CHAPTER J3

o
FLEXIBLE
MANUFACTURING
SYSTEMS

The customers are changing, and so is the nature of their demand. Customer demand is
becoming individualistic, leading to product variations. The multitude of product vari-
ations, the complexity and exacting nature of these products coupled with increased
international competition, the need to reduce the manufacturing cycle timc. and the
pressure to cut production costs require the development of manufacturing technolo-
gies and methods that permit small-batch production to gain economic advantages
similar to those of mass production while retaining the flexibility of discrete-product
manufacturing. The development of computer-integrated manufacturing (ClM) sys-
tems for the manufacture of parts ranging from low-volume, high-variety to high-
volume, low-variety parts, and particularly of flexible manufacturing systems (FMSs)
for mid-volume, mid-variety parts, addresses many of these problems.
In the previous chapter we discussed issues related to group technology and cellular
manufacturing. These concepts are a significant part of an FMS. In this chapter we
provide a basic understanding of flexibility, volumc-variety relationships, and their
characteristics that distinguish between various CIM systems. The physical and con-
trol subsystems of FMS are discussed. Layout problems specific to FMS are detailed
and a simple mathematical analysis for one case is presented. Some discussions of part
type selection and tool management strategies are given. Sequencing in a robotic cell is
) discussed. Furthermore, basic concepts in discrete-event system simulation are cov-
ered, followed by a case study.

13.1 FLEXIBILITY
Flexibility is the cornerstone of and one of the key concepts used in the design of
modem automated manufacturing systems such as flexible manufacturing systems. A
number of papers have appeared in the literature on various aspects of flexibility.
Gupta and Goyal (1990) provide a comprehensive review of the literature on flexibil-
ity. The facts are that flexibility has multiple dimensions and the concept of flexibility
still remains vague. In this section we attempt to answer these questions: What is
flexibility? What are the different types of flexibility? What are the implications of

529
530 Chapter 13 Flexible Manufacturing Systems
flexibility in manufacturing systems? How are manufacturing systems distinguished
on the basis of flexibility?
Flexibility can be defined as a collection of properties of a manufacturing system
that support changes in production activities or capabilities (Carter, 1986). Normally,
the changes are due to both internal and external factors. Internal changes could be due
to equipment. breakdowns, software failures, worker absenteeism, variability in pro-
cessing times, and so forth. Some degree of redundancy in the system is required to
cope with internal changes. This, however, adds more capacity. Changes in product
design, demand, and product mix typically represent external changes. To absorb
uncertainties due to product design changes, the manufacturing system must be versa-
tile and able. to produce the intended variety of part types with minimal cost and lead
time. Some degree of redundancy may, however, be required to cope with changes in
the demand and product mix. We can therefore say that the flexibility refers to the
ability of the manufacturing system to respond effectively to both internal and external
changes by having built-in redundancy of versatile equipment. We will consider
various types of manufacturing systems and implications of flexibility for their per-
fonnance in Section 13.2.
A number of types of flexibility have been discussed. Gerwin (1982), Browne et aL
(1984), Carter (1986), and Falkner (1986), among others, have defined a number of
flexibility measures. In the following section we discuss various types of flexibility.
13.1.1 Machine Flexibility
Machine flexibility refers to the capability of a machine to perform a variety of opera-
tions on a variety of part types and sizes.
The other measure of machine flexibility is the universe of part types that a machine
can produce. It implies ease with which the parts are changed over from one part type
to another on a machine. The changeover time, which includes setup, tool changing,
part-program transfer, and part move times, is an important measure of machine flexi-
bility. Computer numerical control (CNC) machining centers are normally equipped
with automatic tool changer, part buffer storage, part programs, and fixtured parts on
pallets. The benefits resulting from such machine flexibility and quick part type
changeovers are that the small lot sizes are economical and lead times are lower.
Furthermore, machine flexibility provides routing and mix flexibility.
13.1.2 Routing Flexibility
Routing flexibility means that a partes) can be manufactured or assembled along alter-
native routes. The alternative routes are possible if manufacturing or assembly opera-
tions can be performed on. alternative machines, in alternative sequences, or with
alternative resources. Because a wide variety of operations can be performed on flexi-
ble machines, they provide routing flexibility.
Routing flexibility is used primarily to manage internal changes resulting from
equipment breakdowns, tool breakages, controller failures, and so on. Of course, the
internal changes can be minimized by such measures as on-line monitoring of failures
and preventive maintenance programs. Inventory has traditionally been employed to
provide dependable production under conditions of equipment failures. Routing flexi-
bility is yet another means of providing dependable production.
Routing flexibility can also help increase throughput in the presence of external
changes such as product mix, engineering changes, or new product introductions.
J 3.1 Flexibility 531
These changes alter machine workloads and cause bottlenecks. The use of alternative
I routings heIps provide relief, thereby resolving the bottleneck problem and permitting
increased production. Therefore, routing flexibility is one way to achieve mix flexi-
bility-
Routing flexibility is becoming a more acceptable means of improving the depend-
ability of manufacturing systems. However, a balanced approach is required, employ-
ing a combination of small work-in-process buffers, machinery improvements, better
repair and preventive maintenance practices, and routing flexibility.
I 13.1.3 Process Flexibility
Process flexibility, also known as mix flexibility, refers to the ability to absorb changes
I in the product mix by performing similar operations or producing similar products or
parts on multipurpose, adaptable, CNC machining centers. Mix flexibility provides
1 protection against market variability by accommodating changes in product mix due to
I the use of shared resources. However, extreme mix variations would result in require-
ments for a greater number of tools, fixtures, and other resources.
I! 13.1.4 Product Flexibility
/, Product flexibility, also known as mix-change flexibility, refers to the ability to change
j over to a new set of products economically and quickly in response to markets or
engineering changes or even to operate on a make-to-order basis. The changeover time
includes time in all the activities of new product manufacture, such as design, process
1 planning, tooling, and fixturing. This time can be minimized by using the principles of
group technology in design and manufacturing as well as using flexible machines and
1 software. The product flexibility of a manufacturing system in a company is a barom-
eter of its competitiveness.
!
I
i 13.1.5 Production Flexibility
I Production flexibility refers to the ability to produce a range of products without
I adding major capital equipment, even though new tooling or other resources may be
required. The product envelope, that is, the range of products that can be produced by a
I
I
manufacturing system at moderate cost and time, is determined by the process enve-
lope. The process envelope in turn is determined by the hardware and software capa-
bilities of a manufacturing system, such as variety of machines, their flexibility, the
material-handling system, and the factory information and control system. If the pro"
cess envelope is large, production flexibility enables quick introductions of new prod-
ucts or redesign of existing products without major equipment additions. However, the
greater the production flexibility, the higher will be the investment in flexible capital
equipment and software.
13.1.6 Expansion Flexibility
Expansion flexibility refers to the ability to change a manufacturing system with a
view to accommodating a changed product envelope. In the case of production flexi-
bility there is no change in the major capital equipment. In the case of expansion
flexibility there are additions as well as replacements of equipment, but these changes
are easy to make because such provisions are made in the original manufacturing
-;;";;;"-.c:'
532 Chapter J 3 Flexible Manufacturing Systems 13.2 Volume- Variety Relationships for Understanding Production Systems 533

system design. For example, automated guided vehicles can be more easily rerouted cated processing and material-handling equipment is used. The variety of pans is
than conveyors; modular design of system software makes it possible to change a
module rather than the whole system. The objectives are to reduce implementation
I limited (one or two). Production rates are high because of dedicated equipment. How-
ever, the transfer lines are expensive and inflexible from the point of view of changing
time and cost of new products, variations in current products, and changes in designs. from one product to another.

13.2 VOLUME- VARIETY RELATIONSHIPS FOR I 13.2.2 Low-Volume, High-Variety (L-H) Production System
UNDERSTANDING PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Stand-alone NC machines can produce any variety of parts. Of course, the processing
requirements of parts should be within a machine's capability. A low-volume, high-
Production systems can be classified based on the volume-variety considerations. A . variety production' system normally consists of an NC machine augmented by a part
highly flexible system permits manufacture of a high variety of parts. Two extreme buffer, a tool eh anger, a pallet changer, and so on. Such an augmented system is also
production situations are high-volume,
variety (L-H).
variety (M-M)
tems:
low-variety (H-L) and low-volume, high-
Between these two extremes there is an important mid-volume, mid-
production situation. We discuss five types of manufacturing sys-
I known as a flexible manufacturing module (Kusiak, 1985). Sometimes the tool
changer and the pallet changer can be replaced by a robot.
Remember, the variety in a parts population could be due to either changes in the
design of existing parts, new parts entering the system. or to a job-shop production

1.
2.
Transfer line
Stand-alone numerical control (NC) machine
I situation. Therefore, NC machines provide the highest ievel of flexibility to perform a
wide range of operations on a family of parts but the production rate is relatively low.
The unit costs of production are much higher than those for similar parts on a transfer
3. Manufacturing cell 1 line.
4. Special manufacturing system
5. Flexible manufacturing system 13.2.3 Mid-Volume, Mid-Variety (M-M) Production Systems
These systems cover H-L. L-H, and M-M production situations. There is an inverse Between the extremes of one or two part types produced on a transfer line and a large
relationship between variety (flexibility) and production volume as shown in Figure variety of parts produced on a stand-alone NC machine, there is an important category
13.1. of mid-volume, mid-variety parts, which constitutes approximately 75 percent of
discrete-parts manufacturing. The manufacturing system requirements for the M-·M
production are different from those of the L-H and H-L production systems. For
13.2.1 High-Volume, Low-Variety (H-L) Production System
, example, in an M-M system both flexibility and production volume are of prime
A classical example of high-volume, low-variety manufacturing system is a transfer importance, whereas flexibility to process a variety of parts is more important in an
line. It is also referred to as a fixed automation manufacturing system in which dedi- L-H system and production volume in an H-L system.
The simultaneous requirements of flexibility and production volume place more
emphasis on system integration and automation. Depending on the degree of integra-
tion and level of automation. the M--M manufactunng systems popularly known as
computer-integrated manufacturing systems can be further classified as
High lTranster
line • Manufacturing cell
• Special manufacturing system

*i • Flexible manufacturing system

CL

c;
'" Medium 13.2.3.1 Manufacturing Cell
E
g"
-~Flexible The design of manufacturing cells is based on the concepts of group technology. The
I manufacturing objective is to process some families of parts on a group of NC machines within a cell

:U -J.
I sYS~ so that the intercellular material-handling effort is minimized. The selection of parts
M~nufat:1Jturing
I for processing on machines may be both sequential and random. In a cell the NC
L _ _ _ _ ~ell
_ _
I...,,/L-_--.
r-) I machines are linked together by a direct numerical control (ONC) system. Also, the
Low I --L -- • NC machines in a manufacturing cell are often equipped with part buffers. tool
Low Medium High changers, and· pallet changers. The machines mayor may not be connected by a
Variety of parts material-handling system. A material-handling system. if used in a cell, could be a
FIGURE 13.1 Volume-variety relationships categorizing produc- handling robot, an automated guided vehicle, or a gantry robot. The type of material-
tion systems. handling equipment used decides the type of layout, that is, circular, single row, or
534 Chapter 13 FLexibLe Manufacturing Systems 13.4 What Is an FMS? 535

double row, and the cluster machine layout. The details of these layouts are given • A manufacturing cell is an FMS without central control.
in Section 13.8. The manufacturing cell is the most flexible category of computer- • More flexible than an FMS but lower production rate .
integrated manufacturing systems.
Special Manufacturing System

13.2.3.2 Special Manufacturing System • A fixed-path material-handling system links the machines together.
In a special manufactunng system the machines are laid out to manufacture a family of • Least flexible category of CIM system.
parts based on the sequence of operations. A fixed-path material-handling system links • Uses multispindle heads and low-level controller.
the machines. The parts move on the material-handling system in a sequence from
• High production rate and low unit production cost.
machine to machine. The special manufacturing system has a high production rate
because of dedication of machines based on sequence of operations and integration of Flexible Manufacturing System
machining and material-handling subsystems. The sequence-based dedication of ma- • True mid-volume, mid-variety manufacturing system consisting of a series of
chines, however, makes this one of the least flexible computer-integrated manufactur- flexible machines, automated material-handling system, automated tool
ing systems. changer, other equipment such as coordinate measuring machines, part washers,
and so on, all under high-level centralized computer control.
13.2.3.3 Flexible Manufacturing System • Permits both sequential and random routing of a wide variety of parts.
A flexible manufacturing system lies between the two extremes of a manufacturing • Higher production rate than a manufacturing cell and much higher flexibility
cell and a special manufacturing system. Accordingly, it is a true mid-volume, mid- than a special manufacturing system.
variety manufacturing system, having a higher production rate than a manufacturing
cell and much more flexibility than a special manufacturing system. There is some Let us now formally understand what an FMS is and what its physical and control
degree of overlap between these systems. In particular, an FMS is closer to a cell subsystem components are.
manufacturing system. An FMS is, however, characterized by a higher level of com-
puter control and more non-machine entities such as coordinate measuring machines,
and part washers. The key characteristics of various high- to low-volume manufactur- 13.4 WHAT IS AN FMS?
ing systems are summarized in the following section. .
An FMS is an automated, mid-volume, mid-variety, central computer-controlled
manufacturing system. It covers a wide spectrum of manufacturing activities such as
13.3 KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF machining, sheet metal working, welding, fabricating, and assembly. In an FMS,
families of parts with similar characteristics are processed. Therefore, group technol-
VARIOUS MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS ogy (GT) and consequently cellular manufacturing are significant parts of the system.
The concepts of GT and cellular manufacturing are discussed in detail in Chapter 12.
Here we provide a summary of key characteristics of various systems.
The essential physical components of the FMS are:
Transfer Line
1. Potentially independent NC machine tools capable of performing multiple
• Machines dedicated to manufacture of one or two product types; system permits functions and having automated tool interchange capabi1.ities.
no flexibility at all.
2. Automated material-handling system to move parts between machine tools and
• Maximum utilization and very high production volume. fixturing stations.
• Direct labor involvement is minimal. 3. All the components (machine tools, material-handling equipment, tool
• Low unit cost of production. changers) are hierarchically computer controlled.
4. Equipment such as coordinate measuring machines and part-washing devices.
FLexibLe Manufacturing ModuLe (Stand-Alone NC Machines)
• Highest level of flexibility; any job can be processed provided it is in the range Before machining is started on the parts, they are mounted onto fixtures. Both the
of process capability of the NC machine. parts and the fixtures are then mounted onto special pallets. The material-handling
system moves the pallets to the machining centers for processing. If a machining
• Low utilization and low production volume.
center is busy, the pallets are automatically transferred to an idle machining center,
• Unit cost of production is much higher than for a similar product manufactured thereby ensuring effective utilization of the FMS.
on a transfer line. In the following section we present a framework for understanding the components
Manufacturing Cell of an FMS. A flexible manufacturing system consists of two subsystems:
• Low to mid volume. 1. Physical subsystem
A variety of parts are manufactured in batch mode. 2. Control subsystem
536 Chapter 13 Flexible Manufacturing Systems

Line diagrams and photographs of two typical flexible manufacturing systems with
their major identifiable physical and control subsystems are shown in Figure 13.2. The
physical subsystem includes the following:
(a) Workstations consisting of NC machine tools, inspection equipment, part- (b)
washing devices, load and unload area, and work area.
(b) Storage-retrieval systems consisting of pallet stands at each workstation and
other devices such as carousels used to store parts temporarily between the
workstations or operations. An automated storage and retrieval system can
also be considered part of an FMS in a broader sense.
(c) Material-handling systems consisting of powered vehicles, towline carts,
conveyors, automated guided vehicles (AGVs), and other systems to carry
parts between workstations.
The control subsystem required to ensure optimum performance of the FMS in-
cludes the following:
I· (c)

(a) Control hardware, which includes mini- and microcomputers, programmable

logic controllers, communication networks, sensors, switching devices and
many other peripheral devices such as printers and mass storage memory
equipment.
(b) Control software consisting of a set of files and programs used to control
physical subsystems. It is important to have hardware and software compati-
bility for efficient control of the FMS.

o 0
four MII.cron T-30 CHe Machining Cenlers Automatic Wnch.n",r 110 p.llet'llor
Inlln. pIli •• queue
. _ r.UIC/llltufI build stallon

e ~O::h::~:~'[:'~'~&:,::t~:~n
computer-ctnlrolled
°dne~le:~, 0
cart
~ Three
~ computer-controlled
vi. One In'Plctlon moduli _ horlzonl.1 type
coordinate ",.nurlng machln'
4DCtntrM ""ter. computer rtom ,elevated) o FOUR MILACRON CNC MACHINING CENTERS IflOOR SPACE
RESERVEO FOR AOOING THREE MOREI
o
Cln•. with win-
0
: Thnl queul ltatlonl for tool delivery
Cl) ',Item
Clntrllll.d chlp/cool.nl co/llellon/recovery
1--- flum4 path) o FOUR TOOL INTERCHANGE SYSTEMS lONE PER MACHINE~
ONE INSPECTION MOOULE ICOOROINATE MEASURING
MACHINEI

o
guided pith ch.ln.
,,-..Cart turnaround 11.lion
COMPUTER-&ONTROLLEO TOOL DELIVERY VIA CART
o TWO AUTOMATIC WORKCHANGERS 110 PALLETS EACHI FOR
enl milln'enanee ltation O. Tool d.lInry dllln IOld/unload ltal/on (up to 380- IflUnd Itl own Ilial
o THREE REMOTELY CONTROLLEO CARTS WITH WIRE·GUIOEO
PART OVERFLOW ANO QUEUE

-.
o Partl WISh Itallon, automatic handling G Four Plrt ItId/unkJad It.tionl I e I
o
PATH
o RAISEO OFFICE ICART PATH UNOERI

• TWO LOAO/UNLOAO. CLEAN/ORIENT STATIONS WITH

COOLANT/CHIP HANOllNG o CART MAINTENANCE STATION
0_

J&
~
o
~ (d)
1

~
e
FIGURE /3.2 (a) Line diagram of an FMS used by Cincinnati Milacron Plastics Machinery
Division; (b) photograph of FMS shown in (a); (c) line diagram of FMS used by FMC Corpora-
tion; (d) photograph of FMS shown in (c) (Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron). FIGURE J 3.2 (continued)

537
538 Chapter 13 Flexible Manufacturing Systems 13.5 Basic Features of Physical Components of an FMS 539

13.5 BASIC FEATURES OF PHYSICAL
COMPONENTS OF AN FMS
A brief description of basic features of physical components of an FMS is given next.
13.5.1 Numerical Control Machine Tools
The major building blocks of an FMS are machine tools. They determine the degree of
flexibility and capabilities of the FMS. We discuss some of the characteristics of
machine tools used in an FMS.
1. The majority of FMSs use horizontal and vertical spindle machines. Machining
centers with vertical spindle machines offer less flexibility than horizontal machining
centers.
2. Machining centers with numerical control of movements in up to five axes (that is,
spindle movements in X-, y-, and z-directions, rotation of table, and tilting of table
toward the column) are available. Movements in more axes mean more flexibility but
higher cost. Ne machining centers with three, four, and five axes are shown in Figure
13.3.
3. The machining centers have the flexibility of performing a wide variety of opera-
tions, from simple turning to hole drilling to five-axis contouring. The shape (rota-
tional and prismatic) of parts, accuracy requirements, weight, and so forth would
determine the type of machining center suitable for an FMS. For example, the power
and the work envelope are determined by the shape and weight of parts. Other fac-
tors affecting the choice of a machining center are its compatibility with the material-
handling and storage systems. This is an important consideration in FMSs because the
machining centers are equipped with pallet exchangers interfacing with material-
handling devices that carry the pallets within and between machining centers as well as
automated storage and retrieval systems.

FIGURE 13.3 (a)" Numerically controlled horizontal spindle machining centers: three axes. FIGURE J 3.3 (b) Numerically controlled horizontal spindle machining centers: four axes.
(Courtesy of Guiddings & Lewis.) (Courtesy of Guiddings & Lewis.)
540 Chapter 13 Flexible Manufacturing Systems 13.5 Basic Features of Physical Components of an FMS 541

13.5.2 Worl~holding and Tooling Considerations 4. All the machining centers are equipped with tool storage systems known as tool
magazines. Common types of tool magazines, as shown in Figure 13.4, are:
Effective utilization of a flexible manufacturing system depends on the workholding
(fixtures and pallets), tooling, tool storage and tool changers, tool identification sys- • J?isk type
tems, coolant.rand chip removal systems. FMS-specific fixturing considerations are: • Drum type
• Turret type
1. Fixtures must be designed to minimize part-handling time. Modular fixturing is an
attractive way to fixture a variety of parts quickly.
• Chain type

2. Before machining is started on the parts, they are mounted on fixtures. Both the
parts and the fixtures are then mounted on special pallets. This may lead to error
buildup in the part-to-fixture, fixture-to-pallet, and pallet-to-machining center steps
and render some of the parts out of tolerance. To reduce the error buildup problem,
some fixtures should be pinned to the pallets.
3. Part variety considerations in FMSs lead to high usage of fixtures. Management
strategies must be evolved for identification, storage, and retrieval of fixtures and their
integration with the automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS) and material-
handling systems such as AGVS.
An optimal tool management strategy should include duplication of the most often
used tools in the tool magazines, quick tool changers, tool regrinding, tool mainte-
I nance, and provision of spares. Types of tool management strategies are discussed in
Section 13.7.1.5. .
I. 13.5.3 Material-Handling Equipment
! Depending on the nature and variety of parts, the material-handling systems used in
I flexible manufacturing systems are robots, conveyors, automated guided vehicle sys-
iI tems, and many other specially designed systems for customized FMS. The most
important consideration in selecting a material-handling system should be integration

I,

(b)
(c)
(a)

t
(d)

(e)

FIGURE 13.4 Various types of tool magazines: (a) disk type, (b) drum type, (c) turret type,
(d) chain type, and (e) chain type. (Kusiak, Andrew: Intelligent Manufacturing Systems. ® 1990,
FIGURE 13.3 (c) Numerically controlled horizontal spindle machining centers: five axes. Figure 2.23, p. 40, reprinted by permission of Prentice Hall lnc., Englewood Cliffs. NJ.)
(Courtesy of Guiddings & Lewis.)
 13.5 Basic Features of Physical Components of an FMS
541
540 . Chapter 13 Flexible Manufacturing Systems

4. All the machining centers are equipped with tool storage systems known as tool
13.5.2 Workholding and Tooling Considerations
magazines. Common types of tool magazines, as shown in Figure 13.4, are:
Effective utilization of a flexible manufacturing system depends on the workholding
(fixtures and pallets), tooling, tool storage and tool ch angers, tool identification sys- • Disk type
tems, coolant.rand chip removal systems. FMS-specific fixturing considerations are: • Drum type
• Turret type
1. Fixtures must be designed to minimize part-handling time. Modular fixturing is an
attractive way to fixture a variety of parts quickly.
• Chain type

2. Before machining is started on the parts, they are mounted on fixtures. Both the
parts and the fixtures are then mounted on special pallets. This may lead to error
buildup' in the part-to-fixture, fixture-to-pallet, and pallet-to-machining center steps
and render some of the parts out of tolerance. To reduce the error buildup problem,
some fixtures should be pinned 1.0 the pallets.
3. Part variety considerations in FMSs lead to high usage of fixtures. Management
strategies must be evolved for identification, storage, and retrieval of fixtures and their
integration with the automated storage and retrieval system (AS/RS) and material-
handling systems such as AGVS.
An optimal tool management strategy should include duplication of the most often
used tools in the tool magazines, quick tool changers, tool regrinding, tool mainte-
nance, and provision of spares. Types of tool management strategies are discussed in
Section 13.7.1.5.
13.5.3 Material-Handling Equipment
Depending on the nature and variety of parts, the material-handling systems used in
flexible manufacturing systems are robots, conveyors, automated guided vehicle sys-
tems, and many other specially designed systems for customized FMS. The most
important consideration in selecting a material-handling system should be integration

(cl
(a) (b)

t
(dl

(e)

FIGURE /3.4 Various types of tool magazines: (a) disk type, (b) drum type, (c) turret type,
(d) chain type, and (e) chain type. (Kusiak, Andrew: Intelligent Manufacturing Systems, ® 1990,
Figure 2.23, p. 40, reprinted by permission or Prentiee Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)
FIGURE 13.3 (c) Numerically controlled horizontal spindle machining eenters: five axes.

1~·..... ~.o.u.rt.e.s.y.O.f.G.U.i.d.d.~.g.S.&.L.e.W.~.J.~
••••••••••••• ~'~~ •• ~ •• i"~•• ~'j-~'
•••• ~ ---~M"-.-1M.rt&8wme*ftm+~='$'
542 Chapter 13 Flexible Manufacturing
FIGURE 13.4 (f) Photograph of a chain-type too) magazine. (Courtesy ofGuiddings
with the machining ccnters and the storage and retrieval systems together with an
efficient identification system. The full potential of a material-handling system can-
not be realized without having a bar-coding system to identify raw materials, work-in-
process, finished parts, tools, fixtures, and pallets in different locations. Various types
of material-handling systems are discussed in Chapter 7.
13.5.4 Inspection Equipment
The distinguishing feature of FMSs is integration of the inspection equipment with the
machining centers such as probing machining centers. Coordinate measuring ma-
chines (CMMs) are three-dimensional devices used for off-line inspection and pro-
grammed to measure concentricity, perpendicularity, and flatness of surfaces and hole
dimensions. (See Chapter 9 for a detailed discussion of CMMs.)
13.5.5 Other Components
Environmental considerations require that there is a central coolant and chip separa-
tion system with the capability of recovering the coolant. The FMS has deburring and
cleaning stations. The combination of parts, fixtures, and pallets must be cleaned to
remove dirt and chips before operations and inspections.
13.6 BASIC FEATURES
OF CONTROL COMPONENTS OF AN FMS
Flexible manufacturing systems are designed and developed to meet specific customer
requirements. These requirements dictate that the system:
Systems 13.6 Basic Features of Control Components of an FMS 543
• Is flexible enough to produce the quantities and varieties of parts desired by the
customer.
• Has the ability to transfer parts automatically to other machining centers in case
of system failures or systems being busy.
Manufacturing a variety of parts involves real-time coordination of various subsys-
tems such as parts, pallets, fixtures, machine tools, tools, material handling, and stor-
age. There could be a number of variations in developing a control system for an FMS
to organize, coordinate, and control these functions. In this section we provide a basic
framework for developing a control system for a flexible manufacturing system (Dun-
lap, 1984; May, 1986; Maleki, 1991). Accordingly, we divide the total manufacturing
control activity into the following control fu~ctions:
1. Work-order processing and part control system
2. Machine-tool control system including inspection machines
3. Tool management and control system
4. Traffic management control system
5. Quality control management system
& Lewis.)
6. Maintenance control system
7. Management control system
8. Interfacing of these subsystems with central computer
13.6.1 Work-Order Processing and Part Control System
The work-order processing and part control system is the system that essentially drives
other control systems. The basic information used in the part control system is con-
tained in a number of files. For example, a part identification file contains the infor-
mation about the part name and the number of parts required. For each part, the part
routing file contains information such as number of operations, alternate machining
centers on which these operations can be done, names of part program files, machine
identification files, tools required, operation time and operating cost, and sequence
selection options. The manufacturing instruction file, also known as the part program
file, contains ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) or EIA
(Electronic Industries Association) program data in CNC format for each machining
operation. The part setup file contains information on fixturing and palletizing of parts.
The part control system consists of a number of modules. For example, the part
process planning module creates a process plan using information from the part identi-
fication, part routing, and program files. The process plan and the part routing modules
are used to control the part movements in an FMS. The part setup module in conjunc-
tion with part identification controls the fixturing and palletization of parts.
13.6.2 Machine-Tool Control System
The machine-tool control system has a number of modules such as a DNC transmitter,
NC editor, and machine monitor and control modules. The NC tape image of a part is
transmitted to the machine tool by the DNC transmitter control module. The NC editor
permits manual editing as well as creation of a new version of the tapes at the machine
tool. Error monitoring and correction during the cutting process, including starting and
stopping the machine tools, are controlled by the machine monitor and control module.
542 Chapter J3 Flexible Manufacturing
FIGURE 13.4 (f) Photograph of a chain-type tool magazine. (Courtesy ofGuiddings
with the machining centers and the storage and retrieval systems together with an
efficient identification system. The full potential of a material-handling system can-
not be realized without having a bar-coding system to identify raw materials, work-in-
process, finished parts, tools, fixtures, and pallets in different locations. Various types
of material-handling systems are discussed in Chapter 7.
13.5.4 Inspection Equipment
The distinguishing feature of FMSs is integration of the inspection equipment with the
machining centers such as probing machining centers. Coordinate measuring ma-
chines (CMMs) are three-dimensional devices used for off-line inspection and pro-
grammed to measure concentricity, perpendicularity, and flatness of surfaces and hole
dimensions. (See Chapter 9 for a detailed discussion of CMMs.)
13.5.5 Other Components
Environmental considerations ·require that there is a central coolant and chip separa-
tion system with the capability of recovering the coolant. The FMS has deburring and
cleaning stations. The combination of parts, fixtures, and pallets must be cleaned to
remove dirt and chips before operations and inspections.
13.6 BASIC FEATURES
OF CONTROL COMPONENTS OF AN FMS
Flexible manufacturing systems are designed and developed to meet specific customer
requirements. These requirements dictate that the system:
Systems /3.6 Basic Features of Control Components of an FMS 543
• Is flexible enough to produce the quantities and varieties of parts desired by the
customer.
• Has the ability to transfer parts automatically to other machining centers in case
of system failures or systems being busy.
Manufacturing a variety of parts involves real-time coordination of various subsys-
tems such as parts, pallets, fixtures, machine tools, tools, material handling, and stor-
age. There could be a number of variations in developing a control system for an FMS
to organize, coordinate, and control these functions. In this section we provide a basic
framework for developing a control system for a flexible manufacturing system (Dun-
lap, 1984; May, 1986; Maleki, 1991). Accordingly, we divide the total manufacturing
control activity into the following control functions:
1. Work-order processing and part control system
2. Machine-tool control system including inspection machines
3. Tool management and control system
4. Traffic management control system
5. Quality control management system
& Lewis.)
6. Maintenance control system
7. Management control system
8. Interfacing of these subsystems with central computer
13.6.1 Work-Order Processing and Part Control System
The work-order processing and part control system is the system that essentially drives
other control systems. The basic information used in the part control system is con-
tained in a number of files. For example, a part identification file contains the infor-
mation about the part name and the number of parts required. For each part, the part
routing file contains information such as number of operations, alternate machining
centers on which these operations can be done, names of part program files, machine
identification files, tools required, operation time and operating cost, and sequence
selection options. The manufacturing instruction file, also known as the part program
file, contains ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) or EIA
(Electronic Industries Association) program data in CNC format for each machining
operation. The part setup file contains information on fixturing and palletizing of parts.
The part control system consists of a number of modules. For example, the part
process planning module creates a process plan using information from the part identi-
fication, part routing, and program files. The process plan and the part routing modules
are used to control the part movements in an FMS. The part setup module in conjunc-
tion with part identification controls the fixturing and palletization of parts.
13.6.2 Machine-Tool Control System
The machine-tool control system has a number of modules such as a ONC transmitter,
NC editor, and machine monitor and control modules. The NC tape image of a part is
transmitted to the machine tool by the DNC transmitter control module. The NC editor
permits manual editing as well as creation of a new version of the tapes at the machine
tool. Error monitoring and correction during the cutting process, including starting and
stopping the machine tools, are controlled by the machine monitor and control module.
- ...•...-~. -
544 Chapter 13 Flexible Manufacturing
13.6.3 Tool Management and Control System
One of the distinguishing features of an FMS is the tool magazine. which holds a large
number of tools. The tool magazine capacity is an influential factor in determining the
flexibility of the system. A proper tool management and control system is needed to
control the processing of parts and enhance the flexibility to manufacture variety of
parts. Tool identification, tool setup, and .tool routing are accomplished by the tool
management and control system. Tool replacement strategies can also be part of such a
controlsystem. Details of various tool replacement strategies are given in later sec-
tions.
13.6.4 Traffic Management Control System
The material handling and storage control system coordinates part routing, fixtures,
pallets, and tool modules with the objective of tracking the destination of parts for
successive operations on machining centers. In addition, it records .and controls the
storage and retrieval of parts, tools, fixtures, and pallets for quick availability.
13.6.5 Quality Control Management System
The quality control management system is an important module of an FMS control
system. The capabilities of the system include collection, storage, retrieval, and ar-
chiving of workpiece inspection data. The inspection programs for the workpieces are
created at the coordinate measuring machines. These programs are then uploaded to
the FMS computer for storage and retrieval of data.
13.6.6 Maintenance Control System
The maintenance control system, also known as the service control system, is a kind of
help menu. In the event of alarms due to problems in the operation of the machining
centers and other equipment and systems, on-line help is available through this system.
13.6.7 Management Control System
The management control system is designed to provide the management status of
output performance. It consists of a number of modules that coordinate with various
other systems, including a provision for manual scheduling and control, scheduling of
parts based on their requirements available from the material requirements planning
(MRP) system, and reportgeneration on output statistics of parts. A number of control
architectures are possible, depending on the complexity of an FMS. However, the
management control system provides a direct link into the corporate system database.
This helps provide management information on the status of the system on a real-time
basis.
13.6.8 Interfacing of These Subsystems
with the Central Computer
The complete FMS control system can be linked with the company's corporate com-
puter. The objective is to integrate the FMS subsystem with other subsystems such as
finance, marketing, and personnel.
Systems 13.7 Operational Problems in FMS 545
13.7 OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS IN FMS
The operational problems in FMS concern detailed decision making on a short-term
planning horizon. The following problems must be solved:
• Part selection and tool management
• Fixture and pallet selection
• Machine grouping and loading, considering part and tool assignments
I
i
13.7.1 Part Type Selection and Tool Management Problems
This problem concerns the determination of a subset of part types from a set of part
I types for processing. A number of criteria can be used for selecting a set of part types
l'
for immediate processing. For example, due date is an important consideration. Lim-
ited availability of tools on the tool magazine and different requirements of tools by
part types complicate the process of part type selection in FMSs. A number of mathe-
I matical programming models and heuristics for part type selection have been devel-
oped (Hwang, 1936; Rajgopalan, 1986) considering tool magazine limitations. Two
II basic approaches (Stecke and Kim, 1988) for part type selection have been proposed:
the batching approach and the flexible approach.
13.7.1.1 The Hatching Approach
In the batching approach, part types are partitioned into separate sets called batches.
The selected part types in a particular batch are manufactured continuously until all the
production requirements are completed. Then for processing the next batch, the system
setup and the tool changeover time consists of removing all the tools not required by
the current batch and loading new tools required to perform all the operations for all
the part types of the next scheduled batch. Most FMS users and researchers have
followed a batching approach, because it results in lower frequency of tool change-
overs and is easier to implement in real systems.
13.7.1.2 The Flexible Approach
The flexible approach, suggested by Stecke and Kim (1986), works as follows. When
the production requirements of some part types are finished, space becomes available
in the tool magazine. New part types may be introduced into the system for immediate
and simultaneous processing if this input can help increase utilization of the system.
This approach, however, requires more frequent tool changes. Stecke and Kim (1988)
have reported a simulation study comparing a number of batching approaches and the
flexible approach to part type selection. The major finding was that the flexible ap-
proach tends to make the system more highly utilized.
In the following section we present two simple mathematical programming models
for maximizing the number of part types in a batch (that is. minimizing the number of
batches for given part types).
13.7.1.3 Hwang's Integer Programming Model
The following notation is used:
i =
1,2, ... ,N = part types
c =I, 2, . . . ,C = CUllingtool types
t = tool magazine capacity
546 Chapter 13 Flexible Manufacturing Systems 13] Operational Problems in FMS 547

b = {I if part type i requires tool c TABLE 13.1 Part Types and Required Tools
<C 0 otherwise
Part types PI P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8
de = number of tool slots required to hold cutting tool c in a tool magazine of
Types of tools required tl t2 t3 t4 tl, t2 t3, t5 t6 tl, t2, t7
each machine
·z. =
,
{I if part type i is selected in the batch
0 otherwise TABLE 13.2 Tool Types and Required Slots

Ye
= {I if cutting tool c is loaded on a machine
0 otherwise
Tool types
Number of slots required
/1
1
12
I
/3
1
t4
1
/5
J
16
2
--/7
2

In this model, z, and Ye are the decision variables. We consider a system of identical
1
, i
machines (all of the same type). In that case, This model is myopic and ignores the potential for more tool sharing among parts.
'Although the first batch has more part types-this can lead to a larger than necessary
Maximize L z, total number of batches to produce all part types. For example, part type 8, which
requires all the tools required by part types I, 2, and 5, should be grouped with them.

subject to: L deYe :5 t (13.1) 13.7.1.4 Stecke and Kim Extension of Hwang's Model
Stecke and Kim (1988) modified the objective function of Hwang' s model by incor-
porating the number of tool slots required for all operations for each part type as a
b'ez, :5 Ye all i, c (13.2) coefficient. With this modification, the objective function aims to select early the part·
types with the largest number of required tools. This permits the consideration of more
z, = 0 or I all i (13.3) tool overlaps. The modified model is

Ye = 0 or I all c (13.4) Maximize ~ (~ biede )z,

The objective function maximizes the number of part types in a batch. Subsequent
batches, if any, are formed by repeatedly solving the problem after deleting already
subject to: L s.v. :5 t (13.5)

selected part types from the model. Tool magazine capacity is considered for each
machine type by constraint (13.1). Constraint (13.2) ensures that if a part type is b'ez, :5 Ye all i, c (13.6)
selected, all cutting tools required for all operations of the selected part types are
loaded into the tool magazine on each machine. Constraints (13.3) and (13.4) define z, = 0 or I all i (13.7)
zero-one variables.
Yek = 0 or I all c (13.8)

EXAMPLE 13.1 EXAMPLE 13.2

Consider the simple example of eight part types and the corresponding required tools given in Using the data in Example 13.1, solve the Stecke and Kim model and determine the optimal
Table 13.1 for processing on a flexible manufacturing module. The number of slots required by number of batches of part types selected,
each tool is given in Table 13.2. The tool magazine capacity is limited to 5 tool slots. Determine
the batches of part types selected. Solution
This model differs from that of Hwang's model only in the objective function. The objective
Solution function for this problem is given in Appendix A of this chapter. The model yields two batches
The detailed formulation of this example is given in Appendix A of this chapter. The solution of as follows:
this integer programming model yields the following batches of part types selected:
Batch I: PI, P2, P3, P5, P8
Batch 1: PI. P2. P3, P4, P5, P6 Batch 2: P4, P6, P7
Batch 2: P7
The number of batches is now reduced to two, compared with three obtained with Hwang's
Batch 3: P8 model. This reduction in batches has a tremendous influence on the performance of an FMS,
because it will lead to a considerable reduction in setup time.
548 Chapter J3 Flexible Manufacturing Systems -.
'"c:..

13.7.1.5 Tool Allocation Policies

Tooling is estimated to account for about 20 percent of the cost of new manufacturing :::!:
c:..
systems and it may be much higher in the case of an FMS (Tomek, 1986). Further-
more. increased numbers of tooling components and their application requirements
hinder the productivity of FMSs. Therefore, it is important to design a tool manage-
""
ment and control system so that the proper tools are available at the right machines at ~
the desired times for processing of the scheduled parts. The tool magazine capacity,
which is typically 30, 60, or 120 slots in commercial flexible manufacturing systems,
constrains the number of tools mounted on a machine. This limits the number of parts ~c:..
that can be processed on a machine without reloading the tools. A number of tool
allocation strategies have been investigated (Amoako-Gyampah et al., 1992) to im-
prove FMS productivity, such as:

1. Bulk exchange policy

_1-
•....
c:..
_ ". --
2. Tool migration policy
3. Resident tooling policy :2c:..
4. Tool sharing policy

Bulk Exchange Policy In this tool allocation policy, for each planning period, a new
set of tools is mounted on the tool magazine to process the parts in that planning
.,
0,' c:..
0\

period. Every tool allocation policy also determines the batch sizes of parts. For ~
,..
example, in the bulk exchange tooling policy, each time a part is assigned to a machine
the tools required by that part are assigned to the tool magazine. The assignment of
tools continues for other parts until the tool magazine is full. The assigned part types
thus form the batch to be processed for that period. The number of tools should be
~I'a r-,
c:..
sufficient to process the parts, as no replacement of tools occurs during the production
window.
'0
c:..
Tool Migration Policy In terms of part routing, this policy is quite similar to the bulk
exchange policy. However, the tools are replaced once the parts are processed to make
room for tools for processing other parts. In this system, tool changing and shuttling V")
,c:..
are accomplished by the material-handling robot that is used to remove and place parts .!S '
within the machining centers.
.::
'"
Resident Tooling Policy The resident tooling policy aims at forming clusters of dif- il
~
I~
ferent combinations of tools representing similar processing requirements of parts with 1::
the objective of keeping these clusters permanently at various machines. Tool changes
occur only when a particular tool reaches the end of its scheduled life. ·Ease of tool
~I
-e
1'"2.
condition monitoring and easy identi fication of tools for replacements are some of the ='"
benefits of this policy. ••Po
~I I~
g
Eo-<

EXAMPLE 13.3 ~I
....; I~
Illustration of Tool Resident Policy •....•

~ .!:l
Consider the matrix of tools required to process parts as given in Table 13.3. Only two machin-
ing centers are available. Develop a resident tooling policy consisting of two groups of tools to
be mounted on two machining centers. Use the concepts of production flow analysis.
~I c
~1::~c;}~'D~~~~

549
550 Chapter 13 Flexible Manufacturing Systems 13.7 Operational Problems in FMS 551

Solution
The solution process is similar to the part machine cell formation approach as given in Chapter
12. Using similarity coefficients between the tools and the single-linkage cluster analysis ap-
proach, we obtain two groups of tools that can be permanently mounted un two machining
centers to process the parts as follows:
3. EDD rule. This part-type selection rule is based on assigning higher priority to
parts with the earliest due date. In a survey of 22 FMS users in the United States in
19'85, Smith et al. (1986) observed that due date considerations in the selection of parts
are important from the customer satisfaction point of view. The results are compared in
Table 13.4.

Machining Centers Tools Parts

It is observed from Table 13.4 that different strategies of tool management provide
different results based on selection rules and performance criteria. furthermore, the
First (t I, t2, t5, (6) (PI, P3, P5, P6, PlO, PII. PI3, PIS)
performance of the FMS depends not only on the availability of machines and the tool
Second (t3, t4, o, t8, (9) (P2, P4, P7, P8, P9, PI2, P14) magazine capacity but also on the availability of the robotic tool-changing unit. An-
other interesting observation is that the migration and resident policies result in higher
robot utilization than the bulk exchange and sharing policies because of higher fre-
Tool-Sharing Policy The tool-sharing policy is a kind of hybrid of the bulk exchange quency of tool changes with the former policies, The migration policy also provides
and resident tooling policies. Tools are resident on machines based on tool clustering. better performance on flow times, tardiness, and the percentage of jobs tardy than the
Whenever a new part enters the system, it is identified with a part family and then, sharing policy. Therefore, minimization of the frequency of tool changes should not
based on its routing and tooling requirements, the tool-sharing arrangement is made on always be the overriding concern.
the machines.
Assignment of parts to machines is done randomly in the bulk exchange and migra-
tion policies, whereas the specific parts are assigned to specific machines based on the
availability of tooling on those groups.
I 13.7.2 Fixture and Pallet Selection Problem
The use of palletized parts in FMSs is one of the most important factors in the integra-
tion of machines, material-handling equipment, and in-process storage facilities. A
fixture provides a fixed orientation of the part and can be configured for a part or
Comparison of Various Tooling Strategies Amoako-Gyampah et at. (1992) com-
family of parts. The geometry of parts governs the type of fixture suitable for the part
pared four tooling strategies by simulating an FMS consisting of five machining
types. For example, rotational and prismatic parts would require different fixturing
centers each capable of processing every part and having a tool magazine capacity
considerations. Because the pallets moving the fixtured parts interface with the ma-
of 30 slots, a transporter to move parts from one station to another, and a robotic
chine tools, material-handling equipment, in-process storage facilities, and load-
material-handling system to load and unload parts and change CUlling tools. The FMS
unload stations, the selection of fixtures and pallets must be compatible with these
processes a total of 25 different pan types. of which 14 have production requirements
systems. The fixture and pallet selection problem can be considered as a subset of the
for every production window of 24 hours.
part selection problem. The approximate number of pallets required can be estimated
Five measures of performance were used in the study:
using the following equation:
I. Mean flow time of parts representing the average time a part spends in the
system (parts required per shift) x
2.
(average pallet cycle time)
Mean tardiness of parts representing the average lateness of all late jobs Number of pallets = ------=:..,-:'------,:.-----,-:,---
3. Percentage of jobs that are tardy (planned production time per shift) x
4. Average utilization of machines (number of parts per pallet)
5. Average utilization of the robotic system

The following three part-type selection heuristics were used: TABLE 13.4 Comparison of Four Tooling Strategies
Part-type selection rules
1. LNT heuristic. This part-type selection rule, due to Rajgopalan (J 986), is based Measures Largest Smallest Earliest
on assigning higher priority to the part types requiring the largest number of tools of number of number of due
(LNT) for processing. The rationale of the rule is that starting with the part that performance tools (LNT) tools (SNT) date (EDD)
requires the largest number of tools ensures a minimum number of tool changes on the
Mean flow time (MFf) B-M-S-R* B-M-S-R B-M-S-R
machine. Minimization of tool changes means improvements in machine utilization. Mean tardiness (TO) B-M-S-R B-M-S-R B-M-S-R
2. SNT heuristic. This part-type selection rule, due to Hwang (1986), is based on Percent jobs tardy (pJT) B-S-M-R B-S-M-R B-S-M-R
assigning higher priority to the parts requiring the smallest number of tools (SNT) for Average machine utilization (AMU) M-B-R-S M-B-S-R M-B-R-S
Robot utilization (RU) R-M-B-S R-M-B-S R-M-B-S
processing. This rule permits the selection of a large number of part types into one
batch, thus minimizing the number of batches. Minimizing the number of batches • B represents bulk, M migration, S sharing. and R resident tooling policies. The order B-M-S-R repre-
reduces the idle time, leading to higher utilization of the machines. sents the order or decreasing performance.
552 Chapter J3 Flexible Manufacturing Systems J 3.8 Layout Considerations 553

The pallet cycle time is the time span from the entry of a part into a loading station grinding machines. together, and so forth. A manufacturing system with large lots, less
until the part leaves an unloading station. This cycle time depends on a number of . variety, special-purpose machines, and more mechanization is known as a flow shop.
operational issues such as scheduling rules and processing times. If the number of In a flow shop the machines are laid out in a line, so the layout is known as a product
pallets obtained from this equation is a fractional number, the next higher integer (or linej-Iayout. A transfer line producing a gearbox is a typical example. The GT
number may be selected. layout combines both product and process layouts.
In an FMS the principles of GT are used to form part families. An analysis of over
50 flexible manufacturing systems (Heragu and Kusiak, 1988) shows that the layout of
machines to process part families in an FMS is determined by the type of material-
EXAMPLE 13.4 handling equipment used. In this section, we discuss five types of layouts based on the
use of material-handling equipment.
Consider the following data available from a simulation study:
Parts required per shift = 20 13.8.1 Linear Single- and Double-Row Machine Layout
Average pallet cycle time = 120 min
Automated guided vehicle systems are becoming common material-handling systems.
Planned production time per shift = 480 min An AGV is most efficient when the movement is in a straight line. Accordingly, the
Number of parts per pallet = machines are arranged in straight lines along the AGV path as shown in Figure 13.5a
and b.
Solution
Using the formula given in Section 13.7.2, the number of pallets required = (20 x 120)/
480 = 5.
13.8.2 Circular Machine Layout
If a handling robot is used in an FMS cell, the machines are laid out in a circle. The
13.7.3 Machine Grouping and Loading Problems robot envelope essentially determines the arrangement of machines (Browne et aI.,
1984), as shown in Figure 13.5e.
The machine grouping and loading problem refers to grouping of machines and allo-
cation of operations and tools required for the selected part types among the machine
groups subject to technological and capacity constraints of the machines in an FMS.
There could be a number of allocation criteria for loading problems in an FMS (Stecke
13.8.3 Cluster Machine Layout
and Solberg, 1981), such as: The cluster type of layout, shown in Figure 13.5d, uses gantry robots to transfer parts
among the machines. The layout considerations are the size of the machines, the
I. Balance the assigned machine processing times.
working envelope of the gantry robot, and the access of the robot arm to the machines.
2. Minimize the number of movements from machine to machine.
3. Balance the workload per machine for a system 01" groups of pooled machines
of equal sizes.
13.8.4 Loop Layout
4. Unbalance the workload per machine for a system of groups of pooled ma-
chines of unequal sizes. The loop layout uses a conveyor system that allows only unidirectional flow of parts
5. Fill the tool magazines as densely as possible. around the loop. A secondary material-handling system is provided at each works ta-
tion and permits the flow of parts without any obstruction. Many other variations of the
6. Maximize the number of weighted operations assigned to the machines.
loop layout are possible. For example, a ladder layout contains rungs on which work-
Treatment of these problems is mathematically involved and is beyond the scope of stations are located; an open-field layout consists of loops, ladders, and sidings.
this book.

13.8.5 A Model for the Single-Row Machine Layout Problem

13.8 LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS In this section we present an analytical model for the single-row machine layout
problem based on Neghabat (1974), Heragu and Kusiak (1988), and Kusiak (1990).
One of the important design characteristics of manufacturing systems is layout. For
The machines are arranged in a straight line. The objective is to determine the non-
example, a job shop is characterized by a large variety of parts, general-purpose
overlapping optimal sequence of machines such that total cost of making the required
machines, and a functional layout (also known as process layout). In functional layout
trips between machines is minimized. Consider the following notation:
the machines are collected by function-that is, all milling machines together, all
554 Chapter 13 Flexible Manufacturing Systems ]3,8 Layout Considerations 555

[~~'IG
m = number of machines
Ml I IM4,
= frequency trips between all pairs of machines (frequency matrix) for all (i, j),
fij
ii=j
-1,".-'~ _: __
'AG~ _. cij = material-handling
(i, j), i i= j
cost per unit distance between all pairs of machines for all

B r~~JIM~]
l, = length of ith machine
1"_~5:1 L~~lI Mii] I M8 dij
Xj
= clearance between machines i and j
= distance of jth machine from the vertical reference line as shown in the Figure
(a) (b)
13,6,

Mll
8 I'~~J - ,
I M4
Minimize Z =" ~
m-I

.LJ ~ LJ
;= 1
m

j=i+ 1
c ..~·Ix· -
I)Ji) I Xjl (13.9)

%>B<s> subject to:

Hii + Ij) + dij for all i, i = 1,2,. , m - I,

I :M6.J
~ ~ ·cr·
IXi - Xj' ~
(13.10)
MS LM;j M5 and j = i + 1, ., m

Xi~ 0 for all i = 1, ' . . ,m (13.11)

Loading Unloading
(c) (d)
,
'-
Equation (13'.9) represents the total cost of trips between machines. The constraint
(13.10) ensures that there is no overlap between the machines. The non-negativity
constraints are given by (13.11). The absolute terms in the model can easily be trans-

I formed, resulting in an equivalent linear integer programming model. Although the

model can be solved using standard linear programming packages, we provide a sim-

I ple heuristic algorithm in the following section.

13.8.6 Heuristic Algorithm for Circular and

Linear Single-Row Machine Layouts
The following heuristic algorithm, due to Heragu and Kusiak (1988), provides the
sequence in which machines are placed in the layout. The objective is to sequence the
machines so that the material-handling effort is minimized. This is done by arranging
the machines according to the product of frequency of trips and the cost of material
handling per-unit distance traveled per trip made by the material-handling equipment
1 Unload station 6 Vertical dri 11
2 Load station 7 Milling machine
(robot or AGV).
3 Boring mill -8 Wash station
4 Lathe with robot handling 9 Inspection station
5 Horizontal machining center 10 Conveyor system
(e)

FIGURE 13,5 FMS layouts: (a) linear single-row machine layout; (b) double-row machine
layout; (c) circular machine layout; (d) cluster machine layout; (e) loop machine layout.

f--l -+dij+-l -1
i j

FIGURE J 3.6 Machine location relative to reference line.

 557
J 3.8 Layout Considerations
556 Chapter /3 Flexible Manufacturing Systems

TABLE 13,7 Clearance Matrix

Data Required
2 3 4 5
/
• Number of machines. m
2 I I I
• Frequency of trips between all pairs of machines (frequency matrix),fl}' for all I 0
I 2 2
(i,j), i =! 2
3
2
I
0
I 0 I 2
• Material-handling cost per unit distance between all pairs of machines, for all 2 I 0 I
cl}
4 I
(i,), i *) 5 I 2 2 I 0

Step 1: From the frequency and cost matrices, determine the adjusted flow
matrix as follows:
TABLE 13.8 The Machine Dimensions
M4 M5
F = [fu] = [!.jCu] Machine MJ M2 M3
20 X 30 20 X 20 25 X 15
10 X 10 15 X IS
Step 2: Determine /"1' = max[fl}' for all i !1nd )]. Obtain the partial solut.ion . Machine Sizes
by connecting i' and)'. Setfi'1' = 11,,, = - 00,
Step 3: Determine
Solution
fp''!' = max[fi'k>fj'/: k = 1,2, ' . ,m; I = 1,2, . , . ,m] Step 1: Determine the adjusted flow matrix as follows:

Step 3.1: Connect q' to p' and add q' to the partial solution.
2 3 4 5
Step 3.2: Delete row p' and column p' from [/'1]'
40 490 250 90
Step 3.3: If p' = i'. set i' = q'; otherwise, set j' = q': 1 0
0 10 160 30
Repeat step 3 until all the machines are included in the solution. 2 40
Step 4: 0 18 42
3 490 10
160 18 0 105
4 250
30 42 105 0
5 90
EXAMPLE 13.5

Include machines 1 and 3 in the partial solution, as they are connected,

Step 2:
Consider that there are five machines in a flexible manufacturing system to be served by an
Add machine 4 to the partial solution, as it is connected to machine I. Delete row I
automated guided vehicle, A Iinear single-row layout is recommended because of the use of an Step 3:
AGY. The data on the frequency of AGY trips, material handling costs per unit distance. and and column I.
clearance between the machines are given in Tables 13.5. 13.6, 13,7, and 13.8, Suggest a Add machine 2 to the partial solution. as it is connected to machine 4, Delete row
Step 3:
suitable layout. and column 4 from the matrix,
Step 3: Add machine 5 to the partial solution.
Because all the machines are connected, stop, The final sequence is 5. 2,4. I, 3. It
TABLe /3.5 Frequency of Trips between Pairs of Step 4:
is obtained by arranging the adjusted flow weights in increasing order while re-
Machines
taining the connectivity of the machines, Accordingly, the final layout considering
2 3 4 5 the clearances between the machines is as shown in Figure 13,7,
1 0 20 70 50 30
2 20 0 10 40 15
3 70 10 0 18 21
4 50 40 18 0 35
5 30 15 21 35 0 ~-----------
TABLE 13.6 Cost Matrix
2 3 4 5
M5
1 0 2 7 5 3
2 2 0 I 4 2
3 7 I 0 I 2 --l 2 2
4 5 4 I 0 3
3 2 2 3 0 FIGURE 13.7 Final layout of the linear single-row machine problem.
5
558 Chapter 13 Flexible Manufacturing Systems /3.9 Sequencing of Robot Moves in Robotic Cells 559

13.9 SEQUENCING OF ROBOT MOVES The cycle time (Tl) for alternative I is
IN ROBOTIC CELLS
TI = e + 5 + e + 35 + e + 5 + e + a + e + 5 + e + b
(13.12)
In the previous section we studied a circular layout in which machines are served by a Tl =6e+68+a-l-b
robot. Viswanadharn and Narahari (1992) and Asfahl (1992) have given a procedure
for determining the cycle time for a single alternative for two- and three-machine where a and b are the processing times of machines M I and M2, respectively; e is the
robotic cells, respectively. However, for a single robot cell with n machines, the time for each pickup, load, unload, and drop operation; and 5 is the robot travel time
number of possible alternative sequences of robot moves is 11 factorial (nl). To obtain between any pair of adjacent locations.
the optimal cycle time and consequently the best sequence of robot moves, Sethi et al. In alternative 2, the cycle can be started at any instant. For ease of respresentation
(1992) completely characterized single robot cells with two and three machines. In this we start cycle 2 with unloading of machine M2 and write the cycle as follows: Unload
section we present a simplified algorithm based on their work for determining the M2, move and leave part at 0, move to MI, wait if necessary, otherwise unload part at
optimal sequence of robot moves to minimize thc cycle time in a two-machine robotic M I, move to M2, and leave part at M2, move to I and pick up part at I, move to M I and
cell. The case of a three-machine robotic cell is given in Appendix B to this chapter. release, move to M2 and wait if necessary: before picking up part at M2. These robot
activities can easily be expressed as follows:
The cycle time (TI) for alternative 2 is
13.9.1 Sequencing of Robot Moves
in a Two-Machine Robotic Cell T2 = e + 5 + e + 25 + wl + e + 5 + e + 25 -I- e + 5 + e + 5 + w2
(13.13)
The following are the two alternative robot sequences for the two-machine robotic cell T2 = 6e + 85 + w l + w2
as shown in Figure 13.8a and b. I and
points, respectively.
°
represent the input pickup and output release
where wl and w2 are the robot waiting times at MI and M2, respectively.

Alternative I: The robot picks up a part at I, moves to machine MI, loads the part on w I = max {O,a - 45 - 2e - w2}
machine M I, waits at M I until the part has been processed, unloads the part from M I,
moves to machine M2, loads the part on M2, waits at M2 until the part has been w2 = max{O, b - 45 - 2e}
processed there, unloads the part from M2, moves to 0, drops the part at 0, and moves
back to I. Note that the component oe + 85 on the right-hand side of Equation (13.13) can be
split into two components, er and M, where er = 4e + 45 and M = 2e + 45. Then
(13.13) becomes
Alternative 2: The robot pick, up a part, say PI, at I, moves to MI, loads Pion
machine MI, waits at MI until part PI has been processed, unloads PI from MI,
moves to M2, loads PIon M2, moves back to I, and picks up another part P2 at I,
TI = er + M + w2 + w I
moves to M I, loads P2 on M I. moves to M2, if necessary waits at M2 until the earlier = er + M + max {O,b - M} + max (O, n - M - max I0, b - M)}
part PI has been processed, unloads PI, moves to 0, drops PI at 0, moves to MI, if = et + max ( M, b) + max (O, a - max IM. b) }
necessary waits at Ml until part P2 has been processed, unloads P2, moves to M2. = er + max{max{ M. b}, a}
loads P2 on M2, and moves to 1.
= et + rnax l u, b, a} = 4e + 45 + max{2e + 45, a, b)

where er + M represents the total time of the robot activities (pickup, drop off, and
s move times) in a cycle. The er represents the total time of the robot activities associated
with any directed triangle (M2-0-MI or M I-M2-1 in Figure 13.8b) in the cycle, and M
o represents the total time of the remaining robot activities.

L ,:~
To determine the optimal cycle time, we must determine the conditions under which
an alternative has the minimum cycle time, which means that one dominates the other.
We consider these cases as follows:
I. For example, from the equation for cycle time T2, if M :5 max {a, b}, then T2 is
o • I
either et + a or er + b. In both cases, comparing T2 with TI, we find that TI is
o
less than T l.
(a) (b) 2. Similarly, if M> max{n, b) and 25:5 a + b, then T2 is less than Tl.
FIGURE 13.8 Alternative sequences of robot moves in a two-machine robot cell. 3. However, if M> max{a, b) and 25 > a + b, then T2 is more than Tl.
560 13. JO Simulation Modeling
561
Chapter 13 Flexible Manufacturing Systems

We can conveniently represent these cases in algorithmic form as follows: explicit mathematical functions to relate variables. Therefore, they are suitable for
representing complex systems to get a feeling for the real system. One of the greatest
advantages of a simulation model is that it can compress or expand time (Fishman,
13.9.2 Algorithm
1978). Compression of time refers to the ability of these models to simulate several
Step 0: Calculate J1. = 2e + 48. years of activities within minutes or even a few seconds. Simulation models can also
Step 1: If J1. ::;; max (G, b J, then T2 is optimal. Calculate T2 and stop. Otherwise be used to observe a phenomenon that cannot be observed in real time by expanding
go to step 2. time and taking observations at very small intervals of time. Simulation can also stop
time for a detailed analysis of a system at a particular instant of time, without loss of
Step 2: If J1. > max (G, b I and 28 ::;;a + b. t.hen T2 is optimal. Calculate 1'2 and
continuity of the experiment. These advantages of using simulation models for manu-
stop. Otherwise go to step 3.
facturing systems can be understood better with the help of some illustrations.
Step 3: If It> max(a, bl and 28 > a + b, then TI is optimal. Calculate Tl and For example, in a manufacturing system we may be interested in seeing the long-
stop. - term implications of a change in maintenance policy. A simulation model may provide
information within a few minutes about the-failure rate of equipment, including mean
time between failures (MTBF), total time for which the equipment was down, average
EXAMPLE 13.6 time taken in repair, and other similar statistics. Also, it can provide information about
the effects of such a policy on other system parameters, such as job tardiness, through-
put, and work-in-process inventories. Of course, when we say a few minutes we are
Determine the optimal cycle time and corresponding robot sequences in a two-machine robotic not including the time taken in developing a model and analyzing the data provided by
.cell with the following data:
the model. Once a model is developed for any system, it provides an efficient tool for
Processing time of machine M I = 11.00 min analyzing effects of various parameters and studying the implications of various poli-
Processing time of machine M2 =09.00 min cies.
A good example of expanding time is in observing the failure pattern of a cutting
Robot gripper pickup 0';16 nun
tool: A simulation model may be developed to see the pattern of cutting tool breakage.
Robot gripper release time 0.16 min In real time, breaking takes place so quickly and abruptly that we cannot observe the
Robot move time between the two machines = 0.24 rnin stages through which the tool goes while breaking. A simulation model can help in this
regard by showing the breaking phenomenon with visual animation stage by stage.
Solution Besides expanding and compressing time, we need to stop time for certain analyses at
Step 0: J1. = 2e + 45 the moment some specific event happens. This is a type of "snapshot" taken at a
J1. = 2(0.16) + 4(0.24) = 1.28 min particular time, but simulation snapshots provide great insight into what was happen-
Step 1: J1. s; max{a. hI ing in the system at that time. For example, a manufacturing system analyst may be
1.28 s; max {11. 9) interested in the state of queues of jobs, in-process inventory, and the number of
rejected items at each machine on completion of every shift of work. Simulation
1.28 is less than 11. Therefore, T2 is optimal.
models provide this information with great ease.
T2 = a + rnax{J1., a, b). To summarize, simulation modeling techniques are powerful for manipulation of
T2 = [4e + 4151+ rnax] 1.28, J I, 9) = 14((}.16)+ 4(0.24)] + II time, system inputs. and logic. They are cost effective for modeling a complex system,
T2 = 1.6 + 1I = 12.6 min and with visual animation capabilities they provide an efficient means of learning,
The optimal cycle time is 12.6 min and the optimal robot sequence is given by Figure 13.8b. experimenting, and analyzing real-life complex systems such as flexible manufac-
turing systems. Simulation models are capable of taking care of stochastic vari-
ability without much complexity. They enable the behavior of the system as a whole
to be predicted. This. in turn, helps in obtaining information about the different ele-
13.10 SIMULATION MODELING ments of the system with a controlled input. A simulation model may be the only
choice for experimenting, as it is impossible or uneconomical to experiment with a
Simulation is a modeling and analysis tool widely used for the purpose of designing, real system.
planning, and control of manufacturing systems. In this section we provide a basic Flexible manufacturing systems involve complex and costly subsystems. Simula-
understanding of simulation modeling and later present a case study of improving the tion is a highly appropriate method for observing interactions among various elements
efficiency of a flexible manufacturing cell using a simulation model. of the FMS and their effects on the system as a whole. Most FMS phenomena are
Simulation is synonymous with imitation. A simulation model may be defined as a discrete and stochastic in nature. Therefore, discrete, Monte Carlo simulation is the
concise framework for the analysis and understanding of a system. It is an abstract technique to use for their modeling and analysis. Two basic elements of discrete
framework of a system that facilitates imitating the behavior of the system over a simulation are the rules that determine the occurrence of the next event and rules for
period of time. In contrast to mathematical models, simulation models do not need changing the state of the model when an event occurs.

..-
562 Chapter 13 Flexible Manufacturing Systems 13.10 Simulation Modeling 563

13.10.1 The Elements of Discrete Simulation

We shall naw discuss same of the common but impartant elements of discrete event
simulation. These are entity, activity, events, queues, attributes, and states (Carrie,
1988).

1. Entities. Entities are the nauns of simulatian language. They are the building
blocks of a manufacturing system, far example, machines, warkpieces, AGYs, and
Rabots. Entities are of two types: permanent and temparary. Permanent entities, as the
name suggests, remain in the model far the duratian of the simulatian experiment.
Temparary entities enter the madel and pass thraugh it far a limited time periad. .-
Permanent and temparary entities are sametimes also referred to. as facilities and I
'" \
,
,
I ,
transactians, respectively. Examples of permanent entities in FMSs are machining
centers and AGYs, and temporary entities are jabs in the system.
' V<:J,.::";".iI!e',
2. Activities. Functians performed by the entities in the system are termed activities.
They are the verbs in simulation language. During any activity multiple entities inter- ----.. Represents movements of parts

act far a definite periad of time. One of the impartant aspects af activities in simulatian
is that their duratian is either fixed or assumed to. be fixed. Whenever an activity starts,
its finish time is known. Transpartation of material by AGYs and processing of jabs by
CNC machines are good examples of activities of manufacturing systems.
3. Events. Events are the paints an the time scale at which same change takes place
in the madel. They represent the beginning or end of ane or mare activities. Events are
classified as endagenaus (or internal) and exagenaus (or external). Endagenaus events
are caused by same interactian of elements within the madel, and exagenaus events
are caused from autside the madel, far example, by the arrival of a job in a manufac-
turing system.
4. Queues. Queues are farmed when an entity is waiting in the system for some
activity. Far example, in a manufacturing system a jab waiting to. be processed an a
machine that is not yet available far this jab will be a part of the queue far this
machine.
5. Attributes. These are the adjectives of simulatian language, qualifying nauns (i.e.,
entities). Attributes are the characteristics of entities and serve as identificatian for an
entity in a simulatian model.
6. States. States define the canditian of variaus elements and of the model as a
whale. The state of the model at a particular time gives infarmatian about entities and
queues.
7. Activity cycle diagram (A CD). This is a diagram used in defining the lagic of a
simulation madel. It is equivalent to. a f1awchart of a general-purpose computer pro-
gram. In same of the literature these diagrams are also. referred as entity cycle dia-
grams. The ACD shaws the cycle far every entity in the madel. Canventians far
drawing ACDs are as fallaws (Carrie, 1988).
(a) Each type of entity has an activity cycle.
(b) The cycle consists of activities and queues.
(c) Activities and queues alternate in the cycle.
(d) The cycle is closed.
(e) Activities are depicted by rectangles and queues by circles or ellipses.
- - - __ Represents change in state of machine
FIGURE 13.9 Activity cycle diagram.
Using these cancepts and canventians, Figure 13.9 shaws a simple ACD far a
machine shap. Here jabs are arriving frorn the autside enviranment. Jabs are waiting in
a queue far the machine. As soon as the machine is available, a job gaes to the machine
far pracessing. Once processing is aver, the jab again jains a queue waiting to. be
dispatched. Machines remain idle and wait far the next available jab. In same cases
flowcharts are used to. define the lagic instead of ACDs, but on the whale, activity
cycle diagrams give a better understanding of a system far simulation madeling. Ac-
tivity cycle diagrams are good far lagical understanding, but much mare is invalved in
simulatian madeling. In the fallawing sectian we discuss basic steps far develaping
and using a simulatian madel.
13.10.2 Basic Steps in Developing and Using a Simulation Model
1. Define the prablem by specifying abjectives and specific issues to. be consid-
ered.
2. Callect data abaut entities and identify the attributes of each type of entity.
3. Develop an ACD using all the entities; also. define the duration of each activ-
ity and queue disciplines.
4. Specify initial canditions and values of the variables; also specify the statistics
to. be collected.
5. Validate the preceding infarmatian by involving the peaple who. are actually
working on the system and have an in-depth understanding of it.
6. Canstruct a camputer program for the simulatian model using an appropriate
software and hardware cambinatian. .
7. Make pilot runs to test the sensitivity of the output to variations in input
parameters. This will help in validating the simulatian model.
8. If necessary, make changes in the madel based on the' information gathered
during pilot runs.

."
564 Chapter 13 Flexible Manufacturing Systems 13.10 Simulation Modeling 565

9. Make production runs and collect the desired statistics. TABLE 13.9 Results for the Case Study
10. Analyze output data and prepare recommendations. Current system Policy J Policy 2 Policy 3
11. Present reports and pians for implementation of the results. Time in system 9.62 8.66 8.51 6.49
for base (nun)
Time in system 10.87 9.91 9.76 7.43
13.10.3 A Simulation Case Study of an FMS Cell
for jaw (rnin)
The case study presented in this section is based on the work of Musil and Akbay Time in system 5.13 5.13 6.55 8.79
(1989). The flexible manufacturing cell used in their simulation study consists of an for screw (min)
. ASEA six-axis robot, Keamey and Trecker horizontal spindle mill, Mori Seiki lathe, System output 441.00 484.00 491.00 546.00
gripper change station, and rough part unloading area. (cycle)
In this case, the cell is set up to produce three components: base, jaw, and screw for Percentage - 9.75 11.33 23.81
the assembly of a vise. Each part is machined on one particular machine: the base on increase
the Keamey and Trecker mill, the jaw on a 8ridgeport mill, and the screw on the Mori
-Seiki lathe. The components arrive at the cell as rough castings in the loading area. The .j
robot follows" preprogrammed route to transport the parts to their respective ma- The objective of this study was to increase the output of the cell by making only
chines, load them onto the machines, reposition the parts for additional operations on scheduling changes. The way to alter the scheduling order of the component parts in
the same machine, and transport the finished parts to the unloading area. The gripper the mode! is to change the priorities associated with the resources. The only resource in
change station is necessary because the base and jaw require that the robot use a the cell that requires prioritizing is the robot, because it is the only resource that is
straight gripper while the screw requires the use of a curved gripper. shared by more than one. component part. In the model, the priorities of the parts
requesting the robot resource can be changed, making it possible to "experiment with
Simulation Model The simulation model of the flexible manufacturing cell was de- the programming" of the robot without affecting the cell itself.
veloped in the Simulation Language for Alternative Modeling (SLA.'Y1 u) and the Ex- A comparison of the order in which the parts are processed by the robot in the
tended Simulation Support System (TESS). TESS adds a relational database manage- 'current system and in the three policies to be considered is as follows:
ment system and animation capabilities to the simulation.
Current policy: 8-J-S-8-J- W-J-8-J
13.10.3.2 Analysis of the Current System Policy 1: 8-J-S-J-8-J-8-J
The model of the flexible manufacturing cell was run over a simulated time span of Policy 2: 8-J-S-J-8-S-J-8-J
4800 min, or ten 8-hour shifts. Key data value, or statistics, with regard to the intended Policy 3: S-J-8-J- W-8- W -J-8-J-S
objectives, were:
where 8 stands for base, J for jaw, S for screw, and W for wait.
I. Time in the system for each component part
2. Number of observations (product output) Policy J In this case the order of the base and jaw was switched after processing the
3. Average waiting time for each resource screw. This change caused the order of the remaining processing for these two parts to
be reversed and eliminated the time during which the robot was waiting for the second
4. Percentage of time that each resource "as captured
operation on the jaw to be finished. The results of this simulation run arc summarized
The statistics for the simulation run of the current system as well as pal icies experi- in Table 13.9. The results demonstrate that the changes made in this experiment
mented with are summarized in Table 13.9. The absolute minimum time required to provided an increase in output by 9.75 percent and that the time in the system for the
produce a particular part can be determined by summing all the necessary activities for jaw was reduced from 10.87 to 9.91 min per production cyele. This simple change in
that part throughout the system. This would result in minimum times of 5.19,6.56, and the processing order of the base and jaw made a significant impact on the productivity
2.90 min for the base, jaw, and screw, respectively. These times could be achieved of the cell.
only if an entity never had to wait for a resource. With the help of this information and
the statistics in Table 13.9, we can obtain the average waiting time and percentage of Policy 2 The next question to be considered was: What if the screw processing was
time that each resource was captured. split up into multiple steps? The intent of Policy 2 was to answer this question. The
As seen from Table 13.9, the jaw spent the longest time in the system, 10.87 min per results of this simulation run are summarized in Table 13.9. The output was raised to
part. A key aim was to reduce this critical or system-dependent time, without increas- 491 units, an increase of 50 units over the current system, which translates to an
ing the processing time of the base or screw above the processing time of the jaw. After increase in productivity of 11.3 percent. It is apparent that dividing the processing of
initial runs, it was checked that the output of the simulated model coincided with that the screw into two steps decreased the waiting time of both the base and the jaw while
of the actual system, validating the model. Experiments with the model could now be raising the processing time of the screw only slightly. This increased time, however, is
performed with the expectation of realistic results. still less than the critical time for the cell, which is the time for thc jaw.
566 Chapter 13 Flexible Manufacturing Systems
Policy 3 The results thus far are acceptable, but could the output be improved even
further without going beyond scheduling changes? Considering that the screw has the
shortest processing time of the three parts, it would be best if the screw did most of the
waiting, thereby reducing the waiting time of the jaw. In this experiment, the second
step in the processing of the screw was moved all the way to the end, after completion
of both the base and the screw. In order to do this, the robot was made to wait for a
short time at two points in the processing of the other parts. This simulatiun run
produced the data shown in Table 13.9. The critical time was no longer the time spent
in the system by the jaw, because the time to process the screw had increased to a point
above that of the jaw. However, this time was well below the critical time in the other
cases, providing an output of 546 units, which is an increase in productivity of 23.8
percent over the current system.
13.10.3.3 Study Results
With simulation modeling, it is possible to create and test countless scenarios. In this
study, among the scenarios considered, the processing order in Policy 3 provided the
best scheduling to meet the intended objectives. Although Policy 3 mayor may not be
the best possible processing order, it provides an excellent improvement over the
current system. With the help of this simulation model. it was shown that a 24 percent
increase in productivity would be realized by modifying the processing order as shown
in the third policy.
13.11 FMS BENEFITS
FMS offers manufacturers more than just a manufacturing system that is flexible. It
offers a concept to improve productivity in mid-variety, mid-volume production situa-
tions, an entire strategy for changing company operations ranging from internal pur-
chasing and ordering procedures to distribution and marketing. Benefits resulting from
implementing FMS technology cut across all the functional boundaries in any organi-
zation. The principal benefits of FMS are associated with the system flexibility, that is,
responsiveness to problems on a short- and long-term basis. Examples are responsive-
ness to short-term problems on the shop floor and responsiveness to long-term prob-
lems by accommodating alterations in the system.
13.11.1 Responsiveness to Short-Term Problems
Two major elements in an FMS are responsible for short term responsiveness: the NC
machines and the control systems.
The use of NC machines permits flexibility in absorbing market fluctuations result-
ing in engineering and process changes. These changes result in different NC codes,
process sequences, and. in some cases, workholding and tooling devices. Most of the
changes can be taken care of concurrently by making changes in the NC codes, using
modular fixturing and automated tool changing. Thus, these changes can be accom-
modated without affecting the output of existing parts.
The control system built in the FMS permits the effective use of high capital
investment equipment. For example, if a machine is busy, then the parts are automati-
cally transferred to an idle machine. Similarly, the control system tracks down the tool
breakdowns and machine malfunctions through built-in sensor systems. In case of tool
failures, they are autornaucally changed. The machine malfunctions are reported to the
13./2 Summary 567
central control systems. If queuing up of jobs continues because of the non-availability
of machines, then the central control system may even reschedule the arrival of parts
into the system.
13.11.2 Responsiveness to Long-Term Problems
Let us first understand what long-term problems may necessitate changes in the system
configuration. Over a period of time, some of the existing products are phased out and
new products are added to the production stream. Furthermore, the product mixes and
their volumes change. Therefore, the major long-term problems could be how to cope
with new products and changing product mixes and volumes. The solutions 10 these
problems lie in long-range planning to accommodate the new products in the existing
part families and expanding capacity to accommodate increased volume. I
These characteristics of short-term responsiveness and long-term accommodation
essentially represent various types of flexibility in an FMS, such as in machines,
routing, volume, and mix, and are primarily responsible for a number of benefits:
• Reduction in direct labor by remuving the operators from the machine site
• Improved operational control through feedback control mechanisms and reduc-
tion in the number of uncontrollable variables
• Improved machine utilization through elimination and/or reduction of machine
setup time, use of automated tool changers and fixtures to change tools and
workpieces, and optimal tool replacement using tool wear monitoring
• Reduction in inventory through small lot sizes, improved inventory turnovers,
and implementatiun of just-in-time principles
The benefits of installing FMS include reduced lead time, improved machine utili-
zation, reduced unit cost, reduced labor requirements, reduced scrap levels, reduced
work-in-process, and increased flexibility in responding to internal and external
changes. These outweigh the problems of high investment. The automotive parts man-
ufacturing industry is a leader in FMS applications for manufacture of prismatic parts,
rotational parts, and sheet metal parts. The most exciting future application area is
flexible assembly, which is the biggest user of manual labor. There is a tremendous
growth potential for FMSs in America, Europe. and Japan.
13.12 SUMMARY
The flexible manufacturing system is a manufacturing concept for mid-volume, mid-
variety parts production. There could be a number of FMS configurations. depending
on the levels of flexibility and production rates. Furthermore, the degree of automation
of the machine tools, material-handling system, and computer system, the three major
components of a manufacturing system, may vary depending on the goals of an orga-
nization.
An FMS is capable of accommodating engineering and process changes that may
occur during manufacturing. In this chapter various aspects of FMS, such as physical
and control components, layout planning, and benefits, were discussed. Some analyti-
cal treatment of part selection problems, tool management problems, and layout prob-
lems was given because these problems characterize FMSs and are different from
those in traditional manufacturing systems.