SEMINAR #1.

OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE

1. BEOWULF

Questions for text analysis

1. Notice which characteristics of epics appear in Beowulf.
2. Decide what virtues the hero embodies. Determine the hero's role in bringing about any
changes in fortune for the characters.
1. What traditions and customs of Anglo-Saxons can be traced in the excerpts?
.( How did the Anglo-Saxon society, development, and culture influence the literature of
the time, including Beowulf? Discuss at least three influences, and support your answer
with details from the poem.)
A. The Anglo-Saxon society, development, and culture influenced the literature of the
time because it is the beginning of literature. Anglo-Saxon used to be Old English and
without it, we wouldn’t have English like it’s known today. Beowulf is the very
beginning of it all.
A. The Anglo-Saxon society, development and culture influence the literature of the time
because they loved heroic battles and stories about epic heroes, like Beowulf. Beowulf
has all the key elements of Anglo-Saxon literature because of his strength, bravery, and
willingness to go into battle.

2. How does the author describe Grendel ?

Grendel is a character in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf (AD 700–
1000). ... A descendant of Cain, Grendel is described as "a creature of darkness,
exiled from happiness and accursed of God, the destroyer and devourer of our
human kind".
3. How does the author describe Beowulf? What characteristics of an Anglo-Saxon Hero
does he possess?
The protagonist of the epic, Beowulf is a Geatish hero who fights the monster
Grendel, Grendel's mother, and a fire-breathing dragon. Beowulf's boasts and
encounters reveal him to be the strongest, ablest warrior around.  In his youth, he
personifies all of the best values of the heroic culture. In his old age, he proves a
wise and effective ruler.
4. What are the Christian Morals in the poem? Find examples to prove the following: the
events described take place in a pagan culture, but the poet credits the Cristian God and
the Christian ethic for the triumph of good over evil.
1) Throughout the story of Beowulf, one finds many elements
of Christian philosophy: that man survives only through the protection of
God, that all earthly gifts flow from God, and that the proper bearing of man is
to be humble and unselfish.
5. How is the sea depicted in the poem? Find pagan explanation of the sea storm
1) Next to earth, water is the most recognizable and prevalent element in Beowulf. It
permeates the poem since Beowulf and his comrades sail over the sea when they
come to Heorot, Beowulf’s monster-slaying credentials are laid out in the open ocean
with the “niceras” (water monsters), and he spends a good portion of a day swimming
to confront Grendel’s mother. Water in the poem provides different societies with a
variety of uses; water separates many, but not all, of the societies in the poem, and
provides a boundary marker that helps establish their individual hegemony; it is also a
means of establishing the heroic credentials that Beowulf needs to conquer both
Grendel and later his mother by diving into the mere and confronting them in their
 lair; finally, water also represents how these societies used the sea as travel and how
this travel affected their relations with each other
2) descriptions like the icy and stormy sea, the marshy land and the
storm swept sea permeate the poem with pagan spirits.
6. How is Hrothgar’s wife described in the poem? What was her role at feasts? Is she a
perfect match for the king?
Wealhtheow
Hrothgar’s wife, the gracious queen of the
Danes.
She is like a waitress
How is the role of Wealhtheow, Hrothgar's
wife, described&

7. Find the following examples of structuring in the excerpts:

a. Digression
The digression is used to hint to Beowulf’s fight with the dragon,
becoming king, and tell what kind of king Beowulf will not be in
the future. The digression begins as a story of a legendary king
named Sigemund who is very similar to Beowulf. Sigemund and
Beowulf have the same characteristics that earn them glory and
fame; both of the men are admirable warriors known for bravery,
high moral values and leadership qualities. The digression also is
foreshadowing Beowulf’s destiny to become king of his people
and his future battle with a dragon; the details of Sigemund’s fight
with the dragon and Beowulf’s match up almost perfectly.
b. Flashforward
One example of the use of flashback in Beowulf comes when
Beowulf answers Unferth’s challenge about his swimming contest
with Breca. In this part of the poem, Unferth questions the truth
of Beowulf’s claims about defeating Breca, but Beowulf responds
with a flashback in which he describes in some detail what the
contest was like. For five nights, he says, they swam through the
oceans wearing chain mail and with swords drawn to fend off
whales and sea monsters. Beowulf slays nine of the monsters and
claims that because of his valor, ships are no longer bothered by
these creatures. Exhausted, he arrives on the coast of Finland.

The point of this flashback is twofold: to assert Beowulf’s

superiority as a warrior and to challenge Unferth. Beowulf says
that if Unferth had been as brave in reality as he is in his boasts,
there would never have been a Grendel problem in the first place.
He concludes his flashback by asserting that his purpose in
coming to Heorat is to destroy Grendel and restore glory to
Hrothgar—or die trying.
 c. flashback.
A flashback can be described as a past event that is inserted in
literature and serves the purpose of taking the story back in
time.

A challenge by Unferth on Beowulf’s ability to defeat Grendel

introduces a flashback where Unferth tries to discredit Beowulf’s
ability by referring to a previous swimming competition between
Beowulf and Breca. According to Unferth, Breca won the
competition after he emerged from the water first. 
Are you that Beowulf who with Breca strove, on the open sea
over a swimming match, where you two out of pride tempted the
floods

However, Beowulf informs him that he had to battle sea

monsters, which delayed him. Beowulf adds that he successfully
defeated those beasts and managed to emerge from the water.
Beowulf goes ahead to defeat Grendel, and Unferth’s doubts are
laid to rest. The flashback, in this case, serves to build the
audiences’ perception of Beowulf as a valiant warrior.

8. Analyse the language and stylistic devices of the poem. Mark the examples of figurative
language in the margin.
Was written in old English
2) allegory
A figure of speech where characters, figure, and events represent abstract ideas and principles
 ex: Heorot 
 Heorot is an example of an allegory because the city symbolizes a civilization, power, and unity.
Heorot is the place where all the civilians live, a place where the warrior of all the tribes unite
together, and the place where the kings create riches. 

alliteration
A stylistic device in which a number of words (that occur close together) have the same first consonant
sound. 

 ex: “Then out of the night came the shadow-stalker, stealthy and swift; the hall guards were slack
asleep at their posts.” (lines 700-702)

 This quote is an example of alliteration because of the repetition of the “s” sound, which is seen in
the words “shadow,” “stalker,” “stealthy,” “swift,” and “slack.”
allusion
An indirect reference to a person, place, thing, or idea that relates to history, literature, cultures, or
politics. 
 ex: “In misery among the banished monsters, Cain’s clan, whom the creator had outlawed and
condemned as outcasts. For the killing of Abel The Eternal Lord had exacted a price.” (lines 105-
108)
 This quote is a reference to a biblical story - the story of Cain and Abel. The author does
not explain the entire story of Cain and Abel - he just refers to it and expects the reader to
already be familiar with the story. The author includes this reference in order to create a
deeper understanding of the Grendel’s background.
anaphora 
An intentional repetition of the first part of a sentence over a group of
sentences. Used to create emphasis of certain words or phrases.  

 ex: “I guarantee you:she will  not get away, not to dens under
ground nor upland groves nor the ocean floor.” (lines 1392-1394)

This quote is an anaphora because the word “nor” is repeated three

times in the phrases in this sentence.  
aphorism
A statement of truth and/or opinion that is phrased in a simplistic and witty
manner. 
 ex: “Behavior that’s admired is the path to power among people
everywhere.” (lines 24-25)
 This quote is an example of aphorism because it represents how
people must develop a sense of respect and gratitude for a person,
in order for that person to rise to power one day. This statement is
phrased in a short, witty manner in the quote and still manages to
get the message across.  

apostrophe
A figure of speech in which a writer or speaker detaches themselves from
reality by addressing an imaginary character or object in their speech. 

 ex: “So arise, my lord, and let us immediately set forth on the trail of
this troll-dam.” (lines 1390-1391) 

 This quote is an example of an apostrophe because Beowulf is

detaching from the subject of death by speaking to God, a powerful
deity that the Geats and Danes believe in.

archetype
A typical character, action, or situation that represent a universal pattern of
human nature.
 ex: Beowulf as a heroic archetype 

 Beowulf is an example of a heroic archetype because he

exemplifies an ample amount of courage (with his fight with
Grendel), is admired for his courageous deeds with rewards, and
dies a hero (with the dragon).

caste
A specific dialect spoken by specific hereditary classes in a society. 
  ex: The West Saxon and Anglican dialects of Old English
 Beowulf was originally written in Old English and was then later
translated into the modern English language. This is an example of
a caste because Old English was used back then as the language
spoken by the tribes described in the poem.

chiasmus
A literary scheme in which words or concepts are introduced in a specific
order and are then those terms (or terms similar to those) are repeated
again in reverse order.  
 ex: "Fate spare the man it has not already marked." (line 573)
 This is an example of a chiasmus because there is a rearranging in
the order of ideas in this quote. In the first part of the sentence the
noun "man" occurs toward the end of the clause, while in the
second part of the sentence the pronoun "it" comes toward the
beginning of the clause. 

conceit
A comparison that is unusual or complex. Usually involves unlikely
metaphors, similes, hyperbole, and contradictions. 
 ex: "Haunting the marches, marauding round the heath and the
desolate fens; he had dwelt for a time in misery among the
banished monsters, Cain's clan, whom the Creator had outlawed
and condemned as outcasts." (lines 103-107)
 This is an example of a conceit because through the use of detailed
figurative language (imagery and metaphors) the author is able to
describe the area where Grendel lives and how he lives in misery.

elegiac
A poem that mourns or laments over the death of someone.

 ex: “They extolled his heroic nature and exploits and gave thanks
for his greatness, which was the proper thing , for a man should
praise whom he hold dear and cherish his memory when that
moment comes when he has to be convoyed from his bodily home.
So the Geat people, his hearth companions, sorrowed for the lord
who had been laid low.” (lines 3173-3179)
 At the end of the poem, the Geats all gather up and lament over the
loss of their king, Beowulf, who died because of the dragon. In his
honor, they build a mound for Beowulf and have twelve warriors
 circle around it.

epic
A genre of classical poetry. It is a poem that:is a long narrative about a
serious topic;told in a high-leveled style of language;focuses on the
characteristics of a hero who represents the cultural, religious, national, and
ethnic elements of a society;the hero’s success or failure determines the
fate of the people of a society;vast setting;superhuman accomplishments or
strength; begins with a muse to inspire the poet;contains a long history of
kings
 ex: The entire poem of Beowulf is an epic.
 The poem is an epic because it focuses on one hero, which in this
case is Beowulf. Beowulf then fights three monsters: Grendel,
Grendel’s mother, and the dragon. His superhuman strength allows
him to defeat Grendel and Grendel’s mother. Unfortunately,
Beowulf tragic death occurs during his fight with the dragon at the
end of the poem. Nevertheless, Beowulf is still an inspirational
representation of society because of his courage, strength, and
confidence.  

epithet
A short, poetic nickname that usually contains one to two adjectives
attached to a name.
 ex: “The Lord of Life” (line 16)
 This epithet used in the poem is used as another name for God.
The epithet, “The Lord is Life” is more descriptive than just saying
God but they both still mean the same thing.  

homily
A sermon (or a short encouraging literary work) that is read to instruct a
group of listeners spiritually or morally.

 ex:  “Heremod was different,The way he behaved to Ecgwala’s

sons. His rise in the world brought little joy to the Danish people,
only death and destruction.He vented his rage on people he
caroused with,Killed his own comrades, a pariah king who cut
himself off from his own kind,Even though God Almighty had made
him eminent and powerful and marked him from the start for a
happy life.  But a change happened,He grew bloodthirsty, gave no
 more rings to honor the Danes.  He suffered in the end for having
plagued his people for so long:His life lost happiness.  So learn
from this and understand true values.  I who tell you have wintered
into wisdom.” (lines 1709-1725)
 After Beowulf is victorious over the battles between Grendel and
Grendel’s mother, he is caught up in pride and fame. However,
through a short story about Ecgwala, Hrothgar warns Beowulf about
the dangers of fame. Therefore, this is an example of a homily
because Hrothgar is informing Beowulf about a moral subject
( dangers of too much pride) to Beowulf using a short story.  

hubris
Consequential pride and arrogance in a character that ultimately leads to
the character's downfall (such as death or defeat). 
 ex: “I risked my life often when I was young. Now I am old, but as
king of the people I shall pursue this fight for the glory of winning, if
the evil one will only abandon his earth-fort and face me in the
open.” (lines 2511-2115)

 After Beowulf was victorious in the battles against Grendel and

Grendel’s mother, Beowulf became very prideful. Beowulf believed
that he would be able to handle fighting the dragon (that now
disturbed his city) alone with only his mail-shirt and shield.
However, the dragon was more powerful than Beowulf thought. The
dragon ends up biting Beowulf’s neck, which kills Beowulf because
of the venom that infected him.

9. Find examples of elevated style. What makes the narration elevated?

Example of elevated style in Beowulf

Beowulf is written in poem form using couplets and includes figurative language and
sound devices
 Excerpt I
[THE HALL HEOROT IS ATTACKED BY GRENDEL]
Then was success in war granted to Hrothgar, glory in battle, so that the men of his house
served him willingly, till the young warriors increased, a mighty troop of men.
It came into his mind that he would order men to build a hall, a house of feasting [greater]
than the sons of men had ever heard of—and therewithin he would apportion all things to young
and old, whatever God have given him, except public land and the lives of men.
Then I heard that orders for the work were given far and wide to many a nation
throughout this earth to adorn the people's hall. In time—quickly among men—it befell that it
was all ready—the greatest of houses. He who by his word had ruled far and wide devised for it
the name of Heorot. He did not break his promise, but gave out rings and treasure at the banquet.
The hall towered high, lofty and wide-gabled—it awaited the hostile surges of malignant
fire. Nor was the time yet near at hand that cruel hatred between son-in-law and father-in-law
should arise, because of a deadly deed of violence.
Then the mighty spirit who dwelt in darkness bore grievously a time of hardship, in that
he heard each day loud revelry in hall —there was the sound of the harp, the clear song of the
minstrel.
He who could recount the first making of men from distant ages, spoke. He said that the
Almighty made the earth, a fair and bright plain, which water encompasses, and, triumphing in
power, appointed the radiance of the sun and moon as light for the land-dwellers, and decked the
earth-regions with branches and leaves. He fashioned life for all the kinds that live and move.
So those brave men lived prosperously in joy, until one began to compass deeds of
malice.
That grim spirit was called Grendel, the renowned traverser of the marches, who held the
moors, the fen and fastness; unblessed creature, he dwelt for a while in the lair of monsters, after
the Creator had condemned them. On Cain's kindred did the everlasting Lord avenge the murder,
for that he had slain Abel; he had no joy of that feud, but the Creator drove him far from
mankind for that misdeed. Thence all evil broods were born, ogres and elves and evil spirits—the
giants also, who long time fought with God, for which he gave them their reward.
II. So, after night had come, Grendel went to the lofty house, to find how the Ring-Danes
had disposed themselves in it after their ale-drinking. Then found he therewithin a band of noble
warriors, sleeping after the banquet; they knew not sorrow, the sad lot of mortals.
Straightway the grim and greedy creature of damnation, fierce and furious, was ready,
and seized thirty thanes in their resting place. Thence he went back again, exulting in plunder,
journeying home, to seek out his abode with that fill of slaughter.
Then in the morning light, at break of day, Grendel's strength in war was manifest to
men; then was a cry, a mighty noise at morn, upraised after the feasting. The famous prince, the
prince well known of old, sat downcast. Strong in might he suffered, endured sorrow for his
lieges, when they surveyed the traces of the foe, the accursed spirit; that strife was too strong, too
hateful and long-lasting.
There was no longer respite, but after one night he again wrought greater deeds of
murder, violence and outrage, and had no regret therefore—he was too deep in them. Then was
the man easy to find who sought elsewhere more remote a resting place for himself, a bed among
the outbuildings, when the hall-warden's hate had been declared to him, and truthfully made
known by a clear token. He who escaped the fiend kept himself afterwards farther off and more
secure.
In this way he was master, and strove, opposed to right, one against all; until the best of
houses stood deserted.
It was a long while: twelve winters' space the Scyldings' lord endured distress—every
kind of woe, deep sorrows. Therefore it was then without concealment made known to sons of
men—sadly in song—that Grendel fought for a long time against Hrothgar—waged hate-
begotten feuds, outrage, and enmity for many seasons—continual strife; he would not make
peace with any man of the Danish host, nor cease from murder of the counselors there, nor make
a lawful compensation; and none need look for a handsome reparation at the slayer's hands.
But the demon, the dark death-shadow, ever pursued young and old; laid in wait for and
entrapped them. In the endless night he held the misty moors—men know not where such
mysterious creatures of hell go in their wanderings.
So many outrages, severe afflictions, did the foe of man, the fearful solitary, achieve in
quick succession. He held Heorot, the hall adorned with treasure, on the dark nights. He could
not approach the throne, nor receive a gift because of the Lord; He did not take thought of him.
That was great heartbreaking sorrow to the guardian of the Scyldings. Many a mighty one
sat oft in council, sought for a wise plan —what it were best for men of courage to contrive
against the sudden terrors. Sometimes they vowed sacrifices at the tabernacles of idols—prayed
aloud that the destroyer of souls would provide them help against the distress of the people. Such
was their custom— the hope of the heathen—they remembered hellish things in the thoughts of
their hearts. They knew not the Creator, Judge of deeds; they knew not the Lord God, nor, truly,
had they learned to worship the Protector of the heavens, the glorious Ruler.
Woe shall it be to him who is destined in dire distressful wise to thrust his soul into the
fire's embrace, to hope for no comfort, in no way to change.
Weal shall be his, who may after his death-day stand before the Lord, and seek peace in
the Father's arms!

Excerpt II
[THE FEAST AT HEOROT]
Then a bench was cleared in the banqueting-hall for the men of the Geats, all together;
thither went the bold ones to sit, exulting in strength. A servant did his office, who bore in his
hands a decorated ale-cup, and poured out the bright liquor. Now and again a minstrel sang,
clear-voiced in Heorot. There was revelry among the heroes—no small company of Danes and
Geats.
VIII. Then Unferth, the son of Ecglaf, who sat at the feet of the lord of the Scyldings,
spoke, and gave vent to secret thoughts of strife. The journey of Beowulf the brave seafarer, was
a great chagrin to him; for he grudged that any other man under heaven should ever obtain more
glory on this earth than he himself.
"Art thou that Beowulf who strove with Breca, contended with him in the open sea, in a
swimming-contest, when ye two for vainglory tried the floods, and ventured your lives in deep
water for idle boasting? Nor could any man, friend or foe, dissuade you from your sorry
enterprise when ye journeyed on the sea; when ye compassed the flowing stream with your arms,
passed over the paths of the sea, made quick movements with your hands, and sped over the
ocean; when the sea, the winter's flood, surged with waves. Ye two toiled in the water's realm
seven nights; he overcame thee at swimming: he had greater strength. Then, at morning-time, the
ocean cast him up on the Heathoraemas' land. Thence, dear to his people, he sought his beloved
fatherland, the land of the Brondings, his fair stronghold, where he had subjects and treasures
and a stronghold. The son of Beanstan performed faithfully in the contest with thee all that he
had pledged himself to. So I expect from thee a worse issue - though thou hast everywhere
prevailed in rush of battle, stern war - if thou darest await Grendel at close quarters for the space
of a night."
Beowulf, son of Ecgtheow, replied: "Lo, my friend Unferth, thou hast talked a great deal,
drunken with beer, concerning Breca, and hast said much about his adventure! I claim it to be
true that I had more strength in swimming, more hard struggle in the waves, than any other man.
"When we were young men, we two agreed and pledged ourselves - we were both then
still in the time of youth - that we would venture our lives out on the sea; and that we did,
accordingly. When we swam in the sea we had a naked sword, rigid in hand - we thought to
guard ourselves against whales. He could not by any means swim far from me in the surging
waves, swifter in the sea than I - I did not wish to go from him. Thus we two were together in the
sea for the space of five nights, till the flood, the tossing seas, the bitter-cold weather, the
darkening night, drove us apart, and the fierce north wind turned against us - rough were the
waves. The wrath of the sea-fishes was aroused; then my corselet, hard and linked by hand,
furnished me help against the foes; the woven shirt of mail, adorned with gold, covered my
breast. A hostile deadly brute dragged me to the bottom, the grim beast had me fast in his grip.
Still, it was granted to me that I might strike the monster with my sword-point, with my fighting
weapon; the force of battle carried off the sea-beast by my hand.
IX. "Thus did the hateful persecutors press me hard and often. With my noble sword I
served them as was fitting. The base destroyers did not have the joy of that feast—that they
might eat me - sitting round the banquet at the sea-bottom. But at morning they lay wounded by
swords, up along the foreshore - slain by battle blades - so that henceforth, they could not hinder
seafarers in their passage over the deep waterway. The sun, bright beacon of God, came from,
the east; the waters grew calm, so that I could descry sea-headlands, wind-swept cliffs. Often
Fate saves an undoomed man, if his courage is good! Yet it was granted me to slay nine sea-
monsters with my sword! Never have I been told of harder struggle at night under the vault of
heaven, nor of a man more wretched in the ocean streams. Yet I escaped the grip of the monsters
with my life, weary of my enterprise. Then the sea-flood bore me by its current, the surging
ocean, to the land of the Lapps.
"I have never heard such contests, such peril of swords related about thee. Never yet did
Breca at the battle-play, nor either of you, perform so bold a deed with shining swords. I do not
boast much of that; though thou wast the slayer of thy brothers - thy near kinsmen; for that thou
shalt suffer damnation in hell, good though thy skill may be. In truth I tell thee, son of Ecglaf,
that Grendel the horrible demon, would never have done so many dread deeds to thy prince, such
havoc in Heorot, if thy heart, thy spirit, were as warlike as thou sayest thyself. But he has found
out that he need not too much dread the enmity, the terrible sword-storm of your people, the
victorious Scyldings. He takes toll by force, spares none of the Danish people; but he rejoices,
kills, and destroys, and cares not for the opposition of the Spear-Danes.
"Now, however, I shall quickly show him the strength and courage, the war-craft of the
Geats. Afterwards - when the morning-light of another day, the sun encompassed with light,
shines from the south over the sons of men - he who may shall go boldly to the mead-drinking!"
Then the giver of treasure, gray-haired and famed in battle, was in joyful mood; the
prince of the glorious Danes counted on help; the shepherd of the people heard from Beowulf his
firm resolve.
There was laughter of warriors, song sounded forth, the words were joyous. Wealhtheow,
Hrothgar's queen, went forth, mindful of court usage; gold-adorned, she greeted the men in hall,
and then the noble woman gave the cup first to the guardian of the land of the East-Danes, and
bade him be joyful at the beer-drinking, lovable to his people. He, the victorious king, partook in
gladness of the feast and hall-cup.
Then the lady of the Helmings went round every part of the hall, to old and young;
proffered the costly goblet; until the time came that she, the diademed queen, ripe in judgment,
bore the mead-cup to Beowulf. She greeted the prince of the Geats, and, discreet in speech,
thanked God that her desire had been fulfilled, that she might look to some warrior for help from
these attacks.
He, the warrior fierce in battle, received the cup from Wealhtheow, and then made a
speech, eager for the fray. Beowulf, son of Ecgtheow, said:
"When I put to sea, went into the ship with my company of men, I purposed that I would
once for all carry out the wish of your people, or fall in death, fast in the clutches of the foe! I
will show the courage of a hero, or in this mead-hall pass my latest day!" These words pleased
the lady full well - the Geat's high-sounding speech. The noble queen of the people, adorned with
gold, went to sit by her lord.
Then again, as of old, brave words were spoken in the hall, the people were in gladness, there
was the clamor of a conquering warrior; until at length the son of Healfdene wished to go to his
evening rest. He knew that an attack was purposed against the high hall by the evil spirit, from
the time that they could see the sun's light, until darkening night was over all - when shadowy
shapes of darkness came stalking, dusky beneath the clouds.
The whole company rose. Then the heroes Hrothgar and Beowulf saluted each other, and
Hrothgar wished him success, power in the banqueting-hall, and said these words: "Never yet
have I entrusted the noble hall of the Danes to any man, since I could lift hand and shield, save
now to thee. Take now and guard this best of houses, be mindful of thy fame, make known thy
mighty valor, watch against the foe. Thou shalt lack nothing of what thou wilt, if thou dost
escape this bold adventure with thy life."

Excerpt III
[CELEBRATION AT HEOROT]

Other hands were then pressed to prepare the inside

of the banqueting-hall, and briskly too.
Many were ready, both men and women,
to adorn the guest-hall. Gold-embroidered tapestries
glowed from the walls, with wonderful sights
for every creature that cared to look at them.
The bright building had badly started
in all its inner parts, despite its iron bands,
and the hinges were ripped off. Only the roof survived
unmarred and in one piece when the monstrous one,
flecked with his crimes, had fled the place
in despair of his life.
But to elude death
is not easy: attempt it who will,
he shall go to the place prepared for each
of the sons of men, the soul-bearers
dwelling on earth, ordained them by fate:
laid fast in that bed, the body shall sleep
when the feast is done.
In due season
the king himself came to the hall;
Healfdene's son would sit at the banquet.
No people has gathered in greater retinue,
borne themselves better about their ring-giver.
Men known for their courage came to the benches,
rejoiced in the feast; they refreshed themselves kindly
with many a mead-cup; in their midst the brave kinsmen,
father's brother and brother's son,
Hrothgar and Hrothulf. Heorot's floor was
filled with friends: falsity in those days
had no place in the dealings of the Danish people.

Then as a sign of victory the son of Healfdene

bestowed on Beowulf a standard worked in gold,
figured battle-banner, breast and head-armour;
and many admired the marvellous sword
that was borne before the hero. Beowulf drank with
the company in the hall. He had no cause to be ashamed of
gifts so fine before the fighting-men!
I have not heard that many men at arms
have given four such gifts of treasure
more openly to another at the mead.
At the crown of the helmet, the head-protector,
was a rim, with wire wound round it, to stop
the file-hardened blade that fights have tempered
from shattering it, when the shield-warrior
must go out against grim enemies.

The king then ordered eight war-horses

with glancing bridles to be brought within walls
and onto the floor. Fretted with gold
and studded with stones was one saddle there!
This was the battle-seat of the Bulwark of the Danes,
when in the sword-play the son of Healfdene
would take his part; the prowess of the king
had never failed at the front where the fighting was mortal:
The Protector of the Sons of Scyld then gave
both to Beowulf, bidding him take care
to use them well, both weapons and horses.
Thus did the glorious prince, guardian of the treasure,
reward these deeds, with both war-horses and armour;
of such open-handedness no honest man
could ever speak in disparagement

Then the lord of men also made a gift

of treasure to each who had adventured with Beowulf
over the sea's paths, seated now at the benches –
an old thing of beauty. He bade compensation
to be made too, in gold, for the man whom Grendel
had horribly murdered; more would have gone
had not the God overseeing us, and the resolve of a man,
stood against this Weird, The Wielder guided then
the dealings of mankind, as He does even now.
A mind that seeks to understand and grasp this
is therefore best Both bad and good, .
and much of both, must be borne in a lifetime
spent on this earth in these anxious days.

Then string and song sounded together

before Healfdene's Helper-in-battle:
the lute was taken up and tales recited .
when Hrothgar's bard was bidden to sing
a hall-song for the men on the mead-benches.
It was how disaster came to the sons of Finn:
first the Half-Dane champion, Hnaf of the Scyldings,
was fated to fall in the Frisian ambush.
Hildeburgh their lady had little cause to speak
Of the good faith of the Jutes; guiltless she had suffered
in that linden-wood clash the loss of her closest ones,
her son and her brother, both born to die there,
struck down by the spear. Sorrowful princess!
This decree of fate the daughter of Hoc ,
mourned with good reason; for when morning came
the clearness of heaven disclosed to her
the murder of those kindred who were die cause of all earthly bliss.
Battle had also claimed
all but a few of Finn's retainers
in that place of assembly; he was unable therefore
to bring to a finish the fight with Hengest,
force out and crush the few survivors
of of Hnaf's troop. The truce-terms they put to him
were that he should make over a mead-hall to the Danes,
with high-seat and floor; half of it
to be held by diem, half by the Jutes.
In sharing out goods, that the son of Folcwalda
should every day give honour to the Danes
of Hengest's party, providing rings
and prizes from the hoard, plated with gold,
treating them identically in the drinking-hall
as when he chose to cheer his own Frisians.
On both sides they then bound themselves fast
in a pact of friendship. Finn then swore
strong unexceptioned oaths to Hengest
to hold in honour, as advised by his counsellors,
the battle-survivors; similarly no man
by word or deed to undo the pact,
as by mischievous cunning to make complaint of it,
despite that they were serving the slayer of their prince,
since their lordless state so constrained them to do;
but that if any Frisian should fetch the feud to mind
and by taunting words awaken the bad blood,
it should be for the sword's edge to settle it then.

The pyre was erected, the ruddy gold

brought from the hoard, and the best warrior of Scylding race
was ready for the burning. Displayed on his pyre, plain to see
Were the bloody mail-shirt, the boars on the helmets,
iron-hard, gold-clad; and gallant men about him
all marred by their wounds; mighty men had fallen there.
Hildeburgh then ordered her own son
to be given to the funeral fire of Hnaf
for the burning of his bones; bade him be laid
at his uncle's side. She sang the dirges,
bewailed her grief. The warrior went up;
the greatest of corpse-fires coiled to the sky,
roared before the mounds. There were melting heads
and bursting wounds, as the blood sprang out
from weapon-bitten bodies. Blazing fire,
most insatiable of spirits, swallowed the remains
of the victims of both nations. Their valour was no more.

The warriors then scattered and went to their homes.

Missing their comrades, they made for Friesland,
the home and high stronghold. But Hengest still,
as he was constrained to do, stayed with Finn
a death-darkened winter in dreams of his homeland.
He was prevented from passage of the sea
in his ring-beaked boat: the boiling ocean
fought with the wind; winter locked the seas
in his icy binding; until another year
came at last to the dwellings, as it does still,
continually keeping its season,
the weather of rainbows.
Now winter had fled
and earth's breast was fair, the exile strained
to leave these lodgings; yet it was less the voyage
What exercised his mind than the means of his vengeance,
the bringing about of the bitter conflict
that he meditated for the men of the Jutes.
So he did not decline the accustomed remedy,
when the son of Hunlaf set across his knees
that best of blades, his battle-gleaming sword;
the Giants were acquainted with the edges of that steeL

And so, in his hall, at the hands of his enemies,

Finn received the fatal sword-thrust;
Guthlaf and Oslaf, after the sea-crossing,
proclaimed their tribulations, their treacherous entertainment,
and named the author of them; anger in the breast
rose irresistible. Red was the hall then
with the lives of foemen. Finn was slain there,
the king among his troop, and the queen taken.
The Scylding crewmen carried to the ship
The hall-furnishings of Friesland's king,
all they could find at Finnsburgh
in gemstones and jewelwork. Journeying back,
tthey returned to the Danes their true-born lady,
restored her to her people.
Thus the story was sung,
the gleeman's lay. Gladness mounted,
bench-mirth rang out, the bearers gave
wine from wonderful vessels. Then came Wealhtheow
forward,
going with golden crown to where the great heroes
were sitting, uncle and nephew; their bond was sound at
that time,
each was true to the other. Likewise Unferth the spokesman
sat at the footstool of Hrothgar. All had faith in his spirit,
accounted his courage great - though toward his kinsmen
he had not been kind at the clash of swords.
The Scylding queen then spoke:
'Accept this cup, my king and lord,
giver of treasure. Let your gaiety be shown,
gold-friend of warriors, and to the Geats speak
in words of friendship, for this well becomes a man.
Be gracious to these Geats, and let the gifts
you have had from near and far, not be forgotten now.

I hear it is your wish to hold this warrior

henceforward as your son. Heorot is cleansed,
the ring-hall bright again: therefore bestow
while you may these blessings liberally,
and leave to your kinsmen
the land and its people when your passing is decreed,
your meeting with fate. For may I not count
on my gracious Hrothulf to guard honourably
our young ones here, if you, my lord,
should give over this world earlier than he?
I am sure that he will show to our children
answerable kindness, if he keeps in remembrance
all that we have done to indulge and advance him,
the honours we bestowed on him when he was still a child.

Then she turned to the bench where her boys

were sitting, Hrethric and Hrothmund among the heroes' sons,
young men together; the good man was seated
there too between the two brothers, Beowulf the Geat.
Then the cup was taken to him and he was entreated kindly
to honour their feast; ornate gold
was presented in trophy: two arm-wreaths,
with robes and rings also, and the richest collar
I have ever heard of in all the world.

Never under heaven have I heard of a finer

prize among heroes - since Hama carried off
the Brising necklace to his bright city,
that gold-cased jewel; he gave the slip
to the machinations of Eormentic, and made his name forever.

This gold was to be on the neck of the grandson of

Swerting
on the last of his harryings, Hygelac the Geat,
as he stood before the standard astride his plunder,
defending his war-haul: Weird struck him down;
in his superb pride he provoked disaster
in the Frisian feud. This fabled collar
the great war-king wore when he crossed
the foaming waters; he fell beneath his shield.
The king's person passed into Frankish hands,
together with his corselet, and this collar also.
They were lesser men that looted the slain;
for when the carnage was over, the corpse-field was littered
with the people of the Geats.
Applause filled the hall;
then Wealhtheow spoke, and her words were attended.
'Take pride in this jewel, have joy of this mantle
drawn from our treasuries, most dear Beowulf!
May fortune come with them and may you flourish in your youth!
Proclaim your strength; but in counsel to these boys
be a gentle guardian, and my gratitude will be seen.
Already you have so managed that men everywhere
will hold you in honour for all time,
even to the cliffs at the world's end, washed by Ocean,
the wind's range. All the rest of your life
must be happy, prince; and prosperity I wish you too,
abundance of treasure! But be to my son
a friend in deed, most favoured of men.
You see how open is each earl here with his neighbour,
temperate of heart, and true to his lord.
The nobles are loyal, the lesser people dutiful;
wine mellows the men to move to my bidding.'

She walked back to her place. What a banquet that was!

The men drank their wine: the weird they did not know,
destined from of old, the doom that was to fall
on many of the earls there. When evening came
Hrothgar departed to his private bower,
the king to his couch; countless were the men
who watched over the hall, as they had often done before.
They cleared away the benches, and covered the floor
with beds and bolsters: the best at the feast
bent to his hall-rest, hurried to his doom.
Each by his head placed his polished shield,
the lindens of battle. On the benches aloft,
above each atheling, easily to be seen,
were the ring-stitched mail-coat, the mighty helmet
steepling above the fray, and the stout spear-shaft.
It was their habit always, at home or on campaign,
to be ready for war, in whichever case,
whatsoever the hour might be
that the need came on their lord: what a nation they were!

Excerpt IV
[BEOWULF'S FIGHT WITH THE DRAGON]
Then rose the doughty champion by his shield; bold under his helmet, he went clad in his
war-corselet to beneath the rocky cliffs, and trusted to his own strength - not such is the coward's
way. Then he, who, excellent in virtues, had lived through many wars - the tumult of battles,
when armies dash together - saw by the rampart a rocky arch whence burst a stream out from the
mound; hot was the welling of the flood with deadly fire. He could not any while endure
unscorched the hollow near the hoard, by reason of the dragon's flame.
Then did the chieftain of the Geats, in his rage, let a cry burst forth from his breast.
Stoutheartedly he stormed, his voice, distinct in battle, went ringing under the gray rock. Hate
was enkindled - the guardian of the hoard discerned the voice of man. No time was left to beg
for peace.
First came from out the rock the monster's breath, the hot vapor of battle; the earth
resounded. Under the mound the hero, Geatish lord, raised his shield's disk against the terrible
stranger. Then was the coiled creature's heart impelled to seek the contest.
 The doughty war-prince had drawn his sword, an ancient inheritance, very keen of edge;
in each one of the hostile pair was terror at the other. Stoutheartedly the lord of friends stood by
his upright shield, what time the serpent quickly coiled itself together; he waited in his armor.
Then, fiery and twisted, he came gliding towards him - hastening to his fate. The shield gave its
good shelter to the famous chief in life and limb a shorter time than had his longing looked for, if
he at that time, that first day, was to command victory in the contest: but Fate did not thus ordain
for him. The lord of the Geats swung his hand upwards, struck the grisly monster with his
mighty ancestral weapon, so that the bright blade gave way on his bone, and bit less firmly than
the warrior-king, driven to straits, had need.
Then was the guardian of the barrow fierce in spirit after the battle-stroke, and threw out
murderous fire; his hostile flames flew far and wide. The lord and treasure-giver of the Geats
boasted not of glorious victories; the bare war-weapon, the blade trusty in former times, had
failed him in the fray, as it should not have done. That was no pleasant journey, that the famous
son of Ecgtheow should have to leave the surface of this earth and inhabit against his will a
dwelling elsewhere - for so must every man give up his transitory days.
Not long was it before the champions met each other again. The guardian of the hoard
took fresh heart, his breast heaved with his breathing once again; and he who used to rule a
people suffered anguish, hedged about with flame. Never a whit did his comrades, those sons of
nobles, stand round him in a body, doing deeds of warlike prowess; but they shrank back into the
wood and took care of their lives. The heart of one of them alone surged with regrets - in him
who is right-thinking nothing can ever set aside the claims of kinship!
He was called Wiglaf, son of Weohstan, a much loved shield-warrior, a Scylfing prince,
kinsman of AElfhere. He perceived that his lord was tortured by the heat under his helmet. Then
he called to mind the favors which he had bestowed upon him in time past, the rich dwelling
place of the Waegmundings, and all power over the people, just as his father had it. And then he
could not forbear; his hand seized the disk, the yellow linden-shield, and he drew his ancient
sword. (The history of Wiglaf’s sword is here omitted)
This was the first time that the young champion was to go through the storm of battle
with his noble lord; his courage did not melt within him, nor did his kinsman's heirloom fail him
in the contest; the serpent found that out, when they had come together.
Wiglaf spoke many fitting words (sad was his soul) and said to his companions: "I
remember that time at which we drank the mead, how in the beer-hall we pledged ourselves to
our lord, who gave us the rings, that we would repay him for the war-equipments, the helmets
and hard swords, if any need like this befell him. He of his own will chose us among the host for
this adventure, deemed us worthy of honor, and gave to me these treasures, because he counted
us distinguished spear-men, gallant warriors beneath our helmets; although he, our lord, the
shepherd of his people, purposed to achieve this deed of bravery by himself, because he among
men had done the greatest acts of heroism, daring deeds. Now has the day come, when our liege
lord needs the strength of noble fighting-men. Let us go to him, and help our battle-leader, so
long as heat, grim fire-horror may be! As for myself, God knows, far rather had I that the flame
should swallow up my body with my generous lord. To me it does not seem fitting that we
should carry back our bucklers to our home, unless we may first fell the foe, and shield the life of
the lord of the Geats.
"Full well I know that this is not what he deserves for his past deeds, that he alone of the
noble warriors of the Geats should suffer affliction—fall in the fray. To us shall be in common
sword and helmet, corselet and coat of mail."
Then he plunged through the deadly fumes; went helmeted to help his lord; spoke in few
words: "Beloved Beowulf, accomplish all things well, just as thou saidst in youthful days of
yore, that thou wouldst never in thy life leave thy glory to fail. Now must thou, resolute chief,
renowned in deeds, protect thy life with all thy might: and I will help thee."
After these words, the serpent, the dread malicious spirit, came angrily a second time,
bright with surging fire, and fell upon his foes, the loathed mankind. His shield was burnt up to
the boss by waves of fire, his corselet could afford the youthful spear-warrior no help; but the
young man did valorously under his kinsman's shield after his own was destroyed by the flames.
Then once more the warlike prince was mindful of glorious deeds. By main force he struck with
his battle-sword so that it stuck in the head, driven in by the onslaught. Naegling snapped!
Beowulf's old, gray-hued sword failed him in the fray. It was not granted him that iron blades
should help him in the fight. The hand was too strong which, so I have heard, by its stroke
overstrained every sword, when he bore to the fray a weapon wondrous hard; it was none the
better for him.
Then a third time the people's foe, the dread fiery dragon, was intent on fighting. He
rushed upon the hero, when occasion favored him, hot and fierce in battle, and enclosed his
whole neck between his sharp teeth; he was bathed in life-blood - the gore gushed out in streams.
I am told that then in the dire need of the people's king, the noble warrior stood up and
showed his courage, his skill and daring, as his nature was. He cared not about the head: but the
brave man's hand was scorched the while he helped his kinsman, so that he, the man in armor,
struck the vengeful stranger a little lower down, in such wise that the sword, gleaming and
overlaid, plunged in, and the fire began thenceforth to abate.
Then the king himself once more gained sway over his senses, drew the keen deadly
knife, sharp in battle, that he wore upon his corselet, and the protector of the Geats cut through
the serpent in the middle. They had felled the foe: daring had driven out his life, and they, the
kindred nobles, had destroyed him. So should a man and chieftain be in time of need! That was
for the prince the last of days of victory by his own deeds - of work in the world.
Then the wound which erewhile the dragon had inflicted on him began to burn and swell;
quickly he found out that deadly venom seethed within his breast - poison within him.
Then the chieftain wise in thought went on until he sat on a seat by the rampart; he gazed
on the work of giants - how the ageless earth-dwelling contained within it vaulted arches, firm on
columns. Then with his hands the thane, exceedingly good, bathed with water the famous prince,
bloodstained from the battle, his friend and lord, exhausted by the fight, and undid his helmet.
Beowulf discoursed: despite his hurt, his grievous deadly wound, he spoke - he knew full
well that he had used up his time of earthly joy. Then was his count of days all passed away, and
death immeasurably near: "Now should I have wished to give my son my battle-garments, if it
had been so ordained that any heir, issue of my body, should come after me. I have ruled over
this people fifty winters; there was not one of the kings of neighboring tribes who dared
encounter me with weapons, or could weigh me down with fear. In my own home I awaited what
the times destined for me, kept my own well, did not pick treacherous quarrels, nor have I sworn
unjustly any oaths. In all this may I, sick with deadly wounds, have solace; because the Ruler of
men may never charge me with the murder of kinsfolk, when my life parts from my body.
"Now quickly do thou go, beloved Wiglaf, and view the hoard under the gray rock, now
that the serpent lies dead - sleeps sorely wounded and bereft of treasure. Haste now, that I may
see the ancient wealth, the golden store, may well survey the bright and curious gems; so that by
reason of the wealth of treasure I may leave life more calmly and the people which I ruled over
so long."

Excerpt IV
[BEOWULF’S FUNERAL]

The people of the Geats then made ready for him on the ground a firm-built funeral pyre,
hung round with helmets, battle-shields, bright corselets, as he had begged them to do. Then
mighty men, lamenting, laid in its midst the famous prince, their beloved lord. The warriors then
began to kindle on the mount the greatest of funeral pyres; the dark wood-smoke towered above
the blazing mass; the roaring flame mingled with the noise of weeping - the raging of the winds
had ceased - till it had crumbled up the body, hot to its core. Depressed in soul, they uttered forth
their misery, and mourned their lord's death. Moreover, the Geatish woman with hair bound up,
sang in memory of Beowulf a doleful dirge and said repeatedly that she greatly feared evil days
for herself, much carnage, the terror of the foe, humiliation and captivity.
Heaven swallowed up the smoke.
Then people of the Geats raised a mound upon the cliff, which was high and broad and
visible from far by voyagers on sea: and in ten days they built the beacon of the warrior bold in
battle.
The remnant of the burning they begirt with a wall in such sort as skilled men could plan
most worthy of him. In the barrow they placed collars and brooches - all such adornments as
brave-minded men had before taken from the hoard. They left the wealth of nobles to the earth to
keep - left the gold in the ground, where it still exists, as unprofitable to men as it had been
before.
Then the warriors brave in battle, sons of nobles, twelve in all, rode round the barrow;
they would lament their loss, mourn for their king, utter a dirge, and speak about their hero. They
reverenced his manliness, extolled highly his deeds of valor; so it is meet that man should praise
his friend and lord in words, and cherish him in heart when he must needs be led forth from the
body.
Thus did the people of the Geats, his hearth-companions, mourn the death of their lord,
and said that he had been of earthly kings the mildest and the gentlest of men, the kindest to his
people, and the most eager for fame.