Hydrodynamics of Gas Stirred Melts: Part I.

Gas/Liquid Coupling
Y. SAHAI and R. I. L. GUTHRIE

A hydrodynamic model of submerged gas injection systems and their effects on liquid metal stirring is
presented. It is argued that hydrodynamic conditions at the nozzle, tuyere, or plug are not critical to
flow recirculation produced in large cylindrical vessels (i. e., furnaces or ladles). An analysis of a
buoyancy driven plume generated through gas injection shows that gas voidages are usually quite low
(less than 10 pct). By equating the energy supplied by rising bubbles to turbulent energy losses within
the bath, it is shown that mean plume velocities can be predicted using the relationship,
Up o: (Q 1/3L1/4)/R 1/3 where Up equals mean plume velocity, Q is gas flow rate (at mean height
and temperature), L is depth of liquid, and R is radius of the vessel. Associated rates of liquid turn-
over as a function of vessel dimensions and gas flow rate can also be predicted and these are
similarly presented.

I. INTRODUCTION III. PREVIOUS WORK

SUBMERGED gas injection into melts contained in
furnaces, ladles, or similar transfer vessels has been
commonplace since the days of Bessemer. Today's steel-
making examples include the bottom blown, side blown,
and combination blown oxygen processes. In ladle metal-
lurgy, desulfurization by submerged pneumatic injection of
powders, pellets, and so forth into liquid iron or steel is
popular. Parallel examples can be cited for the nonferrous
industries. For instance, submerged gas injection plays an
important role in copper and aluminum processing.
Despite the ubiquitous nature of submerged gas injection,
much remains to be done before these gas/liquid interactions
can be described in a quantitative sense. Nevertheless, as
fluid dynamics plays such a key role in determining the
efficiencies of so many transport controlled metallurgical
processes, such an objective is clearly worthwhile.
II. PRESENT W O R K
The purpose of the present work is to analyze the way in
which submerged gas jets interact with liquids to cause
stirring. To demonstrate the approach, the problem has been
set in its most simple form, i. e., the central injection of gas
into a cylindrical vessel, the latter representing, to a first
approximation, a ladle or furnace.
In Part I a literature review is made and various authors'
findings and proposals regarding submerged gas injection
and gas stirred vessels are reconsidered. Following this, a
fresh approach is taken to suggest how gas-liquid coupling
can be tackled, and how a quantitative macroscopic model
for liquid stirring can be built from first principles.
In Part II, the implications and predictions of the macro-
scopic model are compared to equivalent but more detailed
computations based on numerical solutions to the governing
differential equations of continuity, motion, and turbulence.
Again, previous work in this field is reconsidered.
Y. SAHAI, Senior Research Associate, and R . I . L . GUTHRIE,
Professor, are both with the Department of Mining and Metallurgical
Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 2A7.
Manuscript submitted June 26, 1981.
Gas Stirred Melts
Since ladle injection metallurgy is becoming such an
intrinsic part of steel processing operations, the theoretical
and industrial aspects of these processes have naturally been
considered at some length at a number of recent sym-
posia. 1-4 Figures l(a), l(b), and l(c) have been taken from
such publications5'6'7 to illustrate current ideas regarding
hydrodynamics in these gas stirred systems.
Figure l(a) shows, in schematic form, argon issuing from
a porous plug at the bottom of a 150 tonne ladle of steel. 5
The diagram seems to suggest that very small spherical
bubbles are released from the pores of the plug, and that
following considerable expansion, they reach the bath sur-
face. Figure 1(b) shows another idea of the hydrodynamic
phenomena at play. 6 In this schematic, the bubble column is
approximated to a vertical cylindrical column of spherical
bubbles, in which the gas voidage appears to be rather high.
The latter authors proposed that it is the vertical sheafing
action between this column and the body of liquid which is
responsible for generating liquid recirculation within the
ladle. Figure l(c) provides yet another concept of events7 in
which large, mushroom-shaped bubbles are sparsely dis-
persed within an upwelling mixture of steel and gas. The
diagram suggests an outward surface flow of liquid to the
ladle walls with a reverse horizontal flow back toward a
rising plume.
It is evident from this preliminary review that the gas-
liquid region (or bubble plume) and its role in generating
recirculating flow within the bulk liquid is not clearly
understood and is the subject of some controversy. It
is therefore appropriate to consider relevant literature on
the subject of submerged gas bubbling and jetting in
metallurgical reactors.
Many researchers have been engaged in studying the
hydrodynamic phenomena associated with submerged gas
jets entering liquid metals. In general, these systems have,
until relatively recently, been almost exclusively studied
using aqueous analogues. For example, Szekely and
Themelis 8 considered the horizontal injection of gases
through tuyeres into water which they proposed simulated
submerged gas flow into copper converters. Similarly,

ISSN 0360-2141/82/0611-0193500.75/0
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B 9 1982 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR METALS AND VOLUME 13B, JUNE 1982-- 193
THE METALLURGICAL SOCIETY OF AIME
 13

V
II
LT .W
qlP

ii!- r
q.

(c)

Fig. 1--(a), (b), (c): Various recent flow schematics from Refs. 5, 6,
and 7 concerning submerged gas injection into liquid metals,

r
(b)
identical aqueous counterparts. Sano and M o r i 16'17 recently
studied the behavior of bubble swarms in mercury, using an
electroresistivity probe. They showed that the average size
of bubble in the rising swarm depended on the liquid's
Wraith and Chalkley9 considered the vertical injection of physical properties.
gases into liquid metals using an air/water analogue, while
Wraith also modeled gas flow through a porous plug, again
using an aqueous system.
IV. THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENT FOR GAS
More recently Sano and Mori, 1~ Irons and Guthrie, 11'n2
STIRRED SYSTEMS
Andreini and Foster, ~30ryall and Brimacombe, t4 and
Nilmani and Robertson ~5 have made direct experimental
A. Bubble Size Distribution
measurements of bubble and jet characteristics in liquid
metals. All observed differences in the physical behavior Based on the literature cited, it is now clear that the
of bubbling systems from the air/water systems of chemical normal injection of gas into liquid metals is accompanied
engineers. Specifically, it has been demonstrated n that by the formation of very large bubbles. Furthermore, it is
bubbles forming at nozzles, porous plugs, or orifices in important to note that these bubbles are invariably of the
gas metal systems tend to be significantly larger than spherical cap (or mushroom) variety owing to the high

194--VOLUME 13B, JUNE 1982 METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONS B

surface tensions of liquid metals and the nonwetting charac- Table I. Minimum Size of Bubbles Forming
teristics of refractories.~8 To emphasize this point, Table I in Various Gas/Liquid Systems
contrasts the minimum theoretical volume of a bubble
forming in water on a 3 mm orifice (0.07 cm 3) with equiva- Surface
Tensions, Density,
lent bubbles forming in liquid iron, steel, aluminum and Liquid dynes/cm gm/cm 3 dmi. . . . Vmi. . . . 3
copper (2 to 5 cm3). These results were computed on the
basis of a static balance between the surface tension forces Water 73 1 0.51 0.07
Pure iron 1788 7 1.77 2.89
holding down the rim of the slowly forming bubble and its
Iron (0.05
upward buoyancy force in the liquid. Contact angles of pct S) 1350 7 1.54 1.90
90 deg for liquid metals and 0 deg for water were chosen. Steel (0.01
Elementary calculations indicate that even at low flowrates pct C) 1760 7 1.75 2.82
(1 to 100 cm3s-1), gas bubbles forming and releasing from Aluminum 900 2.37 2.16 5.24
a porous plug in a steel bath would all be at least 3 c m 3 Copper 1280 8.24 1.38 1.37
in volume. By comparison, in water, these bubbles could
be far smaller and of the pore dimensions of the plug.~8
Consequently, the concepts implied by Figure l(a), while bubbles formed at a 6.5 mm orifice in water. This is in
totally misleading, were probably and understandably excellent agreement with experimental results.
prompted by casual observations of such bubble formation At even higher flowrates (e. g., 1 to 300 liters per second
in aqueous systems. through a nozzle, d ~ 0.3 to 5.0 cm), it has been observed
At higher flowrates (e. g., 0.1 to 10 liters per second), that pressure pulsations of 10 Hz frequency can continue to
inertial factors begin to outweigh surface tension factors, occur in liquid metal systems. 2~ This indicates that ever
and a constant frequency regime is entered 12 in which the larger bubbles or gas envelopes form at the orifice, such that
frequency of bubble formation remains constant at about
l0 per second, the volumes of the bubbles forming and 'Vb' = 0.1a
= Q [1]
releasing becoming larger and larger. f
Figures 2(a) and 2(b) show predicted bubble shapes However, these large bubbles or gas envelopes forming
at their moment of release in water and molten iron at nozzles, orifices, or porous plugs tend to exhibit hydro-
(Q = 0.1 liters per second). These results were computed dynamic instability. In metals, they must consequently
through the simultaneous solution of the Navier-Stokes shatter a short way above the nozzle (normally) into
Equation for the gas and liquid phases, respectively.19 As an array of smaller bubbles. These bubbles will, with
seen, for the specific conditions chosen, the argon bubbles continuous coalescence and disintegration phenomena at
forming in molten iron are about three times larger than air work, tend to establish a dynamic range of sizes within the

9 9 ~ .

, I ', ! ,~ t t t !

, x\llI!,',
\ \\fill

t = t..3 m s t= 19.6 m s t=t.7 5 ms

(a)
x X ~llm[t / I /

\ \\IIIIIII / ." ./ " , , ,:tlJ . . .

', ,"

'i,+ !iiiliii!
t = t..t. m s t = 63.8 ms t = 137.5 ms
(b)
Fig. 2 - - P r e d i c t e d growth sequences for bubble growing into stagnant liquid at an orifice diameter of 6.35 m m and at a flow rate of 100 cm 3 s -1. (a) Air
bubble in water. (b) Argon bubble in iron at 1250 ~

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B VOLUME 13B, JUNE 1982-- 195

spherical cap regime. Equivalent features for aqueous
'jetting' systems can also be anticipated.
Grace et al 2~ have reported on the basis of perturbation
theory that it is possible to estimate the maximum size of
bubble that can be sustained in various liquids. Also, Sano
and Mori 16A7recently measured the size distribution of nitro-
gen bubble swarms rising through mercury. They found that
the bubbles first forming disintegrated within 12 cm of
the orifice, and obtained an empirical relationship for
estimating the resultant average bubble size. Their results
confirmed the theoretical expectation2~ that the maximum
size of bubble which can be sustained during rise through a
liquid is directly proportional to the square root of the sur-
face tension of the liquid, and inversely proportional to the
square root of the liquid's density:
"~ 1/2
de [2]
Volume of gas in plume
Of =
Volume of plume
= (0.4/60)-(1873/298)" (1/1.95). (2.8/1.3)
(7r0.332) 2.8
= 0.05
While plume dimensions and gas voidage are treated
in more detail later, this simple calculation shows that
the gases generally occupy about 2 to 10 pct of the total
plume volume.
Consequently, while visual observations of the general
level of surface activity generated in the 'eye' of a bubble
column would lead one to suspect high gas voidages of the
type proposed in Figure 1(b), this is not so, and Figure 1(c)
is in fact a more correct representation.
C. Mathematical Formulation

Consequently, the authors postulate that bubbles forming at Based on the previous analysis, it becomes apparent that
nozzles or orifices rapidly devolve into a plume of spherical the recirculation of liquid within a ladle or similar transfer
cap bubbles and that this is true of many gas injection vessel is caused primarily by the entraining action of
processes carried out in furnaces, ladles, or similar transfer individual spherical cap bubbles, rather than as a result of
vessels. This central concept provides the key to modeling any shearing actions between a dense bubble column and
submerged gas injection systems from first principles, since adjacent fluid depicted in Figure 1(b). To emphasize the true
all bubbles then exhibit equivalent drag coefficients, Co .22 nature of gas/liquid coupling, Figure 3 has been included. 24
As a consequence precise bubble size distributions are not It shows a large bubble (24 cm 3 volume) rising through clear
critical to any hydrodynamic analysis of the plume. water, following its initial passage through a two meter
stagnant column of water darkened by a few grains of the
water soluble dye, 'nigrosine'. One should note the extent
B. Plume Dimensions and Gas Voidage
The next factor to be established is whether typical gas
voidages are as high as those suggested by Figure l(b), or
as low as those of Figure l(c).
To determine which notion is more representative, Table II
provides a set of typical industrial gas flowrates for
different ladle injection processes. Considering a typical
example in which argon is injected through a porous plug at
0.4 Nm 3 per minute into a 150 tonne steel vessel, obser-
vations of surface plume dimensions taken by the authors23
indicate a diameter of one meter. Taking a mean plume
diameter of 0.66 meters, a depth of steel equal to 2.8 meters
(giving an average static pressure of 1.95 Atmos.) and a
vessel diameter of 3.0 meters, one can estimate (see later)
a vertical plume velocity of 1.3 m s -1. From this, one may
readily deduce that the gas voidage within the plume is only
five pct:

Table II. Gas Volumes and Flowrates for Liquid

Metal Processing

Volume, Flowrate,
Process Gas Nm3/t Nm3/min
Powder
injection Nz or Ar 4 25
Gas
stirring N2 or Ar 0.05 0.4
Gas
degassing N2 or Ar 2 0.5
Nonferrous
degassing N2 or Ar 1 0.05 Fig. 3 - - F l o w visualization of wake drawn up behind a spherical cap
bubble in water (At = 0.13 s, bubble volume = 24 cm3).

196--VOLUME 13B, JUNE 1982 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

of liquid entrainment by this spherical cap bubble. As seen vessel in the absence of significant losses to wave action,
from the sequence of photographs, the bubbles carry up droplet formation, wall friction, and so forth.
recirculating wakes, whose volumes can be up to twenty To evaluate these viscous dissipation losses within the
times that of the bubble at Reynold's Numbers above 100.22 recirculating liquid, one must consider the rate at which
Wake material is constantly exchanged with the bulk liquid turbulence kinetic energy is dissipated per unit mass of
resulting in wake 'half-life times' of about two seconds liquid, denoting the term by e;
at high Reynold's Numbers (=105). It is this dynamic
interaction and exchange of liquid which transfers energy to dk
= -- [8]
the bulk. dt
Given the physical model, the objective of the following Using the so-called k-e turbulence model proposed by
derivation is to develop expressions to show how the plume Launder and Spalding, 25this dissipation can be related to the
velocity and speed of recirculation of liquid within the turbulence energy, k, stored within the energy containing
vessel are related to gas flowrate, vessel dimensions, and portion of the universal turbulence spectrum, according to
liquid properties.
Thus, once bubbling is initiated, we can expect that each k2
bubble will exert a drag force, FB, on liquid within the e = CCpL-- [91
vessel (i. e., system), such that
C~ represents a dissipation rate constant equal to 0.09,
1 2 while /z, represents the mean turbulent viscosity within
FB = ~ pLU{~A~CD [3]
the system.
Combining Eqs. [8] and [9]
Here, Co represents the bubbles' drag coefficient while
rising through a stationary body of liquid at a velocity,/-/8. dk k2
This expression should represent a good approximation to dt - C~pL-- [10]
the force exerted by bubbles within the rising plume in /A
view of their wide dispersion. Co is equal to 8/3 for all
Where k, the kinetic energy of turbulence per unit mass,
spherical cap bubbles rising in liquids of viscosity less than
20 kg m -1 s-l. 24 is related to the fluctuating components of velocity accord-
ing to k = 0.5(fi2 + ~2 + 92).
The total number of bubbles rising within the ascending
Based on much previous work on the nature and charac-
plume must equal the gas flowrate x residence time of bub-
teristics of turbulent flows (e. g., Reference 26) one can
bles in ladle/mean volume of bubbles, i. e. :
suppose that the energy containing eddies are primarily
Nn -
QL [41
isotropic so that
us. fi = ~ = ~ [11]
Up is equal to the plume velocity, which for the present giving
may be regarded as equal to the rising velocity of the
bubbles with respect to a stationary observer. It is important k = ~2 [123
to note that this plume velocity tends to be significantly
higher than the rise velocity of a single bubble through a
Also, one can take the average fluctuating component of
stagnant liquid.
the velocity, fi, to be proportional to the average speed of
Combining Eqs. [3] and [4], the net force acting on the
liquid is given by: liquid recirculation (see later).
= cu [13]
1 QL
F = NsFs = ~pLU2AeCD [5] where C is the constant of proportionality.
UpV
Combining Eqs. [10], [12], and [13], one finally arrives
Adopting a macroscopic approach, one can define an at a relation showing the rate at which energy is consumed
average recirculation speed, U, for the liquid, according to within unit mass of the recirculating liquid as a result of

_ _

U =
f]f;IUIrdraz [61
turbulence phenomena, i.e.,
dk _ 9C~pLC4U4 [14]
dt 4 tx,
f[f rdrdz Since this loss must be referenced to the total mass of
Using this concept, the net work or energy input per unit liquid in the vessel,
time, & , to the bulk of the liquid by rising bubbles, is then dk
conveniently expressed as: Eo = -rrg2Lp:7 [15]
at
-- 1 2 2 --QL or
Ei = F 9 U = -~ ~rpL U~d~ C o U u p v B [7]
Eo 97r R 2L PL C/,tC4U4
Once steady state conditions have been reached (i. e., the = [16]
41),
mean velocity at any location in the fluid becomes constant)
it can be supposed that this energy input will counterbalance Proceeding to the next step, one can argue that Eo must
turbulent energy dissipation losses within the bulk of the equal Ei under steady state conditions. Thus, combining

METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONS B VOLUME 13B, JUNE 1982-- 197

Eqs. [7] and [16] one arrives at a relationship describing the
plume velocity in terms of relevant system parameters, i. e.,
CoU2n~Qo,
Up = 18C~,C4R2U3Vn [17]
Replacing the rising velocity of a spherical cap bubble in
stagnant liquid by
un = 0.8v gv ''6 [18]
One finally arrives at the expression
(6)2/3(0.8)2gCD Qv,
Up = 18C~,C4 Rzu..~ [19]
As seen, Eq. [19] provides a relationship between plume
velocity and various independent parameters such as
gas flowrate, vessel radius, and a number of constants.
However, the equation is not suitable for calculat__ionsof Up,
since or, the turbulent kinematic viscosity, and U, the mean
speed, have to be specified and are not known a priori.
Similarly, the constant C appears and its value is yet to
be specified.
D. Mean Speed of Bath Recirculation
In order to obtain a further relationship between mean
recirculation speed and plume velocity, one has available
experimental data by Hsiao Chiang et al 7 on plume veloci-
ties. These were measured for various gas flows using a 1:1
scale water model of a six ton ladle.
A few tests on plume velocities and flow fields were
also carried out in the author's laboratories using two other
plexiglass water models, so that__the effect of gas flow rate
and vessel geometry on Up and U could be identified over
a range of conditions. The experimental equipment and
procedures are described in Part II of this work while the
results are summarized in Table III. A pilot tube was used
to determine mean plume velocities, while the recorded
movement of computer card punchings provided the mean
speeds of liquid recirculation.
The results together with dimensional arguments provide
the following relationship:
U (R),/3 = K, [20]
u,
where K~, within experimental error, proved to be constant
over the range of flowrates studied and equal to 0.18 m 1/3.
Eq. [20] is a reflection of similarity of flow fields for high
Reynolds number conditions__.
Substituting the value of U in Eq, [19] one obtains,
= K 'Qo' [21]
R
where
18C~C4K 3
While Eq. [22] leads one step closer to the relation sought,
v,, the turbulent kinematic viscosity requires specification.
Although the latter is spatially dependent, it is convenient to
define an effective or average viscosity for this macroscopic
model of bubble driven plumes. Through dimensional argu-
ments, energy considerations and numerical solutions of the
type in Part II, it can be shown 37 that:
vt = 5 . 5 x IO-3L { ( I - ~ ) g Q } [23]
This equation is conceptually different from that used by
other workers 2z28 who adopted the Pun-Spalding formula29
for combustion flow systems:
ix, = KD~3L-'/3p~ 3 (rhVo2)':3 [24]
Eq. [23] emphasizes the potential, rather than kinetic,
energy of the incoming gases.
E. Estimation of C
Only one parameter, C, defined by Eq. [ 13], remains for
consideration before the generalized plume velocity Eq. [21]
can be stated explicitly. C represents the mean constant of
proportionality between the fluctuating and steady velocity
components of the flow field. It may be deduced by using
the experimental plume velocities measured by Hsiao
Chiang et al 7 for submerged gas injection into a 1:1 scale
water model of a six ton steel ladle, and inserting these
together with other particular conditions of flowrate, dimen-
sions, and so forth into Eq. [21]. The values of C thus
obtained are shown in Table IV.
As seen, the calculated values of C for the four different
flowrates are practically equal and average 0.537. This
result predicts that average fluctuating velocity compo-
nents of 54 pet of the mean flow can be expected. The esti-
mates correspond very well with recent experimental
measurements of turbulence in gas stirred liquid systems
made by Kotsovinos and List 31 and Br~imming and
Angstrrm. 32 The first authors carried out extensive laser
doppler anemometry experiments which showed that the
fluctuating velocities were equal to 0.5 of the bulk velocities
in the bath. Similar conclusions were obtained by the latter

Table Ill. Average Plume Velocities and Mean Recirculation Speeds at Different Gas Flow Rates in Vessels of Different Sizes
Mean
Diameter of Gas Flow Rate, AveragePlume Recirculation U_ (R)U3, mlJ3
Number Depth of Water, m Vessel,m m3 S-' Velocity, m s -' Speed, m s -1 Up
1. 1.0 1.1 5 X 10 -3 0.84 0.185 0.18
2. 1.0 1.1 3.33 • 10 3 0.76 0.17 0.183
3. 1.0 1.1 1.66 • 10-3 0.62 0.135 0.178
4. 1.0 1.1 8.33 • 10 4 0.48 0.105 0.179
5. 0.45 0.5 5.1 • 10-4 0.44 0.125 0.179
6. 0.45 0.5 7.0 • 10-4 0.48 0.14 0.184
7. 0.65 0.61 7.0 • 10-4 0.50 0.135 0.182
Average: 0.18

198--VOLUME 13B, JUNE 1982 METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONS B

 Table IV. Experimentally Measured ~ Plume adapted to estimate plume velocities. This route was used in
Velocity, Corresponding Gas Flow Rate and Sir Geoffrey Taylor's analysis of a similar hydrodynamic
Calculated Value of Constant C in Equation 21 problem) 3 Alternativelb,, the numerical solutions outlined in
Diameter of Model Ladle = 1.1 m Part II are possible. However, since both require prior
Depth of Water = 1.0 m knowledge of gas voidage, solutions are not explicit.
In the present approach, it is shown that stable gas bub-
Average
Plume bles are large and dispersed within the rising current of
Gas Flow Velocity, Average liquid. It may therefore be argued that since each bubble
No. Rate, m3 s-t m s-~ Constant C Value of C entrains approximately twenty times its own volume of liq-
uid within an ascending entrained wake (Figure 3), bubbles
1. 5.0 • 10-3 0.84 0.556 0.537
2. 3.33 X 10 -3 0.76 0.537 0.537 and liquid will move as one provided the volume fraction of
3. 1.66 x 10-3 0.62 0.522 0.537 gas within the gas liquid plume is in the ratio 1:21
4. 8.33 • 10-4 0.48 0.535 0.537 (i. e., tz ~ 100/21 or 4.76 pct). Indeed, this situation is
equivalent to the idealized conditions envisaged by G.I.
Taylor. At lower voidages, bubbles would tend to move
authors. A slightly higher value of C presently deduced may more rapidly than the surrounding liquid (i. e., slip), and
arise through factors such as friction at the walls, waves at one may estimate, on the basis of momentum transfer argu-
the free surface, and so forth, in which a portion of the ments, that the mean plume velocity is given by
energy supplied by the bubbles may be consumed.
-Uz = (VL--Vw)(Up--Us) + VwUp [26]
E Summary of Equations VL
The expression for plume velocity may therefore be sum- However, in most industrial gas stirring applications, the
marized as: volume of gas contained within the plume is expected to
equal, or exceed, 4.76 pct. Under these ci._rcumstances it is
assumed that mean liquid rise velocities, Uz, are identically
Up = [21A]
equal to the plume velocity, or rise velocities of bubbles, Up,
expressed in Eq. [21]. While such arguments are simplistic
with in terms of microscale plume hydrodynamics, they represent
(6)2/3 (0.8)2g CD an effective description of macroscale behavior.
K' = [22] Previous experimental work on liquid entrainment and
18C~C4K~
radial velocity distributions within a water plume rising in a
Inserting appropriate values for the constants appearing, large body of water, or lake, shows that a Gaussian distribu-
K' = 3.26 x 104871/2. The turbulent viscosity appearing in tion curve can be applied, such that
Eq. [21] is summarized in the expression
(r)
Uz,.___~r= exp - ~ [27]
9 v, = 5 . 5 X 10-3L [(1-D__)gQ]'/3 [24A] Um
where b = c V ~ (z + ho).
Combining Eqs. [21] and [24]: This work by Kobus 34 showed that radial velocity distri-
0 I/3L 1/4 butions are similar with respect to their height above an
up = ~ " - g 1/3 [251 analytical origin located at h0. This 'analytical origin' was
obtained by extending the established flow pattern (plume
giving a simple, explicit relationship between plume veloc- boundary) into and below the limits of the initial region at
ity, gas flowrate, and vessel dimensions. the nozzle or orifice. Kobus found that h0 lay about 0.8 m
below his nozzle exits. He also found that variations in
density across the plume were not important, outside the
G. Plume Velocity and Density Distributions initial region for flowrates up to at least 1 m 3s -1.
Plume velocities and densities represent average values in Adapting this earlier work to the present, the average
the above analysis. Similarly, plume velocities and absolute plume velocity, Up can be expressed by
bubble velocities with respect to a stationary observer have
been regarded as synonymous. In fact, radial distributions of f~' Uz,r2m'dr
velocity and density across the plume are to be expected, Up- f~'2rrrdr [28]
with centerline velocities at a maximum and corresponding On integrating Eq. [28] and substituting Eq. [27], one
densities at a minimum. Similarly, one must consider the obtains:
'slip' which can occur between bubbles and liquid contained
within an ascending plume. b2 [
For the case of a dense dispersion of very small bubbles, Up = R'-'--5U,, _ 1 - exp~ b2 / j [29]
their rise velocity within the liquid would be much less than
the convection currents they would generate. This would Here R' represents the outer limits of the two phase region
correspond to a purely buoyancy driven flow analogous of the plume, and b = cN/2 (z + h0), as appropriate to the
to thermal natural convection currents. Under such cir- present analysis. Eq. [29] can be used to correlate the aver-
cumstances, bubble slip would effectively be zero, and age velocity, Up, with the maximum (center line) velocity
appropriate heat transfer correlations (if available) could be within the plume, Urn. The center line velocity within the

METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONSB VOLUME 13B, JUNE 1982-- 199

plume is approximately constant over the entire height. TM
Based on previous experimental measurements by Hsiao
et al 7 for the present system, the value of c appearing in
expression of b (Eq. [29]) can be deduced to be 0.113.
Eq. [29] can be used to establish an appropriate center line
velocity boundary condition (Part II). It is appropriate to
note that center line velocities are about 25 pet higher than
Up in 150 or 250 ton industrial vessels.
V. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Interest in the subject of gas induced liquid plumes is
not restricted to process metallurgists. For example, the
generation and behavior of gas liquid plumes in oceanic
environments has been, and is, a major source of interest.
The idea, for instance, that a curtain of bubbles (line source)
rising through a perforated pipe on the bottom of the sea can
act as an effective shield against waves has been known by
hydraulic engineers for many years. ~'35 More topically, the
occurrence of oil well blowouts in deep water can represent
a serious environmental problem (e.g., Mexico, 1975). 36
Here, large quantities of escaping natural gas can induce
strong upcurrents akin to plumes, and result in dispersion of
solid hydrates over wide areas. While these examples do not
relate directly to gas stirred vessels, purely empirical cor-
relations developed by Kobus 3+propose that plume velocities
increase in proportion to the quarter power of the gas flow-
rate from a point source under such circumstances.
As seen from Eq. [25], the present analysis indicates that
plume velocities increase according to the third power of the
gas flowrate when recirculating flow is induced within a
confined body of liquid. Similarly, Up is predicted to in-
crease weakly with liquid height (88power) and to decrease
with vessel radius (} power).
In analyzing this result, it is useful to consider some of the
interacting factors determining final plume velocities. Con-
sider when gas flow into a ladle is first initiated: the lead
bubbles obviously rise at a speed corresponding to their
terminal velocity within a stagnant liquid. Subsequent bub-
bles expending less energy in following the leaders, move
up faster, causing the developing plume to accelerate. This
plume acceleration is slowed by entrainment of bulk liquid
into the rising plume and turbulence energy losses set up in
the accelerating recirculatory flow. Steady state is finally
reached when energy losses within the system exactly
counterbalance rates of energy input. Consequently, the fact
that the plume velocity increases according to one third
power of the gas flow, represents the measure in which
energy, supplied by the rising bubbles, is transferred to the
liquid to promote bath recirculation. It is clear that a wider
vessel, having more liquid within it, would slow the plume.
Similarly, for a given gas flow (corrected to mean height
and temperature) a greater depth of liquid would impart
energy within a proportionately larger volume of plume.
(The diameter of the plume increases with height.) This
would cause recirculation rates to increase and lead, in turn,
to higher plume velocities.
enhances (or hinders) 'dirt' removal. While comprehensive
hydrodynamic experiments for large scale liquid metal
processing ladies are difficult and are yet to be attempted, it
is useful to extrapolate the present model beyond its cur-
rently validated limits of vessel size and gas flow, and
predict plume velocities and recirculation speeds in industri-
al scale vessels.
Figure 4 shows how the plume velocity and mean re-
circulation speed is predicted to vary in 60, 150, 250, and
500 tonne vessels (L/D = 1) as a function of gas flowrate.
For the same gas flow, it is seen that plume velocities are
predicted to change very little with size of vessel. However,
there are proportionately larger effects on average re-
circulating speeds, which decrease as vessel size increases.
This figure indicates an advantage of a bigger vessel for
promoting stirring. The point is clarified by replotting the
same data in terms of gas flowrate/unit ton of metal. Thus,
Figure 5 shows the cost effectiveness of larger vessels in
terms of gas economies.
Some predictions have also been made for plume
velocities and average recirculation speeds for 250 tonne
vessels of different L/D ratios (89 1, and 2). This diagram
(Figure 6) shows the clear advantage of using a higher depth
of liquid/vessel diameter ratio for promoting higher mixing
rates and greater turbulence.
Finally, it is useful to note that a knowledge of plume
velocities allows one to determine the height of liquid metal
dome, ha, created at the top surface of the melt. Since the
kinetic energy of the plume is converted into potential
energy at the plume center line:
U2
hd=---L
2g
Consequently, using plume data provided in Figure 4 it is
seen that hd is 30 cms in a 150 tonne vessel at 1 Nm 3 per
minute inert gas injection. This agrees reasonably well with
the authors' visual observations of industrial vessels. Such
t ' ' L=I
u ' 150
60T-~
T~.,,,, ' ' I
250 T \ ~ ~ 1
Z ~
,- o.5 25o T ~ ~ j . ~ 0.5
-.J
0.2 0.2
0-1 0.1
0.05 0.05

Application to Industrial Systems o.1 o.~, o.'s I)o 2!o 5~o Io'.o
There are many industrial systems in which process met- GAS FLOW RATE , m3/min
allurgists are concerned with promoting adequate metal Fig. 4--Predicted plume velocities and average speeds of liquid re-
mixing within a ladle while using a minimal amount of gas. circulation v s gas flowrate (referenced to ladle temperature, e.g., 1600 ~
Similarly, there are cases where turbulence within the liquid and mean height) in ladles of different size (L/D = 1).

200--VOLUME 13B, JUNE 1982 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

 i i i i
L 250 T
/..0 ~-: 1 9 &.O
5.0 2 . ~ 5.0
DL_=1.0
2.0 ~ - 2.0 0.
2.0 - ~ 2.0
1.o ~ ' ~ 1.0 ~"',~o. E
E 1-0 1.0
la.I
>- ~ 2.0
I-- o.s o.~ g -
tt~
I
I--
< 0.5 b--- 1.0 0.5 oz
O _ 0.5,,
.J _J
o I--
> 250 o, <
n,-

I.l.I 02
~ 0.2 0.2
_.l W
0.. t:g
w
0.1 0,1
U.I 0.1 0.1 l:g
w
< >
,<
0.05 0.05

f I
0.001
I
0,002
I
0-005
I
0-01
I
0.02 0"0!
= 0.05 .

0.I 0:2 015 110 2:0 510 10!0

0.05

GAS FLOW RATE PER TON , m3/min.ton GAS FLOW RATE , m3/min
Fig. 5--Predicted plume velocities and average speeds of liquid re- Fig. 6--Predicted plume velocities and average speeds of liquid re-
circulation vs gas flowrate per ton of metal (referenced to ladle temperature, circulation vs gas flowrate, (referenced to ladle temperature, e.g., 160t) ~
e . g . , 1600 ~ and mean height) in ladles of different size (L/D = 1). and mean height) in 250 ton vessel having different aspect ratios.

information can be of use in determining thicknesses of KFt Constant in Eq. [25].

protective slag covers, and so forth. L Depth of liquid in the vessel, m.
rh Mass flow rate of gas, kg s -1.
NB Total number of bubbles in the plume.
VI. CONCLUSIONS a Gas flow rate, m 3 s -1.
r Distance in the radial direction, m.
A hydrodynamic model of general applicability to gas
R Radius of the vessel, m.
stirred vessels has been proposed for the prediction of plume
R' Radius of the two-phase region of the plume, m.
hydrodynamics and liquid stirring. The model is based on
t Time, s.
the phenomenon of disintegration of an incoming gas en- fi, ~', * Fluctuating components of velocities in three
velope into an array of large spherical cap bubbles which
rise through the melt in a dispersed manner transferring directions, m s -].
energy to a recirculating bulk of liquid. This analysis is U8 Bubble rise velocity in stagnant bath, m s -].
Average bubble rise velocity in plume with respect
considered appropriate for vessels having aspect ratios
similar to those considered in the present work. to a stationary observer (same as average plume
velocity, U= at volumetric gas fraction approxi-
mately >5 pct), m s -1.
LIST OF SYMBOLS
u_. Vertical velocity at center line of the plume, m s-L
u~ Average liquid rise velocity in the plume, m s -l.
Ae Projected area of an equivalent sphere of bubble, m s. Uz,r Vertical plume velocity at distance r from the axis
b Defined in Eq. [27]. and height z, m s -1.
Co Drag coefficient of a bubble. lul Magnitude of velocity vector at any location in the
C~, Dissipation rate constant, has a value of 0.09. bath, m s -1.
C Constant of proportionality in Eq. [13]. Average recirculation speed of the bath, m s -~.
c Constant in expression for b (Eq. [27]). u0 Inlet velocity of gas at the nozzle, m s -l.
d, Equivalent spherical diameter of a bubble. vb Volume of bubble forming at the nozzle, m 3.
D Diameter of the vessel, m. v~ Average volume of bubble in the plume, m 3.
Ei Energy input to liquid, kg m s s -3. v~ Volume of liquid in the plume, m 3.
Eo Energy dissipation loss in the bath, kg m E s -3. Vw Total wake volume of all the bubbles in plume, m 3.
f Frequency of bubble formation, s-L z Distance in the axial direction, m.
F~ Drag force, kg m s -2. ot Gas fraction in the plume.
F Net force, kg m s -2. Turbulent kinetic energy dissipation per unit mass
g Acceleration due to gravity, m s -2. of liquid, m 2 s -3.
k Kinetic energy of turbulence, m s s -2. /x, Effective viscosity, kg m -] s-L
K Constant in Eq. [24], has a value of 0.012. /x, Turbulent viscosity, kg m-l s-l.
KI Constant in Eq. [20], has a value of 0.18, m ~/3. PL Density of liquid, kg m -3.
K' Constant in Eq. [21A], has a value of or Surface tension of liquid, kg s -2.
3.26 x 104, s -I/2. Vt Turbulent kinematic viscosity, m s s-l.
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONSB VOLUME 13B, JUNE 1982--201
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METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B