s u s r

by vario ca e and leaf m ovement i the re l t

us u s s, -
s su .

T h ca e which ind ce o m e m ove ment are nknow

e us s u s s u n ,

as in the ca e f D m d i m gy ( sP l t R l t i
O es o u ran s se e an e a on s ,

p . who e mall lateral leaflet ninter ptedly d

s s s u ru e

sc ri b e circle com pleting cycle in one to three m in t

s . a u es .

I n other ca e the inci ting ca e i the change fro m ligh t

s s us s

to dark the leave a m ing at igh t a very d if

, s ss u n

f re t po ition from that d ring the

e a s u

i g the day the leaflet are pread o t f eely

n s s u r

F ro 280 l e af of a se si t i e pl a t i t w
A d i t i n : in t h fi g r to t h l e f t th e l ea f
n v n n o con o s e u e e

i f lly xpa d d wi t h it f
. .

s u e n m in d i i i
e a d n me s l eafl ts we ll pread ;
ou r a v s o ns n u ro us e s

l f af t it h b e sh oc ked b y
,

i th fi g
n t t h e i g h t i sh w t h
e u re o am r s o n e s e ea er as e n

a sudd t u h b y sudd h t i m t h way ; t h l eafl t h a e b n

en o c , or en ea . or n so e o er e e s v ee

t h w t g th
ro f wa d d pw d t h f main di i i n h b m d
n o e er or r an u ar e o ur v s o s a ve ee n o ve
—
.

t g th
o e a d t h e mai
e r. l f t lk h b
n d i ct dn s h arply
ea -
d w
s aw d A ft r as ee n re e o n ar e

D UCH A R T R I .
 P L A N T P H Y SIO L O G Y 309

wh ile at night they d roop and ally fold together ( u su se e

P l t R l ti
an pp 9
e a T he e are the
on s, called y ti
.
, s so- n c

t pi m ove m ent ight m ovem ent which m y b b ”

ro c s Or n s, a e O

se rved i m any of the L eg m e

n l loc t bean t u s, as c e ve r, us , , e c .

I n till other ca e m echanical irri t ation ind ce move

s s s, u s

m ent , dden cont ct heat inj ry etc So m e of the

a s su a , , u , .

carnivoro plant are notable ill tration f thi

us s us s O s, e s

p i ll
ec a y D i which nap it leave
on x a , h t like a teel s s s s s u s

trap when to ched ( P l t R l ti u p Am ongse e an e a on s , .

the mo t irritable of plant

s the called en itive s are so- s s

plant pecie of M im A i etc all f them L

s,
”
s s osa , ca c a , .
, O e

g me The m o t comm only c ltivated en itive plant i

u s . s u s s s

M im osap d i ( Fig u who e

ca en itivene to contact
. s s s ss

and rapidity of re pon e are re markab le ( P l t R l s s se e an e a

ti on s,p .

R E P R O D U CT I O N

1 72 . i m portant f nction f r pr
R eprod ucti on —Th e u O e o

d ction h b een con idered i connection with the vario

u as s n us

plant gro p Am ong the lowe t plant the only m ethod

u s. s s

O f r prod ction i cell divi ion which in the co m plex

e u s s ,

form re lt in g owth I n the m ore co m plex plant

s su s r . s va

i
r ou so tg owth or portion of the b ody ge m m b d
u r s s , as ee, u s,

b lb t b er vario
u s, ub ranch m odi fi cation etc f ni h
s, us s, .
, ur s

m ean of propagation
s All f the e m ethod are incl ded . O s s u

u nder the head of g t t i m ltipli t i the plant

ve e a ve u ca on , as s

are propagated by ordinary vegetative ti e ssu s.

Wh en a pecial cell i organized for reprod ction d i

s s u , s

tinct from the vegetative cell it i c lled a p d s, s a s or e, an re

p d t i
ro u c by p e i introd
on ced The fi
s or sr t pore devel s u . s s s

oped ee m to have been tho e prod ced by the divi ion f

s s u s O

the content of a m other cell d are called

s l p , an a sex u a s ores .

The e pore are cattered in vari o way —b y wi mming

s s s s us s s

( zoo pore
s ) b y floating by
s the
, wind by in ect , ,
s s .

Another type f pore i the l p Oform ed by s s sexu a s ore,

the nion of two e al cell called g m t

u The gam etes
s xu s a e es .

88
31 0 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

see m to ha e been derived from a ex al pore A t fi t

v s u s s
. rs

the pairing gamete lik b t lat er they b eco m

'

s are a d i ff r
e, u e e

en t i t d into p m or m ale cell

a e s er and gg or fem l
s ll s, e s a e ce s .

W ith the e tab li h m ent f alternation of ge

s s tiO n era o n s,

the a ex al po e are re tricted to t h p phy t

s u s r s s d the e s oro e, a n

gam ete to the g m t phy t W ith the f ther intr d t i on

s a e o e . ur o u c

Of h t p y
e er os the m
or ale
, and the fe m ale ga m ete r p s a e se a

rated pon di ff e e t gam etophyte which beco m m ch

u r n s, e u

red ced
u .

W ith the red ction f the m ega pore to one i

u O p s s n a s e

ran g i mu( ov le ) and

u it retention
, the sd i o g a i d , see s r n ze ,

and the elaborate che m e of in ect pollination i d l p d

s s -
s eve o e .
31 2 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

if nar ow leave were a ociated with few row th re w l d

r s ss s e ou

be wa te f pace s O s .

It i very common to b erve the lower lea e f t e m

s O s v s O a s

long petioled tho e above hort petioled and

-
, t ils s -
, so on un

the ppe m o t ha e e ile blade th thr ting t h b l ad

u r s v s ss s, us us e es

O f lower leave b eyond the hadow f the ppe l

s s O u r e a ve s .

There m y al o b e a grad al change i the ize and d i

a s u n s rc e

tion of the le ve t h lo wer one being latively l rg

a s, d e s re a e an

horizontal and the pper one grad ally maller d m

,
u s u s an o re

directed pward In the ca e f branched ( com po d )

u . s O un

leave the red ction in the ize of the pper leave i

s u t s u s s no

so nece a y the light trike between the pper l fl t

ss r , as s s u ea e s

and reache tho e below s s .

O te m expo ed to light only or chiefly on

n s s i de s on e s ,

the leaf blade are throw to the lighted ide i a i t y

s n s n var e

O f way In ivie many pro trate tem horizontal b

s . s, h s s s, ra n c es

of t ee etc the leave b o ght t the lighted i de

r s, .
, s r u o s ar e

O b erved to for m reg lar m o ai

s each leaf inte f e i g u s cs , r r n

with it neigh b or little po i b le

s as as ss .

T here i often need f protection again t too i t

s O s n e n se

l ight again t chill again t rain etc which i pr vi d d

, s , s , .
, s o e

for in a great variety f way Covering of hair or c l O s . s s s a es ,

the profile po ition the te m porary hifting f po iti

s ,
s O s on ,

rolling p fol d ing red ction in ize etc are om f

u or ,
u s , .
, s e O

the comm on m ethod of protection s .

1 75 h
S oot s
.
—The te m i an organ which i m o tly s s s s

related to the leave it b ea the te m with it leav bei g s rs , s s es n

the h t In the foliage b earing te m the lea e m t b

s oo .
-
s s v s us e

di played to the light and air S ch tem m y be b

s . u s s a su

terranean pro trate floating cli m b ing or erect d ll f

, s , , , , an a o

the e po ition have their a d vantage d di adv ntag

s s s s an s a e s,

the erect type b eing the m o t favorable for foliage di pl y s s a .

In te m wh ich b ear cale leave no light elation i

s s s s r s

nece ary t h at ch hoot m y b e and ofte

ss , so b su s s a n are su

ter anean and the leave m y overlap

r , in c ly b ds s a , as s a u

a d b lb s
n T h e s bte ranean po iti on i
u . e y f rable u r s s v r avo
 PL A N T E CO L O G Y 31 3

f or f ood torage and ch hoot f ten become modified

s , su s s O as

f od depo itori e
o in b lb t ber root tock etc In
s s, a s u s, u s, s s, .

th ecaly b d the tr ct re i ed for protection rather

s u s s u u s us

t h an torage s .

The tem bearing floral leave i the hoot ordinarily

s s s s

ca lled t h flower who e tr ct re and work have b een

e ,
”
s s u u

su fli i t ly de cribed
c en I t adj t m ent have in view polli
s . s us s

n ation and eed di per al two ery great ecologi al b

s s s , v c su

jec st f ll f intere t
u ing det il
O s a s .

1 7 6 R oot s — R oot are ab orbent organ or holdf a t or

. s s s s s

b oth and they enter into a ariety f relation

,
Mo t v O s . s

c omm on i the oil relation and t h energetic way i

s s ,
e n

which ch root penet ate the oil and earch in every

su s r s , s

di rection for wat and ab orb it prove them to be highly

er s , s

organized mem ber Then there are root related to free s . s

water and other to air each with it appropriate t

, s , s s ru c

t re M ore mechanical are the clin ging root ( ivie

u . s s,

and prop oot ( crew pine banyan r sb t thei adap

s s, s, u r

t ti
a to the pec liar ervice they render i none the le
on u s s ss

intere ting s .

The ab ove tatem ent concerning leave hoot and s s s, s s,

root ho ld be applied with nece ary m odi fication to the

s s u ss s

lower plant which do not prod ce ch organ s The u su s

.

ligh t relation and it demand are no le real am ong the s s ss

A lgw than am ong Sper m atophyte well elation t s, as as r s O

air oil water m echani al pport tc

, s , , c su , e .

P L A N T SO CI E T I E S

1 77 . are not catte ed at hap

Introduct ory .
—P lants s r

hazard ver the rface of the earth b t are organized

O su ,
u

into definite comm nitie The e comm nitie are deter u s

. s u s

mined by the condition of li i g— ondition which adm it s v n c s

some plant and forbid o t her S ch an a ociation of

s s
. u ss

plant living together in im ilar condition i pl t

s s s s a an 80

ci ty
e Clo ely el ted plant do not
. s ally li e together
r a s u su v
 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

in the am ociety their rivalry i t inten e ; b t

s e s , as s OO s u

e ch ociety i
a s ally m ade p of nrelated plant which
s u su u u s

can make of the am e condition u se s s .

There are n m ero factor which com bine to det r u us s e

m ine ocietie sd it i kno wn yet only in a vag e w y

s, an s as u a

how they perate O .

1 7 8 E cological factora
. W t — Thi i a very i mpo a er . s s r

tant factor in the organi ation f ociet ie which are z O s s, u su

ally local a ociation Tak ing plant altogeth er t h

ss s . s , e

am o nt f water to which they are expo ed va ie fr m

u O s r s o

complete bm ergence to perpe t al dro ght b t with i

su u u , u n

thi range plant vary widely to the am o t o f wate

s s as un r

nece ary for living

ss .

H t —I con ideri ng the general di tri b tion f pla t

ea n s s u O n s

over th rface f the ea th great zone f plant are o t

e su O r , s O s u

lined by zone f te mperat r b t in the organization f

s o u e u o

local ocietie in any gi ve area the tem perat re con di

s s n u

tion are nearly niform U ally plant work only t

s u . su s a

tem perat re between 32 and 1 22 Fahr b t for ea h

u s
° °
.
, u c

plant there i it own ange of temp at e om eti m s s r er ur , s es

exten ive om eti m e re tricted E en in pl nt ocieti

s , s s s . v a s e s,

however th eff ect f the heat factor m y b noted in th

, e O a e e

su cce io f plant thro gh the working e on pri g

ss n O s u s as , s n

pla t being very di ff erent from mmer d a t m

n s su an u u n

plant s .

S l i —oThe great i m port ance f thi factor i evident O s s ,

even in wa ter plant for the oil of t h d rainage area dete s, s e r

m ine the m aterial carried b y the water

s So il i t b s . s O e

con i d ered b oth

s to it che m ical com po ition and it
as s s s

phy ical properti the latter chiefly in referen ce to it

s e s, s

di po ition toward wat r Soil vary greatly in the pow

s s e . s er

Of recei ing and retaining water and having a high recep

v , s

ti e and low retentive power and clay j t t h reve

v ,
us e rse ,

and the e factor have large e ff ect pon vegetation

s s u .

L igh t — All green plant can not receive the am e m t s s a ou n

of light H ence o m e f the m have l ar ed to live with a

. s O e n
31 6 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

b oyancy i provided for by the development f blad d

u s o er

lik e float s .

Con pic o am ong hydrophyte ieti es m y b e m

s u us soc a en

ti d the f ollo wing ( 1 ) Fr e wi m m ing ocieti e i wh i h

on e e -
s s s, n c

the plant are entirely t ained by water and

s f t sus , are ree o

m ove either by loco m otion or by water c rent H ur s . e re

belong the plank ton ocie t i con i ting f min t s es,

”
s s O u e

plant and anim al in i ible t the nak ed eye con pic

s s v s o , s u ou s

am ong the plan t b eing the diatom ; al o t h pond s s s e ao

i ti
c e co mpo ed of alg d ck weed t c which flo t i
e s, s ae, u s, e .
, a n

st gnant or lo w m ovi ng water

a s -
s .

( )
2 P ondweed ocietie in which the plant s s s, are an

chored b t their b die are bm erged or floating H e

, u o s su . re

belong the rock ocietie co i tin g of plant anchor d s s,

”
ns s s e

to om e fi m pport der water the m o t con pic o

s r su un , s s u us

form bei g the n m ero

s n fre h water and m arine algae u us s -
,

among which there are ften elaborate y tem f holdf a t O s s s o s s

an d fl t
'

The loo e oil ocietie are di ting i h d

oa s .
“
s -
s s s
”
s u s e

by im b edding their root or root like proce e in the m cky s -

ss s u

soil of the botto m ( Fig 28 1 The water lilie wit h s .

, s

their b d floating leave the pondweed or pick erel w ed

re a s, s e s

with th ir nar ow bmerged leave are con pic o ill

e r su s, s u us us

t ti
ra a ociated with which are alg m o e w t
on s, ss a , ss s, a er

fern etc s, .

( )
3 S wa m p ocietie in which the plant sare roo t ed i s, s n

water or in oil rich in water b t the leaf bearing te m

, s ,
u -
s s

ri e ab ove t h rface The con pi o wamp ocieti

s e su . s cu us s s es

are reed wam p characterized by b lr he

“
s t t ai l
s,
”
u us s, ca -
s

an d reed gra e ( Fig 2 8 3 -

tall wand like M o ty
ss s s.
,
-
on co

l d
e ally form ing a fringe abo t the hallow margi
on s, u su u s ns

of m all lake and pond ; wam p m oor the ordina y

s s s s -
s,
”
r

swam p m a he b og etc and dom inated by o

s, rs s, s, .
, c a rse

sedge and gra e ( Fig

s wamp thick et con i t
ss s .
“
s -
s, s s

ing f willow alder birche etc

O phagn m moor i
s, s, s, . s u -
s,
”
n

which ph g mm s predom inate and i ccomp ied b y

a nu oss s, sa an

n m ero p c liar orchid h ath

u us e nivoro plant tc
u s, e s, car us s, e .
 P L A N T ST R UC T UR E S

dro ght co di tion n m ero adapt ation ha e b ee d

u n s u us s v n e

l p d and are very cha

ve o e te i tic of eroph yt i pla t
rac rs x c n s .

So m e f t h con pic o
O e s ad apt ation e follow p i
u us s ar as s : er

odi c red ction of face ann al b idging over a p ri d

u sur , u s r e o

Of dro ght in the form f eed geophilo

u O plant al o d i
s s, us s s s

appearing from t h rfac and per i tin g in bte ea n

e su e s s su rran
 P L A N T ST R UCT UR E S

part s, de id o tree and hr b d oppi g their l ea e

c u us s s u s r n v s,

e tc t mpo a y red ction of f e the l

. e r r rolli g p u sur ac , eaves n u

or fol d i g together in vario way ; pro file po ition t h

n us s s , e

l ve
ea tanding edgewi e and not expo ing thei flat
s s s s r su r

f e to the m o t inten e li ght ; m otile leave wh ich can

ac s s s s

sh i ft their po ition to it their need mal l leave a ve y

s su s s s, r

characte i tic feat re of erophytic plant ; cove ing of

r s u x s r s

hair ; dw rf growth ; a ato mical adapt ation

a ch n s, su as

c ticle pali de ti e etc P robably the m o t

u , sa
p i
ssu , . s con s cu

ou s adapt tion however i t h organization of wat r

a , , s e e

re e voir which collect and retain the canty wat r p

s r s,
”
s e su

ply doling it t th plant need it

, ou as e s .

So m e o f the pro m inent ocietie are f ollow ro k s s as s c

so cietie compo ed of pla t li ing pon e xpo ed ck

s s n s v u s ro su r

face wall s, fence etc not ably lich en and m o e ;

s, s, .
, s ss s
“
and ocietie incl ding beache d ne
s s s, d
”
nd y u s, u s, an sa

fi eld ; hr bby heath characte ized by heath pl t ; ”

s s u s, r an s

plain t h g eat area of dry air and wi d develop d i

s,
”
e r s n e n

the interior of continent ; c t de ert s till m o e s

“
ac u s s s,
”
s r

a id area of the M exican region where t h c t aga

r s , e ac us, ve ,

y cca etc have learned to live by mean of th m o t

u , .
, s e s ex

tre m e xerophytic modi fication tropical de ert whe s s s,

”
re

xerophytic condition reach their extre m e in the combin s a

tion of maxi m m heat and mini m m wat er xeroph yt e

u u
“

thicket the mo t i m p netrable of all thicket growth

s,
”
s e -
s,

repre ent d by the haparral of t h So t hwe t and t h

s e C e u s ,
e
“
b h and cr b of A frica and A tralia ; xer
us
“
s u
”
us
“
o

ph yte fore t al o notably conifero s s, ( Se F ig s2 8 5 us . e s .

,

2 86 ,
1 81 . M esophy te a e p the m societi es — M e soph y t e s m k u co

m onveget tion the condition of moi t re being me di m

a , s s u u ,

and the oil fertile Thi i the normal plant condi t io

s . s s n,

and the arable condition that i be t adapted for t h

i s — s, s e

plant which m s eek to c l t ivate If a h ydrophyti

an s s u . c

area i to be c ltivated it i drained and made me ophy tic

s u ,
s s

if a xero ph yt ic are a is t o be c ltivated it i ir i gated d u ,

s r an
 G L O S SA R Y

[T h e de fi itin l ossary are ofte

on s o f a sat i fac t
g y I t is much be t te r to co n un s or n

T h f ll wi g g l
.

su l t t h e f ll r e x pl a at i
u e f th t n t b y m ans of t h i d
on s o e ex e e n ex e o o n os

sa y i c l d s o ly fr q h i l t m T h whi h f d ly
.

r n u e t ly re curri g t
n e ue n n ec n ca er s . e se c are o un on

in reas ab ly l
on i ti wi t h t h i r e xpl an at i o are mi t te d T h
c ose asso c a on mbe f ol n o e nu er

l wi g ea h de fi n i t i n fers to t h pag whe re th te rm will b e f un d m t f lly

.

o n c o re e e e o os u

d e fi ed ]
n

A CT INO M O R P B I C applie d to a flowe r in wh ich t h e part s in eac h se t are

sim ila r ; re g u la r . 228 .

A KE N E a on e - se e d e d fru it wh ic h ri pe n s d ry an d see d - li ke . 21 2 .

A LTE R N A T IO N OF G E NE R A T IO N S : t he a lte rnat io n Of g a me t o p hy t e an d

hy te in a life h is to ry 94
spo rop . .

A NE M O P H I L O U S : a pplie d t o flo we rs or plan t s wh ic h u se the win d as age n t

of
po llin a t ion . 1 81 .

A N ISO CA R P IC : a pplie d to a flo wer wh ose c arpe ls a re fe we r t h a n t h e ot h e r

flora l o rgan s . 268 .

A NT H E R t he s po ran gi u m - b e arin g
pa rt o f a st a m e n . 1 97 .

A NT B E R I D I U M : t he ma le orga n , prod uc in g spe r ms . 16 .

A NTI PO U A L CE L L S : in A ng ios pe rm s t h e ce lls o f t h e fe male game to phy t e

at th e opposit e e n d of t he e m b ry o sac f ro m t he e r at u
gg pp
a a s - -
.

A P E T A L O US : applie d to a flo we r wit h n o pe t als . 221 .

A POCA R PO US : a pplied to a fl o we r wh ose ca r e ls

p a re f ree from on e a n

Ot he r . 22 6 .

A R CH E G O N I UM t h e fe male , e gg- prod ucin

g o rg an of By r op hy t e s , P te ri
d o ph y t e s , an d G y m n o s pe rms . 1 00 .

A R CH E S P O R I U N t he fi rst ce l l o r g rou
p f ce lls
o in t h e spo re -
prod u c in g

se rie s . 1 02 .

A SCO C A R P : a s e c ial c ase con t a in in

p g asci . 58 .

A SCO SP O R E : a s po re fo rme d wit h in an ascu s . 59 .

A sc us : a d e lica t e sac ( mot h e r -

ce ll ) wit h in wh ic h ascospo re s d e ve lo p .

59 .

A sE x U A L SPO R E : on e prod u ce d us u al l y b y ce ll d i vision -

, at le ast n ot by
ce ll- u n ion . 9 .
330 G L O SSA R Y

CA L Y X : t he ou t e r se t of floral lea ves . 22 1 .

CA P SU L E : in By
hy t es t he spo re vesse l ; in A n giospe rms a d ry fruit
r op -

wh ich ope n s to d isc h a rg e it s see d s 98 2 1 1 .

, .

CA RP E L : t h e me gasporophy ll of Spe rmat o phy te s 1 78 . .

CH L O R O P R Y L L t h e g re e n co lo rin g ma t t e r of pla n t s 5 . .

CH L O R
O P L A ST : t h e pro to plas m ic bod y wit h in t h e ce ll wh ic h is s ta in ed

gre by c h lorophy ll 7
e n . .

CO L U M E L L A : i u B ry ophy t e s t h e st e rile t issu e O f t h e sporogon i u m wh ich

is su rro u n d e d b y t h e spo roge n o us t issu e 1 06 . .

CO N I D I U M an ase x ual spo re forme d b y cu t t in g O R t h e t ip of t h e spo ro

p h o re o r b y t h e d i vision of h y h tn
, p 5 8 . .

CO N J U G A T IO N t he u n ion of sim ilar ga me t es 15 . .

CO R OL LA t h e in ne r se t of floral le aves . 22 1 .

CO T YL E DO N : the fi rst lea f d e ve lope d by an e m b ry o sporoph yte . 1 38 .

C Y CL I C : a pplie d to an a rra n ge m e n t of lea ves or fl oral pa rts in wh ich

t wo orm ore appe ar u pon t h e a xis at t he sa me le ve l, fo rmi n g a c ycle ,

or wh orl, or ve rt ic il 1 59 . .

D E H ISCE N CE : th e O pe n in g of an o rgan t o d isc h arge it s con t e n t s, as in

sporan g ia , po l le n -
sacs , ca ps u le s , e t c . 1 99 .

D I CH O TO M O U S : a pplie d to a st y le of bran c h ing i n wh ich t h e t i p o f t he

a xis fo r ks . 85 .

D ItE CIO U S a pplied

t o plan t s in wh ic h t he t wo se x-
o rg an s are u po n d if
f e re n t in d i v id u als 1 15 . .

DO R SI V E NT R AL : a
pplie d to a b od y wh ose t wo su rfac es are d iff e re n tly
e xpose d , as a n ord in ar y t h allus or leaf . 1 09 .

E GG t h e fe ma le ga me t e
: 16 . .

R U
E G G A P P A A T S in A n giospe rms t h e grou po f t h ree ce lls in t h e
-
em bryo
sac co m pose d of t h e e gg an d t h e t wo sy n e rgid s 204 . .

E L AT E R : in L ive rwort s a spo re -

mot h e r c e ll -
pe c u l iarl y mod ifi ed t o aid

i n sc a t t e rin g t he s
pores . 1 03
.

E MB RY O : a pla n t i n t h e e a rliest sta g e s o f i t s d e v e lopme n t f ro m t he

s o re
p . 1 37 .

E MB RY O - SA C :t h e m e g as pore of Spe rmat ophy t e s wh ic h lat e r , c o n t ains

t he e m b ry o 1 78 . .

E ND O SP E R M t he n o u ris h in g t issu e d e ve lope d wit h in t he e mb ry o -

sac, and

t h ou g h t t o re pre se n t t h e fe m a le ga me t op te 1 80 hy . .

E N D O SP E R M N U CL E U S t h e n u c le u s of t h e e m r o sac w ic b y -
h h gives rise to
the e n d o s pe r m . 205 .

E NT O M O P H I L O U S : a pplie d to fl owe rs or plan t s wh ic h use in sec t s as age nts

of po llin a t ion . 1 96 .
332 G L O SS A R Y

IN DUSI U M in F e rn s a fl a p lik e me m bran e prote c t in g

-
a som e . 1 43 .

IN F LO R E SCE N CE : a fl owe r clu st e r 230

-
. .

IN SE R T IO N : t h e po in t O f o rig in O f an O rgan . 224 .

INT EG U M E NT : in Spe rmat ophyt e s a me m b ran e i n ves t i n g t h e n u ce llus.

1 78 .

IN V O L UCR E : a c y c le or rose t te of b rac ts be n ea t h a fl owe r c l u s t e r,

-
as in

U mb e llife rs and Co m posit es . 275 .

I soc A R P IC applie d to a fl o we r wh ose ca rpe ls e q u al in num be r t h e ot her

fl o ra l organ s . 26 8 .

I SO G A tt O U S : applied to plan t s wh ose pa iring ga me t e s a re s i m i la r . 15 .

L E PT OSPO R A NG I A T E : a pplie d to t h ose F e rn s wh ose spo ra n g ia d e ve lop

f rom a si n g le e pid e rma l ce ll . 1 57 .

MALE CE L L : in Spe rmat o phy t e s t h e fe rt ilizin g ce ll co n d u c t e d b y the

po lle n -
t u be t o t h e e gg 1 80 . .

M E G A SPO R A N G t Uu : a s po ran g iu m wh ic h prod u ces on ly me gas po re s 1 52 . .

M E G A SP O R E h e t e ro spo ro us
: in pla n t s t h e la rg e spore wh ic h prod u c es a

fe ma le ga me t o ph y t e 1 52 . .

M EG A SPO R O P R YL L : a spo ro phy ll wh ic h prod u ce s o n ly me gaspo ran gia .

1 52 .

M E SO P H Y LL : t h e t iss ue of a lea f be t we e n t h e t wo e pid e rmal la y e rs wh ich

u su a ll y c o n ta in s c h loro plas ts . 1 41 .

M t C R O SP O R A N G t U u : a s po ra n gi u m wh ic h prod u c e s o nl y m ic ros po res .

1 52 .

M IC R O SPO Rh e te ro spo ro us plan ts t h e sma ll s pore whic h prod uces a

E : in
male ga m e t ophy t e 1 52 . .

M I CR O SP O R O P R Y L L : a s po ro phy ll wh ic h prod u ce s o n ly m ic ros po rangia .

1 52 .

M t CR O P Y t E . : t he pas sage wa y to t h e n uc e llus le ft b y t h e in te g u men t .

1 78 .

M O N t E c tO U s : a pplie d t o pla n t s in wh ic h t he t wo se x o rga n s a re u pon

the sa me in d i v id u al . 115 .

M O N O PO D I A L : a pplie d to a s t y le of b ran c h in g in wh ic h t h e b ran ches

a r ise fro m t h e s id e Of th e a x is . 35 .

M OT H E R CE L L : u s u a ll y a c e ll wh ic h pro d u c e s ne w ce lls b y in te rn a l d ivi

s io n . 9 .

M Yc E L t U n t he mat Of fi lame n t s wh ic h co m po ses t he work in g b od y 01

a f u ngu s . 49 .

N A KE D F LOW E R : on e wit h no fl ora l le ave s . 222 .

NUC E L L U S the m ain b od y Of the o v u le . 1 78 .

 G L O SSA R Y 333

O oo orm m t h e fe male , e gg -
prod u c in g o rgan of T h al lophy tes . 16 .

O O SP H E R E : t h e fe male ga me t e , or e gg . 16 .

O O SP O R E : th e se x u a l spore re su lt in g fro m fe rt ilizat ion . 16 .

O VA R Y in A n g iospe rms t h e b u lbo us pa rt of t h e pist i l, wh ich con tai n s

t he ov u les 1 99 . .

O V UL E t h e m e gas poran gi u m of Spe rmat ophy te s . 1 78 .

P A P P U S : t h e mod ifie d y t h e Com posite s

c al x of 27 8 . .

P au s rrE : a pla n t wh ic h ob t ain s food b y at t ac ki n g li v in g plan t s or an i

mals . 48 .

P E NT A C Y C L IC : a pplie d to a flowe r wh ose fou r floral organ s are in fi ve

c y c le s ,
t he st a me n s be ing in t wo ycles 268
c . .

PE R IA N T H : t he se t of flo ral le aves whe n not d iff e ren t iated in t o ca l x y

an d co ro lla . 22 1 .

P E RI C Y N O U S : a pplie d to a fl owe r whose ou t e r part s a rise from a cu p

su rrou n d ing t he ovar y . 225 .

P E TA L o n e of t he fl oral lea ve s wh ich mak e up t he corolla. 22 1 .

P H O TO S Y NT H E SIS : t h e proc ess b y wh ic h c h loroplast s, a id ed b y ligh t ,

man u fac t u re ca rb o hy d ra te s f ro m carb on d ioxid e an d wat e r 84 . .

P I ST IL : t he ce n t ral organ of t he flowe r , co mpose d of on e o r more car

p s
e l . 200 .

P I ST IL L A T E : applie d to flo we rs wit h carpe ls b ut n o st a me n s . 21 8 .

POL L F N : t h e m ic ros po re s of Spe rmat o phy t e s 1 74 . .

POLL E N U B E : t he t u be
-
T d e ve lo pe d f rom t h e wall o f t h e po lle n grain
wh ic h pe n e t rate s t o t h e e gg an d con d ucts t h e ma le cells 1 80 . .

P O L L I N A T IO N : t h e t ra n sfe r p of o lle n f rom an t h e r t o ovu le (in G y mn o

s pe rms ) o r st ig ma ( in A n gios pe rm s) . 1 81 .

POL Y P ETA L O US : a li
pp de to fl owe rs whose pe t als a re free from on e a n

ot her . 22 7 .

PR O T H A L L IU M t h e game t o ph t e of y F e rn s . 1 30 .

PR O TO N E M A : t he t h a llu s port ion of t h e g am e t op hy t e of M osse s . 98 .

R A DIAL : a pplie d to a b od y wit h u n if o rm e x po su re of su rface , an d pro

d u c ing si milar o rg an s abo u t a co m mon c e n te r . 1 20 .

R E C E PT A C L E in A n gios pe rms t h at part of t h e st e m wh ic h is more

: or

less mod ifi ed t o su ppo rt t h e pa rts of t h e o we r 222 fl . .

R m zom a h air li -
ke proc e ss d e ve lo pe d b y t h e lo we r plan ts an d b y in d e
pe n d e n t g a me t o p hy te s to ac t as a h old fast o r a bsorb i n g orga n or ,

b ot h . 1 09 .

SA P R O P H Y I E pla n t
' ‘
w h ic h o b
a t a i n s food f rom t h e d ead b od ie s or bod y
prod u c t s o f pl a n t s o r a n im a ls 48 . .
334 G L O SSA R Y

SCA L E : a lea f wit h ou t c h loroph y ll , an d u su all y red u c ed in s ize .

1 61 .

SE P A L : o ne of floral lea ves wh ic h make u p t he caly x 22 1

t he . .

SE T A in Bry ophy t es the sta lk lik e portion of t he sporogon iu m -

. 98
R
.

SE x U A L SP O E : on e prod u ce d by t he u n ion of ga me t es . 10 .

SP E CIE S : plan t s so n ea rl y alike t h at t h e y all m ig h t h a ve co m e fro m a

si n g le pare n t . 237 .

SP E R M t he ma le ga me t e 16 . .

SP I R AL : a pplie d t o a n a rra n g e me n t of lea ves or floral pa rt s i n wh ic h

no t wo a ppea r u pon t he a xis at the sa me le v e l oft en ca lle d a l t e r

n at e . 1 93 .

SP O R ANG I UM t he o rga n wit h in wh ich ase x ua l spores a re

prod u ced (e x
ce pt in By
r op hy tes) . 10 .

SPO R E : a ce ll se t a part f or re prod u ct ion . 9 .

SP O R OG O NTU M t h e lea fle ss sporophy t e of By

r op hy t es . 98 .

SPO E O P H O R E : a spec ial b ran c h be arin g ase x u al spores. 49 .

SPO R OPH Y LL : a lea f se t a pa rt t o prod uce spora n g ia 1 45 . .

SP O R OPH Y TE : in a lt e rn at ion of ge n e ra t ion s, t h e ge n e rat ion wh ic h pro

d uce s t h e ase xu al spo re s . 97 .

ST A M E N mic rospo ro phy ll of Spermato phy te s 1 7 4

t he . .

ST A M I N A T E : applie d t o a fl owe r wit h sta me ns b u t n o carpe ls 21 8 . .

ST IG M A : in A ng iospe rms t h at port ion of t h e carpe l ( u su ally of t he st y le )

p p
re a re d to rece ive polle n . 1 99 .

ST O M A ( pl ST O M A T A ) : an e pid e rm al org an f or regu lat in g t h e

. comm un i

c at io n b e t wee n g re e n t issu e an d t h e air 1 41 . .

ST E O BI L U S : a con e lik e c lu st e r of s po rophy lls -

1 61 . .

ST Y LE : t he st al k like
-
pro lo n gat io n f rom t h e o va r y wh ic h bears the
st ig ma . 1 99 .

SU SP E N SO R : in h e te rosporou s pla n t s an organ of t h e spo ro phyt e e mb ry o

wh ic h places it in a m o re favora ble posi t io n i n re f e re n ce t o food

s u ppl y . 1 68 .

SY M B I O NT : an o rgan is m wh ic h e n t e rs in t o t h e c on d i t ion of sy m b io

sis . 79 .

SY M BIO SIS : u su ally a pplie d to th e con d it ion in wh ic h t wo d iff e ren t

o rgan is m s li ve t o ge t h e r in in t imate an d mu t u a lly h e lpfu l re la

t ion s . 79 .

SY M P E TAL O US : a pplie d to a flowe r wh ose pe ta ls h av e coalesce d .

22 7 .

SY R
N CA PO US : appli ed to a fl o we r wh ose ca rpe ls h av e c oa les ce d .

22 6 .

SYN E R G m : in A n gio spe rms on e o f th e pa ir o f c e lls associ ate d wi t h t h e

e gg to form t h e e gg a pparat us 204 -
. .
 IN D E X TO P L A N T STR U CTU R E S

i l i zed n umbe rs in d i cate t hat t h

[T h e ta ic j
e su b ect is ill us trat e d u pon th e pag ci te d e

b j t may b e re fe rre d
.

I n s h ca
uc th se e su ec to on ly in th e ill s trat i n
u r it may b eo ,
o

re f re d to also in t h e te xt ]
er

A n e mo ph ilou s, 1 8 1 .

A n giospe rms, 1 73, 1 95 , 2 1 7 .

A bsorpt io n 299 , . A n is oca rpte , 268 .

A cac ia 2 6 5. . A n n u l us , 1 46 , 1 5 0 .

A co n it u i n , 26 1 . A n t h e r 1 9 6 , 1 9 7 , 1 99
, .

A co rns, 2 1 9 , 243 . A n t h e rid i u m , 1 6 , 99 , 1 00, 1 1 2 , 1 2 1 ,

A c t in o mo rphy , 228 . 1 33, 1 34, 1 6 1 , 1 66 .

A d d e r s t on g u e O ph iog loss u m A n t h e ro zo id , 1 6
'
se e . .

A d ian t u m, 1 43, 1 45 . A n t h oc e ros 1 04, 1 05 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 6 , 1 1 8

, .

E c id io myce t e s, 50, 6 2 . A n t h o ph y tes, 1 7 2 .

E c id ios po re , 66 . A n t ipod a l ce lls, 2 02 , 2 05 , 2 08 .

E c id i u m, 66 . A n t irrh in u m, 2 2 8 , 2 75 .

A ga ric u s, 68 , 6 9 . A n t pla n ts , 90, 9 1

-
.

A ga ve , 24 7 . A pic a l ce ll, 1 8 4 .

A ir po re : se e St oma . A pica l gro u p, 28 8 .

k
A e n e , 2 1 2, 2 1 3 2 1 4, 2 7 6 , 2 7 7 , . A pi u m, 26 7 .

A lc h e m illa , 2 2 5 . A poca rpy , 1 9 9 .

A ld e r : se e A ln us . A poc y n ac e ae , 2 7 1 .

A lgte 4, 5 , 1 7
. . A poc y n u m, £
37 2 .

A lis m a, 2 1 0, 240 . A poga my , 1 31 .

A lmo n d : se e P ru n u s . A po s po ry 1 32 , .

A ln us, A po t h e c iu m 7 9 , 8 1 , 8 2 , .

A lt e rn at ion of ge n e ra t ion s, 94, 1 29 . A pple : se e I irus

’
.

A ma n ita , 7 0 . A q u ile g ia , 1 98 .

A m ary llid ac e ze , 247 . A rac eze , 243 .

A ma ry llis fa m ily : see A mary lli A ral iac eze , 26 7 .

d ace ze . A rau ca ria 1 90 , .

A mb ro sia, 2 79 . A rbor v it a
e : se e T h u ja .

A me n t , 2 5 7 . A rb u t u s, 1 98 : se e E pigaea.
A na pt ych ia , 8 1 , 8 3 . A rc he gon ia t e s, 1 01 .

337
333 IN D E X

A rc h egoniu m, 9 9 , 1 00, 1 1 8 , Bl k k t 60
ac no , .

1 35 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 7 , 1 7 9 . B l k m ld 5 2
ac ou , .

A rc hesporiu m, 1 02 , 1 04, Bl i 1 1 6
as a, .

A rchic h la myd eaa, 25 5 . Bl b y

ue e rrV i i : see acc n u m .

A rctostaphy los , 269 . Bl g

ue -
lg 6 1 7
re e n a a , , .

A reolie , 1 1 1 , 1 1 4 . Bl m ld 60
ue ou , .

A risre ma, 2 43, 2 44 . B l t 7 8 74

o e us, , .

A rn ica, 275 , 2 7 6 , 2 78 . B t y hi m 1 45 1 49
o r c u , , .

A ro id s, 243 . B t y di m 28
o r u , .

A rte m isia, 2 7 9 . B ox eld 2 34 e r, .

A rum, 245 . B k t f g 72
rac e un us, .

A sc oca rp, 58 , 5 9 . B k
ra e : seePt i e r s.

A scomy ce tes, 5 0, 5 7 . B i 261

rass ca, .

A scospore , 6 9 . B y phy t 2 93 1 72
r o es , , , .

A sc us, 6 9 . B w lg 6 32
ro n a ae, , .

A se xua l s pore , 9 . B y m 1 2 0 1 24
r u , , .

A spid iu m, 1 30, 1 36 , B k y 235

uc e e, .

A ssimil at ion , 302 . B t m 1 99

u o us, .

A st e r, 2 7 9 . B tt p R
u e rc u : se e an un c u lu s.

A st ragal us, 265 . B t t p f mily

u e rc u a : se e R an u n c u
A t h e rospe rma , 1 98 . laceaa .

A zalea, 2 70 .

Cabbage : see B rassica .

B ill 7 6
ac us, . Cala mus : see A corns .

B t i 21 75 7 6
ac e r a, , . . Callwlily , 243 .

B lm
a M li
: see e ssa . Ca llit h amn ion ,
B 1 40
an an a, . Ca llo ph y llis 39 , .

B k 284 289
ar , , . Ca llu n a, 2 7 0 .

B id i my t 50 68
as o ce e s, , Ca lopogon , 249 .

B id i p 6 9 72
.

as os o re , , . Calt h a, £6 0 .

B id i m 6 9 7 1
as u , , . Caly ca n t h u s, 2 36 , 26 1 .

B Ph
ea n : se e l ase o u s. Caly pso, 249 .

B b y
e a r e rr A t t : see rc os ap hylos
. Ca ly pt ra, 1 02 , 1 2 5 .

B h 25 6
e ec , . Caly pt rog e n 298 , .

B lli 2 79
e s, . Calyx 2 2 0, 221
, .

B b i 1 98
e r e r s, . Camb iu m 2 8 5 , 28 7 , 2 88
, .

Bid 2 78
e n s, . Capse lla, 2 09 , 2 98 .

B gg t i k
e a r-
c s, Ca ps u le , 98, 1 2 3, 1 26, 2 1 1 , 2 1 2 .

Big i 2 1 1
n on a, . Carawa y : se e Ca ru m .

Bi h 256
rc . . Ca rbo hy d rat e , 302 .

Black be rry : se e R ubus . Carbo n d ioxid e , 83.

340 IN D E X

Cy pripe d iu m, 249 , 2 58 . E gg-a pparat us, 204, 2 05 , 206 .

Cyst ocarp, 48 , 44 . E la t e r, 1 03, 1 1 3, 1 1 8 .

Cyst o pte ris, 78 , 1 44 . E lm : see U lm u s .

Cyt oplasm , 7 . E mb ry o, 1 37 , 1 6 7 , 1 68 , 1 70, 1 8 8 , 2 07 .

2 08 , 2 09 , 2 1 0, 2 1 1 .

E m b y sac,
r o -
1 7 8 , 1 7 9 , 2 01 , 2 03, 2 08 .

Daisy : see B lli e s. E n d os pe rm, 1 7 9 , 1 80, 2 07 , 2 08 , 2 1 1 .

Dan d e l ion : se e Ta raxacum . E n d ospe rm n u cleus, 2 02 , 205 .

Das y a 40 , . E n tomo ph ilous, 1 96 .

Dat u ra, 1 9 7 . E pid e rm is, 1 41 , 1 48 , 1 9 1 , 283, 284 ,

D auc us, 2 6 6 , 267 . 2 95 .

De ad -
n e t t le , 98 . E pigte a, 269 .

D e fi n it ive n uc le u s : see E n d os pe rm E pig y n y , 224 , 28

n u c le us . E pilobi u m, 2 1 8 .

De h isce n ce , 1 9 8 , 1 99 . E piphy te , 1 5 7 .

De lph in iu m, 2 60, 26 1 . E qu ise ta les, 1 5 9 .

De rmatoge n , 2 8 3 . E q u ise t u m, 1 5 9 , 1 6 0, 1 6 1 .

De smid s , 31 , E rgo t , 60, 6 1 .

Des mod iu m, 308 . E rica , 2 7 0 .

D iato ms, 45 . E ric ac ete , 268 .

D ic h otomou s, 35 . E rige n ia, 26 7 .

D icot y le d on s, 208 , 233, 254, 282 . E ry t h ro n iu m , 2 5 0 .

Di ff e re n t ia t ion , 8, 280 . E u s po rang iate , 1 5 7 .

Dog b an e : see A poc y n u m . E volu t ion , 3 .

D g toot
o -
h v iole t : see E ry t h ron iu m .

Dog wood fa mily : see Corn ace ze .

D orsive n t ral, 1 09 . F e n n e l : se e a ic n lu m .

Down y m ild e w, 5 5 . F e rn s, 1 55, 1 5 6 .

D ru pe , 26 4 . F e rt iliza t ion , 1 6 , 1 8 1 , 206 ,

D ige s t ion , 302 . F es t uc a, 2 40 .

D ice c io u s 1 1 5
, . F ig wort fa mily : se e Sc roph u la
D isk 2 7 6 , 2 7 7
, . riac e te .

Dod d e r, 8 6 . F i la me n t , 8 1 96 1 97 . , .

F ilica le s, 1 55 .

F i re we e d : se e E pi lob iu m .

E ar fu n g u s, 7 4
-
. F iss io n 1 0 , .

E as t e r lily , F lax : se e L in u m .

E colog y , 29 7 , 31 1 . F lo ra l le a ves 2 1 8 , .

E c on o mic bot an y , 29 7 . F lorid em, 38 .

E c t oc arpu s, 33 . F lowe r 2 1 8 , .

E d ogon in m, 22 £
3 , F lowe ring pla n ts , 1 72 .

E gg, 1 6 , 9 08 , 204, 9 05 ,
3
5 06 . a icul u m , 26 7.
 IN D E X 341

F o liar, 1 66 .

F ood , 83, 299 . G ras s fa mily : se e G ramin ete .

F oo t , 98, 1 02 , 1 38 , 1 68 . G y mn os pe rms, 1 7 1 , 1 73, 1 95 .

F ragaria, 9 1 4, 2 2 7 , 26 2 . G y mn os pora ngi um, 6 7 .

F ruit , 2 1 1 , 2 1 2 , 2 1 3, 2 1 4, 2 1 5 .

F u e us, 35 , 8 7 .

F un aria, 9 9 , 1 02 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 4, 1 26 .

F u ngi , 4, 48 . H abe n ari a, 249, 35 2 .

H a re be ll,
G
H aust oria, 50 .

G ame tang i um, 1 1 . H aze l : se e Carpin us .

G ame t e 1 0, 1 2
, . H ea rt wood , 289
-
.

G a me toph ore , 98, 1 1 2 , 1 20, 1 2 4 . H ea t , 31 4 .

G a me tophy te , 9 7 , 1 07 , 1 32, 1 34, 1 6 1 , H ea t h family : se e E ricaceaa .

1 6 6 , 1 6 7 , 1 7 6 , 1 79 , 1 80, 2 01 , 2 03, H e at h s, 2 68 , 2 6 9 , 2 7 0 .

H e lian t h us, 27 9, 2 8 5 , 306 .

G au lt h e ria, 2 7 0 . H e liot ropism, 305 .

G ay lussacia, 26 9 . H e miare y ria, 7 5 .

G e mma, 1 14 . H e mloc k : see Con iu m .

G e n e rat ive ce l l, 1 80, 2 01 . H e n ba n e : se e H voscyamu s .

G e n t ian aceze , 2 7 1 . H e pa t icaa, 1 09 .

G eoph ilous, 246 . H e t e roc y st , 1 8 .

Ge ot ropism, 305 . H e t e rogamy , 1 5 .

Ge rard ia, 2 7 5 . H et e rospory , 1 5 1 .

Ge rmin at ion , 1 87 , 21 4 . H ic k ory , 25 6 .

G igartina, 88 . H ippu ris, 2 88 .

Gills, 7 1 . H om ospory , 1 51 .

G in k go, 1 9 1 . H on e y loc u st : see G led itsch ie .

G lad iol us, 249 2 5 1 , . H h ou nd : se e

ore M a rru b iu m .

Gle d it sc h ia 2 36 , 265
, . H orn be a m : see Carpin us .

G lceoca psa, 1 7 , 1 8 . H orse t ail, 1 5 9 .

Glu me , 24 1 . H ost , 48 .

Gold e n rod : se e Solid ago . H uc k le be rry : see Gay luss acia .

Gon aton e ma 8 1 . . H yd n u m, 7 3, 74 .

Graminexe 24 1 , . H y d ra, 90 .

Gree n algae , 6 2 1 , . H yd rophy te s , 6, 31 5 .

Gre e n plan t s 88 , . H y d ro ph y t u m, 9 1 .

Gree n slimes 20 , . H yd ro t ro pism, 307 .

Gri mmia, 1 9 6 . H y grosc o pic move me n t , 304 .

Growt h move me n t 304 , . H y osc y am us, 1 9 6 .

Growt h ri n g , 234 . H y ph a
49 , .

Grain, 24 1 H y pocot yl, 1 8 4, 209, 2 1 6 , 2 1 7 .

342 IN DE X

H y pod e rmis, 284 . L e gu min ose , 264 .

H y pog y n y , 224, 2 2 5 . L e mn a, 2 01 .

H y ssopus, 2 74 . L e pid ozia, 1 1 7 .

L e pt osporan giate , 1 5 7 .

I
L e t t u ce : see L act u ca .

I nd igo : see Ind igofe ra . L e u can t h e mu m, 27 9 .

I nd igofe ra , 265 . L ia t ris, 2 78 .

l n d usiu m, 1 5 6 , 1 43, 1 44 . L ic h e n s, 7 7 , 7 8 , 7 9 , 87 .

In flore sc e nce , 230 . L i fe re la t ion s, 31 1 .

I n sec ts a nd flowe rs , 90 . L ig h t , 31 4 .

I n tegu me n t , 1 7 8 , 1 7 9 , 2 01 , L ig u le , 1 6 8 .

I n volu cre , 2 6 7 , 2 75 , 2 7 7 . L iliace ae 246, .

I po mma, 2 2 8 , 2 70 . L ilies, 245 .

I rid acete , 24 7 . L iliu m, 2 03, 2 04, 2 05 , 2 07 2 2 4 , 2 49 ,

I ris, 248, 25 1 . 295 .

I ris fa mily : se e I rid ac eaa .

L ily : se e L iliu m .

Irrita ble mo ve me n t , 307 . L i ly fa mily : se e L iliacem .

Isoca rpw, 268 .

L in aria, 2 8 , 2 75 .

Isoe te s, 1 6 9 .
L in u m,
Isogam y , 1 5 .
L i ve rworts, 1 09 .

L oc u lus, 2 00 .

L oc u st : se e R ob in ia .

Japan l ily , 2 48 .
L o t u s, 2 6 4 .

Ju n ge rman n ia , 1 05 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 6 , 1 1 7 .
L u pin u s, 265 .

Ju n ipe r, 1 94 .
L y cope rs icu m, 2 7 5 .

L ycopod iales, 1 62 .

L y c opod iu m, 1 6 2,
Kalm ia, 2 7 0 .
L ygod iu m, 1 45 .

L y on ia, 2 6 9 .

L abiatte , 2 72 .

L ab iat e s, 27 2 . M ac rospo re 1 52 , .

L act u ca, 27 9 .
M aid e n h a ir fe rn : see A d ia n t u m .

L a minaria 33 8 4, , . M ale ce ll, 1 80, 1 8 1 , 2 01 , 2 06 , 2 07 .

L am iu m 2 7 4 2 7 5
, , . M aple , 2 1 2 .

L arc h : se e L a rix . M a rasmiu s, 7 0 .

L a rix 1 9 2
, . M arch an t ia , 1 04, 1 1 0, 1 1 1 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 8 “
L ark spu r : se e Delph in iu m . 114 .

L au re l : se e Kalm ia . M a rgu e rit e : see L e ucan t h e mu m .

L av an d u la, 2 75 .
M arj oram se e O rigan u m .

L e a f, 1 4 1 , 1 4 2
, 2 9 5 296 31 1
, . . M arrub iu m , 27 5 .

L e gu mes, 2 5 0 25 1 , 264 ,
. M arsh ma rigold : se e Calt h a .
 IN D E X

P h lox, 2 2 8 , 2 71 .

P h ot os y n ta x, 84 .

P alisad e t issu e, 1 4 2
, 295 . P h ot osy n t h es is, 84, 302 .

P almace ze , 24 1 . P hyco m yce tes, 50, 5 1 .

P alm fam ily : se e P almac eae . P hy sc ia, 7 9 .

P alms, 24 1 , 2 2
, 2 43 . P hysiology , 29 7 .

P apa ve rac eae, 261 . P icea,

P appus, 2 7 6 , 2 7 7 , 2 78 . P ile u s, 71 .

P aras ites , 48, 85 . P ine : se e P i n us .

P are nchy ma, 280, 28 1 , 2 8 2 , 28 8 . P in ea pple , 2 1 5 .

P arme lia, 7 9 . P i n u s, 1 7 3, 1 7 5 , 1 7 6 ,
P arsle y : se e P e t rose linu m . 1 83, 1 8 1 , 1 8 8 , 1 9 1 , 2 8 6 .

P arsle y fa mily : se e Um b e llif e rte . Pi pe rae e m, 258 .

P arsn ip : se e P as t inac a . P iru s, 2 2 5 , 262 , 2 6 3 .

P art he n oge n esis, 5 2 . P ist il, 1 99 , 200, 2 1 9 , 22 0 .

P ast inaca, 26 7 . P isu m, 2 65 .

P a t h olog y 29 7 , . P it h , 2 8 5 , 28 7 , 2 8 8 .

P ea : see P is u m . P lan ococ cus, 7 6 .

P eac h : se e P ru n us . P la n t agin acete , 2 75 .

P eac h cu rl, 60 . P la n t bod y , 6 .

P ea family : se e L egum in osa . Plan t soc ie t ies, 31 3 .

P ear : see P irus . P las mod i um, 7 4, 7 5 .

P e at , 1 1 9 . P last id , 7 , 8 .

P e llaea , 1 46 . P la t yce riu m , 1 32 .

P e n icilli u m, 6 0 . P le rome , 2 8 3 .

P e n t acy clze , 268 . P le u roc occ us, 2

P e n tst e mo n , 27 5 . P lu m : se e P ru n us .

P e on y , 2 2 0 . P lum ule 21 0 , .

P e ppe r 2 1 1 258
, . P od , 2 1 1 , 2 1 2 .

P e ppe r f a mi l y : se e P ipe racea '

. P ogon ia, 249 .

P e ria n t h , 2 1 9 , 2 2 0, 2 2 1 . P o le mon iacete , 271 .

P e rib le m , 2 8 3 . P o le mon iu m, 2 7 1 .

P e rig y n y 2 2 5 2 2 6
, , . P olle n 1 7 4, 1 7 6 1 9 7 . 2 01
, , .

P e rist ome 1 2 6 1 2 7
, , . P o lle n t u be , 1 7 9 , 1 80, 1 8 1 , 1 8 7 , 2 02 ,
-

P e ron ospo ra 5 5 , 5 6 . .

P e ta l, 2 2 0 22 1 . . P ollin at io n , 1 8 1 .

P e t iole 1 41
, . P oly e mb ry on y , 1 83 .

P e t rose lin u m, 2 6 7 . P oly morph is m, 63 .

t o ph y ce z
e 6 32 , , . P oly pe t a ly 226 , .

P h an e roga ms 1 7 2 , . P oly po ru s , 7 1 , 72 .

P h ase o lu s 2 1 6 265
. , . P o ly siph on ia 44 , .

P h loe m, 235 , P o lyt ric h u m, 96 .

 IN D E X 34 5

P o me , 263 . R e d bu d : se e Cercis .

P on d we e d s, 237 . R e d wood : se e Seq u oia .

P o pla rs , 25 5 . R e prod uc t io n , 3, 8, 309 .

P o po wia , 1 9 8 . R espira t ion , 302 .

P o ppy, 26 1 . R h e ot ro pism , 307 .

P o ppy fa mily : see P apave racem . R h izo id , 1 09 , 1 1 0, 1 34 .

P o pu lu s, 2 5 6 . R h izo ph o re s, 1 6 42
P ore f u n g u s, 7 2
- . R h od o d e n d ron , 2 7 0 2 7 1 , .

P ota mog e t on , 237 2 38 , . R h od oph y c e te , 6 , 38 .

P ot ato : see Sola n u m . R icc ia 1 04, 1 1 0

, .

P ot e n t illa, 22 5 , 262 . R icc ioca rpus, 1 1 0 .

P rot e id , 302 . R ic in u s, 28 8 .

P rot h al liu m, 1 30, 1 32 , 1 34 . R o b in ia, 26 5 .

P rot ococc u s fo rms, 22 . R oo t , 1 38, 2 1 7 , 2 9 3, 29 4, 31 3 .

P rot on e ma, 95 , 98 . R oot cap, 2 9 3

-
.

P ro t oplas m, 7 . R oo t fu n gu s, 87 , 8 8
-
.

P ru n us , 2 1 3, 26 2 . R oo t -
h a irs , 2 1 7 , 300 .

P se u d om on as, 7 6 . R oo t pressu re , 300

-
.

P se u d o pod iu m, 1 05 , 2 3, 1 24 . Ro o t- t u b e rcles , 8 9 .

P t e rid ophy t e s 2 , 1 28 , 1 7 2, 29 1
, . R osaceze , 262 .

P t e ris, 1 33, 1 37 , 1 41 , R ose fa mily : se e R osac e te .

1 43, 2 91 , 2 2 , 2 93 . R osin we ed -
: se e Silph iu m .

P t ilota , 4 2
. Ro sma rin u s, 2 7 5 .

P u ccin ia, 6 3, 6 4, 6 5 , 66 . R oyal fe rn : see O smu n d a .

P u fl ba lls, 68 , 7 4
-
. R u b u s, 2 6 2 .

P ul vin u s, 308 . R u me x , 2 8 4 .

R ust , 6 2, 63, 6 4, 6 5 , 66 .

Q
Q u i ll wort : se e Isoe tes .

Sac fu n gi 5 7
-
, .

Sag e : se e Sal v ia .

R a bd on ia, 41 . Sage -
b ru sh : see A rt e misia .

R ad iat e b u n d le 2 94 . Sagi t ta ria 2 08 , 338 , .

R ad ic le , 209 . Sa lix 2 1 9 2 33, 25 6 , 2 5 7

. , .

R ad ish , 1 20 . Salvia, 27 5 .

R ag wee d : se e A mb rosia . Sa lv in ia 1 58 , .

Ra n u n cu lace aa, 2 6 1 . Sa pro le gn ia, 5 1 , 5 2 .

R an u n cu lu s 22 2 259 , , . Sapro phy t e , 48, 84 .

Ra s pb e rry : se e R u bu s . Sa p wood , 289

-
.

R ays 2 7 5 2 7 6
, , . Sargassu m 35 36 , , .

R e ce pt ac le 22 2 . . Sa u r uru s 2 1 9 , 258 . .

R ed algaa, 6 , 38 . Sca le s, 1 6 1 .
 346 IN D E X

Sca pa n ia, 1 1 6 . Spe rm mot h e r ce ll, 1 00 .

Sc h izo myce tes, 21 . Sph agn u m, 1 05 , 1 06 , 1 22 , 12 3 .

Sc h izophy tes, 2 1 . Spik e , 240 .

Se le re n c hy ma, 28 1 , 284, 28 5 , Spim a , 262 .

Spira l, 1 93 .

Sc ou t in g ru s h , 1 59 . Spiri llu m, 7 6 .

Scro ph u lariaeem, 27 5 . Spirogy ra, 28 , 29 , 30 .

Scu t e llaria, 27 5 . Spon gy t issue 1 42 , .

Se d ge family : Cy pe racete see . Spo rangiu m , 1 0, 1 36 , 1 43, 1 45 , 1 5 0,

Seed , 1 83, 1 8 4, 2 1 0 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 4 . , , . 1 5 7 , 1 63, 1 7 9 .

Se lagin e lla, 1 6 5 , 1 6 6 , 1 68 . Spore , 9 .

Se nsit i ve fe rn : see O n oc le a . Sporid iu m, 65 .

Se nsit i ve- plan t : se e A cac ia . Sporoge nou s t issu e 1 03 , .

Se pal, 22 0, 22 1 . Spo rogon iu m 98 , 1 02 , 1 04 1 05 , 1 06 ,

, .

Se q uoia, 1 8 9 . 1 25 ,
Se t s , 98, 1 25 . Spo roph ore , 49 , 50 .

Se x, 1 2 . Spo rophy ll, 1 45 , 1 47 , 1 48 , 1 49 , 1 7 4,

Se xua l spore , 1 0 . 1 76 .

Sh e ph e rd s pu rse Ca pse lla Sporo phy t e , 97 , 1 02, 1 37

’
: see . .

Sh ie ld fe rn : see A spid iu m . Spruce : se e P ice a .

Sh oot, 31 2 . Sta b ilit y of form, 298 .

Sie ve vesse ls, 28 5 , 286 . St ame n , 1 7 4, 1 7 6 , 1 96 , 1 98 , 2 1 9 ,

Silph iu m, 2 79 .

Siph on forms, 27 . Stole , 1 9 1 283, 285

, .

Siph onoga ms, 1 83 . Ste m, 1 39 , 282 28 9, 29 1 , 31 2 , .

Siph on ogamy , 1 83 . St e m on it is, 7 5 .

Slime mou ld s, 7 4, 75 . Ste re ome , 282 , 299 .

Smu t 6 2, . Ste rile t iss u e , 1 03 .

Sn apd rago n : se e A n t irr h in u m . St ict a, 8 0 .

Soil, 31 4 . St igma, 1 9 9 , 2 02 .

Solan ac ee , 2 75 . Sto mata 1 41 , 1 42 , 1 9 1 , 2 95 , 301

, .

So lan u m, 1 98 2 7 5 , . St ra wbe rry : se e F rag aria .

Solid ago, 27 9 . St rob ilu s, 1 60, 1 6 1 , 1 63, 1 6 5 , 1 7 4 ,

So lo mo n s se al,
’
2 38 . 7 5 , 1 7 6 , 1 98 , 1 9 4 .

So rus, 1 36 , 1 43, 1 44 . St y le , 1 9 9 2 02
, .

Spad ix, 2 44 2 45 , . Su bst ra t u m 49 , .

Spa t h e , 2 44 2 45 , . Su mac h , 2 35 .

Spe rm , 1 6 , 1 00, 1 33, 1 35 , 1 62, 1 6 6 Su n flo we r : se e H e lian t h u s .

1 6 9 , 1 8 7 , 1 90 . Su s pe n so r, 1 6 7, 1 68 , 1 83, 2 09 ,
Spe rmat ia, 43, 44 . 21 0 .

Spe rmato ph y t e s 2, 1 7 1 , 1 72 , . Sy ln b io n t , 7 9 86 ,
.

Spe rmato zo id , 1 6 . Sy mb iosis, 79 , 86 .

34 8 IN D E X

W ist aria 265

, .

W it ch e s broom 60
’
-
, . Y east , 6 2 .

W ormwood : se e A rt e m isia .

Z an n ic h ellia , 237 .

Z oospo re , 10 .

Xa n t h ium 27 9
, . Z yg om orphy , 2 2 3 22 9 . .

Xe rophy t e s 31 9, . Z ygospore , 1 5 .

X y le m 2 8 5 28 7
, , , 2 88 , 2 90, 2 9 2 , 2 9 4 . Z ygot e , 1 5 .

T H E E N D