Chapter 6, Homeostasis

METABOLISM
Carbohydrate Metabolism- Originated from photosynthesis/plants
6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy --> C6 H12 6O2
Anabolic Reactions- requires energy to create larger molecules.
Catabolic Reactions- energy is released when large molecules are broken down
into smaller ones.
All Metabolic pathways share an evolutionary pathway

Energy-
Kinetic vs. Potential
In this class, energy will be defined as the ability to do work.
Kinetic is motion energy, Potential is stored energy.
Cells have both kinetic and potential energy.
Electrochemical gradients have energy gradients across the plasma membrane
Free Energy- oof
Gibbs equation-

If energy is released in a chemical reaction, then G will be less than zero. That type
of reaction is called exergonic, or exothermic, and they can happen without the
addition of energy.

If a chemical reaction requires energy, then it is endergonic, or endothermic, and G

will be greater than 0.
Activation Energy is the amount of energy required to begin a reaction, and this
energy is usually provided by heat or ATP. This energy helps reactants reach their
transition state. On the graph, that is the hump.
The amount of Activation Energy needed can be reduced by enzymes.

ATP! Adenosine Triphosphate

The Hydrolysis of ATP creates power for the cell.

Consists of nitrogenous base Adenine and a ribose sugar molecule with 3

phosphate molecules attached to the end.
Sodium-Potassium and ATPase
This is an example of energy coupling. The energy put off by the hydrolysis of
ATP is then used by the sodium potassium pump to power the transfer of sodium
out of the cell and potassium into the cell (which creates the electrochemical
gradient in the cell)

Enzymes are (mostly) protein catalysts that speed up reactions and decrease the
amount of activation energy needed.
Enzyme-Substrate Specificity- Reactants/substrates fit into the enzymes active site.

Protein Enzymes are very highly specialized, and their shaped directly correlates to
its function, so it can only put something very specific into its active site. The
active site is the most important part of the protein, the rest of the protein really
serves to shape the active site.

Induced Fit vs Lock and Key

Induced fit implies that once the substrates are combined, the enzyme has changed
shape.
Remember that all of the things we learned about proteins also applies to enzyme
proteins. Temperature and pH affect the ability of the proteins to function.
How Enzymes lower activation energy-
 Position two substrates so they align perfectly
 Provide an optimal temp and pH environment for the reaction to occur
 Contort/ Stress the substrate so it is less stable and more likely to react
 Temporarily react with the substrate, making the substrate less stable and
more likely to react.
Enzyme Inhibition:
1. Specific Inhibition- Specific inhibitors affect specific enzymes
-Competitive- competitive inhibitors have a similar shape to the substrate
and they fit into the active site, keeping the substrate out. Is reversible by an
increase in substrate.
-Non-Competitive- These bind to the allosteric site, causing a change in the
shape of the active site, causing it to be unable to be used by the substrate.
2. Feedback Inhibition- another type of specific inhibition where the end product of
the reaction acts as an allosteric inhibitor for the enzyme that created it.

3. Non-Specific Inhibition- affects all enzymes, can be pH or temp change or

something else that affects the ability of all protein functions

PHOTOSYNTHESIS! 🌱🌿🌳
PLANT!!
oki so photosynthesis is when plants absorb sunlight(energy), CO2 and H2O and
use it make their sugar food.

yum
Plants, autotrophs, and cyanobacteria can do photosynthesis, but NOBODY else.
BTW there’s Autotrophs and Heterotrophs
Autotrophs are producers and Heterotrophs are consumers

Photosynthesis has two parts, the light dependent and light independent parts
The Light Reactions and The Dark Reactions aka Light Independent aka The
Calvin Cycle make up photosynthesis and they all happen in the chloroplasts!

Thylakoids – these hold chlorophyll

Stroma- fluid between Grana
Granum- a stack of thylakoids
Amoeba sisters’ video-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uixA8ZXx0KU
Bioflix-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=81CFtdyHzWs

The Light-Dependent Reactions

 Light absorption by photosystem 2: energy from light is transferred to an
electron. This high-energy electron is passed to an acceptor molecule and
replaced with an electron from water. Hydrolysis releases O2 we breathe.
 ATP synthesis: high energy electron travels down an electron transport
chain, losing energy as it goes, some of the released energy drives the
pumping of electrons into the thylakoid from the stroma, building a gradient.
 Light absorption by photosystem 1: depleted electron is reenergized by
energy from sunlight absorbed in photosystem 1.
 NADPH formation: the newly replenished electron travels down the second
part of the transport chain and is given to NADP+ to make NADPH
These photos are for the light reaction^
Light-independent Reaction-
 In the Calvin Cycle, Carbon from CO2 is fixed into three carbon sugars. This
process is fueled by ATP and NADPH from the light reactions
1. Carbon Fixation
2. Reduction
3. Regeneration
 Oh
my goodness that’s a lot.
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CELLULAR RESPIRATION 🦆🐶🐏🐼🐻🌱🐞🐝🐙🦋🐌

ALL CELLS PERFORM CELLULAR RESPIRATION! even plants!
This is the process that mitochondria cells use to transform the glucose from
photosynthesis into ATP.
Can also be known as Glucose Catabolism

This is the opposite of photosynthesis!

Electron carriers - The principal electron carriers are derived from vitamin B group
molecules and they are easily reduced or oxidized (NADH, FADH2)
In these metabolic pathways, notice the link between the transfer of energy and the
movement of electrons
This flow of electrons is an electric current, and an electric current can provide
energy to do work
Electrons carry energy to ATP in our bodies, fueling cellular functions.
When an electron carrier has an extra electron, it is reduced.
When an electron carrier has one less electron, it is oxidized.
FAD+ is reduced to FADH2.
NAD+ is reduced to NADH.

Redox Reactions
Oxidation and Reduction usually happen together, and these are called redox
reactions. Redox reactions occur when electrons from one molecule to another.

ADH
Molecules that donate electrons are called reducing agents because they are
reducing the other molecule even though they themselves are becoming oxidized.
Molecules that gain electrons are called oxidizing agents because they are
oxidizing the other molecule even though they themselves are becoming reduced.
Hey, by the way:
The hydrolysis of ATP into ADP + Pi is exergonic and can provide energy for a
coupled endergonic reaction.
The removal of a phosphate group is called dephosphorylation and the gain is
called phosphorylation.
Phosphorylated molecules are less stable and more likely to react.

Okay, so now we know all of these things, we can go through cellular respiration
into four steps.
1. Glycolysis
2. Oxidation of Pyruvate
3. Citric Acid Cycle
4. Oxidative Phosphorylation
This is a neat diagram that puts it all together.

1. Glycolysis: the 6-carbon sugar is broken down into two 3-carbon sugars
called pyruvate. ATP is made and NAD+ is turned into NADH.
Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol. There are two phases:
energy-requiring phase, a 6-carbon sugar is broken into two 3-carbon molecules
(G3P) by adding two phosphate groups.
energy-releasing phase, each G3P is converted into pyruvate and forms two net
ATP and two NADH
 2. Pyruvate Oxidation: each pyruvate enters the mitochondrial matrix, where
its converted into a 2-carbon Acetyl Co-A. CO2 is released, and NADH is
made.
During this reaction, pyruvate becomes Acetyl Co-A and carbon
3. Citric Acid Cycle: Acetyl Co-A combines with a 4-carbon molecule and
cycles producing ATP, NADH, FADH2 and creates CO2, ultimately
regeneration the 4-carbon starting molecules for subsequent cycles
This is the Krebs cycle/ tricarboxylic cycle.
This cycle happens in the mitochondrial matrix of eukaryotic cells, and the
cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells. This makes a lot of electron carriers.
In a single turn of the cycle:
 Two carbons enter from acetyl co a and two carbon dioxides are released,
the last six of the carbon atoms from glucose
 Three molecules of NADH and one molecule FADH2 are generated and
 One molecule of ATP is created
 Creates only one ATP! The citric acid cycle doesn’t create a lot of ATP
directly, but it creates the means to create ATP in the next step.

4. Oxidative Phosphorylation: The NADH and FADH2 made deposit their

electrons into the transport chain. As electrons move down the chain, energy
is released and used to pump protons out of the matrix, forming a gradient.
Protons flow back into the matrix through an enzyme called ATP synthase,
making ATP. Oxygen is the final acceptor of electrons and takes up protons
to form water.
For each NADH molecule, 3 ATP are produced. For each FADH2 only 2 ATP are
created.
In the ETC, electrons are passed from one molecule are passed from one molecule
to another, and energy released in these transfers is used to form an
electrochemical gradient. The electrochemical gradient is used by ATP synthase
catalyze the reaction of ADP into ATP. ATP goes all over the body, especially
muscles because they use a lot of energy.
Chemiosmosis refers to any process in which energy stored in a proton gradient is
used to perform work.
Oxidative phosphorylation oxidizes the NADH and FADH2 electron carriers back
into NAD+ and FAD+ so they can be reused.

Total, Cellular Respiration creates 38 ATP

Electron Net ATP Net ATP Theoretica
carriers from from l
produced substrate oxidative maximum
level phosphory total yield
phosphory lation
lation
glycolysis 2 NADH 2 ATP 6 ATP
Oxidation 2 NADH 6 ATP
of
pyruvate
Citric acid 6 NADH 2 ATP 22 ATP
 cycle 2 FADH2
total 10 NADH 4 ATP 34 ATP 38 ATP
2 FADH2
Don't really need to understand this chart, I just tried to copy it off the board so I
could look at it later.
Feedback Inhibition-

High ATP: cell respiration is slowed down by feedback inhibition.

Low ATP: cell respiration occurs normally.
What happens in the absence of oxygen?
Oxygen is the final receptor molecule in oxidative phosphorylation along the
electron transport. If there’s no oxygen, then cellular respiration cannot carry out.
In the absence of oxygen, cells depend solely on glycolysis to produce ATP, but it
can’t do that for very long because oxygen is required to do that too.
Lactic Acid Fermentation-
 Carried out by yogurt bacteria and our muscles when O2 runs low.
 NADH donates its electrons to pyruvate, and then some other stuff happens,
producing lactic acid.
Alcoholic Fermentation-
 Carried out by yeast and some bacteria
 NADH donates its electrons to pyruvate, and then other stuff happens,
making ethanol.
These provide cells with alternate sources of NAD+!!