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Reactions To Ideal Body Shapes
Reactions To Ideal Body Shapes
Reactions To Ideal Body Shapes
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Body image can influence quality of life (Nayir et al., 2016) and can be
negatively influenced by distress and cultural ideals (Campbell &
Hausenblas, 2009). Modern western culture values excessive thinness as an
ideal for females (Lawler & Nixon, 2011), but these ideals are largely
unrealistic as only 2% of women in the United States have the weight
required to meet these modeling inspired criteria (Strahan, Wilson,
Cressman, & Buote, 2006). The pressure to meet these “standards” can
harm self-esteem and body image (Polivy & Herman, 2002) and also cause
more muscle (Knauss et al., 2007). Also, images depicting this muscular
ideal have been found to adversely affect males who internalize the meso-
morphic ideal (Blond, 2008). Furthermore, many studies (Cohn & Adler,
1992; Fallon & Rozin, 1985; Phelps et al., 1993; Rozin & Fallon, 1988) have
found that men and women differ in their opinions as to the ideal body
figure preferred by the opposite gender. Women believe that men prefer a
thinner ideal female figure than the figures men actually prefer, reflecting
common beauty ideals that are difficult to attain (Bergstrom, Neighbors, &
Lewis, 2004). Likewise, men believe that women prefer males to have larger
bodies than those that women actually prefer (Fallon & Rozin, 1985). All in
all, both genders typically prefer opposite sex figures that more closely
represent the average healthy body shape.
Psychological distress is argued to play a key role in both the develop-
ment of mental health problems and the ability to cope with these condi-
tions (Deasy, Coughlan, Pironom, Jourdan, & Mannix-McNamara, 2014).
Further, there is an established relationship between body image, distress
(Blodorn et al., 2016) and eating disorders (Corstophine, Mountford,
Tomlinson, Waller, & Meyer, 2007; Hay & Williams, 2013). More distress
may indicate greater susceptibility to mass media (Corcoran, Crusius, &
Mussweiler, 2011) and accessing social media websites, such as Facebook,
which in turn has been associated with greater distress (Chen & Lee, 2013).
Given the role distress plays in mental health and well-being, as well as its
association with social media usage and eating disorders, distress is an
important aspect to investigate when researching behavior that may lead to
eating disorder onset.
Tiggemann and Zaccardo (2015) conducted an experiment involving a
large group of female participants who either viewed a set of “fitspiration”
Instagram images (oriented toward fit instead of thin appearance) or looked
at traveling images. Those exposed to fitspiration images reported greater
body dissatisfaction, lower mood and decreased self-esteem around their
appearance. Thus, given the widespread and frequent use of social media
websites, it is important to understand whether exposure to thinspirational
and bodybuilding material is contributing to eating disorder risk (Knauss
et al., 2007).
Study overview
The current study sought to replicate and extend Tiggemann and
Zaccardo’s (2015) research, but we also included males to investigate the
impact of bodybuilding Instagram posts. The present study aimed to
address the following research question – does exposure of males and
females to the images of difficult-to-accomplish beauty ideals lead to body
4 K. PRNJAK ET AL.
Measures
Stimulus material
Three sets of stimulus materials were compiled for the study, each contain-
ing 19 images originally sourced from publicly available Instagram profiles.
The thinspiration image set was made up of 19 pictures of females with
thin-ideal bodies from the “thinspiration” hashtag. The bodybuilding image
set was made up of 19 pictures of males with muscular-ideal bodies from
the “bodybuilding” hashtag. The house image set was made up of 19 pic-
tures of various external shots of houses from the “house” hashtag. Images
THE JOURNAL OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 5
of houses without people on it were chosen as neutral stimuli for the con-
trol group as they would not provide ideal bodies for viewers to compare
themselves to. Initial sets of 40 images per category were rated by a panel
of two women and one man, all recreational internet users in their 20 s.
Quality and visual appeal of images were rated on a 5-point Likert scale
(from 1 – very poor, to 5 – excellent). This was done to ensure the final
sets of images did not vary in perceived quality or visual appeal. The final
sets of images were similar for perceived quality, (F(2,54)¼0.734, p¼.485)
(thinspiration M ¼ 3.65, SD ¼ 0.63; bodybuilding M ¼ 3.47, SD ¼ 0.46;
houses M ¼ 3.47, SD ¼ 0.48), and similar for visual appeal (F(2,54)¼0.380,
p¼.686) (thinspiration M ¼ 3.63, SD ¼ 0.69; bodybuilding M ¼ 3.49,
SD ¼ 0.24; houses M ¼ 3.54, SD ¼ 0.47).
To ensure that participants attended to the images and evaluated them,
participants were required to rate images using semantic differential scales
(Osgood, Suci, & Tannenbaum, 1957). Participants had to rate each image
on 5-point scales separately for “strong-weak” (potency), “active-passive”
(activity), and “good-bad” (evaluation). Participants that did not rate these
images were not included in the data set.
Psychological distress
The Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10) was used to determine a
person’s level of general distress (Kessler et al., 2003). This brief 10-item
scale effectively measures distress and the severity of general psychological
symptoms across the 28 days prior to the questionnaire (e.g. “In the past
4 weeks, about how often did you feel nervous?”). Answers are rated along
a 1–5 scale, from “none of the time” to “all of the time”. Higher scores
indicate greater distress. Andrews and Slade (2001) obtained a correlation
of 0.30 between the K10 and frequency of consultations for a mental health
problem. The K10 has been found to correlate .37 with an eating disorder
inventory (Hay & Williams, 2013) and patients with eating disorder symp-
toms have significantly higher scores on the K10 (Mitchison, Dawson,
Hand, Mond, & Hay, 2016). Andrews and Slade (2001) described cutoff
scores according to normative data from the Australian national survey.
They found scores under 20 were likely to be well, while scores 20–24,
25–29 and 30 or over indicate a mild, moderate or severe mental disorder
respectively. In addition, good psychometric measures of K10 in Australian
population were reported by Slade, Grove, and Burgess (2011). For the cur-
rent study, under 20 was used as the cutoff to indicate not distressed par-
ticipants (denoting “well”), while 20 or over indicated potential distress. In
the present sample, the K10 obtained a Cronbach’s alpha of .91, which
indicates a high level of internal consistency.
6 K. PRNJAK ET AL.
figures, each with a composite face that ranged from underweight to class
III obesity. By administering this to a large sample of adults, Harris et al.
(2008) found the scale had strong psychometric properties. In the present
sample, the Photorealistic figure rating scale correlated significantly
(r ¼ .769, n ¼ 81, p < .001) with the Stunkard Figure Outline rating scale
(Mutale et al., 2016).
Procedure
Participants reported their age and gender in order to characterize the sam-
ple. Participants then answered the K10 to determine how distressed they
were, and indicated their preferred body shape on a Stunkard outline figure
rating scale. Participants were then randomly allocated to one of two
experimental conditions, either viewing house images (control group) or
ideal body images (experimental group). To randomly allocate participants
into a condition, a question asked whether the day of their date of birth
falls on an even numbered or odd numbered day. If the day they were
born was an even number, the questionnaire branched, and they viewed
the neutral stimuli (images of houses). If the day they were born was an
odd number, the questionnaire branched, and they viewed material
designed to influence body image: either thinspirational content if they
were female, or bodybuilding content if they were male.
Female participants then responded to the Drive for Thinness scale and
the Body Dissatisfaction Subscale. Male participants completed the Drive
for Thinness scale and the Male Body Attitudes Scale. Finally, participants
were presented with photorealistic figure rating scales and asked for their
ideal body type, and then, the body they would prefer for the opposite sex.
For photorealistic rating scales, Qualtrics recorded the location of the cur-
sor when the mouse was clicked, and the time spent on that web page
before clicking the mouse. Qualtrics produced a response density distribu-
tion (heat map) that indicates where more clicks had occurred. The data
collected from these measures were imported into SPSS version 24. All
measures, manipulations and exclusions in the study are reported.
Results
Semantic differential
Participants were asked to evaluate images along dimensions employed by
the Semantic Differential (Osgood et al., 1957). As a manipulation check, a
2 22 Gender by Idealistic Images by Distress between group measures
ANOVA was used to examine how the rated images were viewed by partic-
ipants. As the Semantic Differential has three orthogonal dimensions, an
8 K. PRNJAK ET AL.
Figure 1. Mean ± standard errors of ratings of body-ideal and control images by male and
female participants on Potency, Activity and Evaluation dimensions.
Potency
The assumption of the homogeneity of variance was not violated according
to the Levene’s test (F(7,192) ¼ 1.644, p ¼ .125). There was a significant
effect of Idealistic Images on ratings of potency (F(1,192) ¼ 16.337,
p < .001, gp2 ¼ .08). Idealistic images (M ¼ 3.63) were rated as being stron-
ger than images of houses (M ¼ 3.22). There was a significant Gender by
Idealistic Images interaction (F(1,192) ¼ 55.063, p < .001, gp2 ¼ .22). Simple
main effects indicated that images of body builders were rated as being
“stronger” than images of houses by males (F(1,192) ¼ 59.248, p < .05), but
females viewed thinspirational images as being weaker than houses
(F(1,192) ¼ 8.235, p < .05).
Activity
For ratings of activity the assumption of the homogeneity of variance was
not violated according to the Levene’s test (F(7,192) ¼ .728, p ¼ .649). There
was a significant effect of Idealistic Images on ratings of activity
(F(1,192) ¼ 56.278, p < .001, gp2 ¼ .23). Idealistic images (M ¼ 3.70) were
rated more active than images of houses (M ¼ 2.83). There was a significant
Gender by Idealistic Images interaction (F(1,192) ¼ 24.598, p < .001,
gp2 ¼ .11). Simple main effects indicated that images of body builders were
rated as being more active than images of houses by males
(F(1,192) ¼ 69.930, p < .05). Females also saw thinspirational images as
being more active than images of houses (F(1,192) ¼ 4.648, p < .05).
THE JOURNAL OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 9
Evaluative
The assumption of the homogeneity of variance for evaluative ratings was
not violated according to the Levene’s test (F(7,192) ¼ .545, p ¼ .800). There
was a significant effect of Idealistic Images on evaluative ratings
(F(1,192) ¼ 5.083, p ¼ .025, gp2 ¼ .03). Idealistic body images (M ¼ 3.46)
were rated less positively than houses (M ¼ 3.73). The significant Gender
by Idealistic Images interaction (F(1192) ¼ 5.782, p ¼ .017, gp2 ¼ .03) was
decomposed using simple main effects. Females rated thinspirational
images less positively than houses (F(1,192) ¼ 4.251, p < .05), but this effect
was much less noticeable for males, who rated idealistic images of body
builders comparably to houses (F(1,192) ¼ 0.011, p > .05).
Figure 2. Heat map over the photorealistic figure rating scale depicting where the most mouse
clicks have occurred for females picking the ideal female body and males picking the ideal
male body (top – control group; bottom – experimental group).
istic figure preferences. Females selected thinner images for themselves (i.e.
pixels closer to screen origin on the left of the heatmap) (M ¼ 105.4) than
males (M ¼ 196.1). Distressed individuals (M ¼ 137.1) wanted to be thinner
than the less distressed individuals (M ¼ 164.4).
The effect of image type approached significance, F(1,192) ¼ 3.804,
p ¼ .053, gp2 ¼ .02. Although only a trend, participants that were exposed to
idealistic body images tended to select a slimmer figure as ideal
(M ¼ 141.7), when compared to those who viewed images of houses
THE JOURNAL OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 11
Figure 3. Mean ± standard error of time spent deliberating on the photorealistic figure rating
scale according to gender and experimental manipulation.
Table 1. Means (SE) in Pixels for Preferred Figures in Female and Male Participants
(Photorealistic Outline Figures).
Females (n ¼ 126) Males (n ¼ 74)
Preferred figure – oneself 99.35 (5.01) 198.64 (8.00)
Preferred figure – opposite sex 167.23 (5.72) 152.47 (8.37)
Preferred figure after exposure to house images 114.09 (9.827) 203.82 (11.013)
(n ¼ 47) (n ¼ 34)
Preferred figure after exposure to idealistic images 90.58 (5.264) 194.23 (11.555)
(n ¼ 79) (n ¼ 40)
photorealistic scale with the body shape preferred by males. Females pre-
ferred (M ¼ 99.3) a significantly slimmer figure for themselves than the
males preferred for women (M ¼ 152.5), t(198) ¼ 5.801, p < .001. And males
preferred a significantly larger (M ¼ 198.6) figure for themselves than the
figure that females preferred for men (M ¼ 167.2), t(198) ¼ 3.252, p ¼ .0013
(Table 1).
Discussion
This study considered reactions to images portraying thin-ideal and muscu-
lar-ideals, and sought to understand the effects of ideal images upon pre-
ferred shapes and any preoccupation with shape in men and women. Males
viewed images of body builders as strong and active according to Semantic
Differential ratings. By contrast females viewed thinspirational images as
active, but thinspirational images were rated as weaker and less positively
evaluated than the neutral images of houses. Moreover, psychologically dis-
tressed participants appeared more susceptible to idealistic physical stand-
ards and showed greater drive for thinness. In particular, distressed females
were more dissatisfied with their body and distressed males were dissatis-
fied with their muscularity, height, and body fat. Females had a higher
drive for thinness and spent more time contemplating their preferred shape
after being exposed to thinspiration images. In addition, exposure to ideal-
istic standards of appearance tended to cause a shift toward desiring slim-
mer figures and significantly increased the time females spent
contemplating body size. These self-imposed expectations of body image
are unrealistic because female participants chose a slimmer figure as an
ideal than the figure males actually preferred for women. And male partici-
pants selected larger ideal figures than the figures females actually preferred
for men.
standards (Knauss et al., 2007; Ravary et al., 2019). More generally, while
some female distress may be accounted for by anticipated rejection
(Blodorn et al., 2016) and inability meeting ideal body standards, male dis-
tress is less likely to be explained by appearance expectations (Lawler &
Nixon, 2011; Strahan, Wilson, Cressman, & Buote, 2006). Taking sociocul-
tural perspectives into account, male distress can be associated with mascu-
linity constructs that require that men should restrict emotions and attain
wealth and social status (Wester, Christianson, Vogel, & Wei, 2007). This
may be further reinforced by the fact that for males, resources are benefi-
cial in attracting a long-term partner (Schmitt, 2014; Waynforth, 2001).
Nevertheless, in the current study, distressed males were more concerned
that they should be taller, more muscular, and have less body fat.
High-distressed participants preferred slimmer figures than low-dis-
tressed participants in the present study. A potential explanation of such
findings may be that distressed people make more social comparisons
(Corcoran et al., 2011), and those individuals more driven to make social
comparisons are more prone to exposing themselves to beauty ideals in
media, and subsequently experience body dissatisfaction and drive for thin-
ness (Cohen, 2006). This suggests an unfortunate cycle in which distressed
individuals may expose themselves to idealistic body presentations, causing
them to feel worse about themselves.
Indeed, the attainment of these ideal shapes is unrealistic. The current
study replicated reports that women’s ideal female body was thinner than
men’s ideal female body. These findings are in keeping with other studies
(Cohn & Adler, 1992; Fallon & Rozin, 1985; Knauss et al., 2007; Phelps
et al., 1993; Rozin & Fallon, 1988). This suggests that the opposite sex pre-
fers more attainable body shapes for potential mates than individuals have
for themselves. In addition, misperceptions of the ideal bodies seem to be
associated with unhealthy eating attitudes in women (Bergstrom,
Neighbors, & Lewis, 2004), which is why it is important to recognize that
pattern when examining ideal body preferences and eating dis-
order correlates.
Figure preference
The photorealistic figure rating scales indicated that female participants
preferred a slimmer figure than males, and there was a tendency for partic-
ipants that were exposed to idealistic images to prefer even slimmer figures.
This suggests that acute exposure to beauty ideals may have some impact
on participants. However, the effect of ideal body imagery was less discern-
ible for male participants, who spent comparable amounts of time selecting
preferred shape after viewing houses or bodybuilding imagery. Moreover,
14 K. PRNJAK ET AL.
Preoccupation
Thinspirational images were potentially distressing to women, being eval-
uated less positively than the neutral images of houses. Viewing thinspira-
tion led females to spend more time deliberating over their preferred
shape. Therefore, thinspiration created a preoccupation in females as they
took a significantly longer time deliberating than those that viewed houses.
When this finding is taken together with that of females displaying a trend
toward desiring a slimmer figure after viewing thin body images, we can
infer that body dissatisfaction could have been experimentally induced.
THE JOURNAL OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 15
Likewise, Cho and Lee (2013) showed that women and men who are less
satisfied with their bodies will pay more attention to figures they find
attractive. Also, Rodgers and DuBois (2016) conducted a recent systematic
review of biases in body dissatisfaction research and found that attentional
biases and body dissatisfaction can be manipulated. They further concluded
that the research shows strong support for attentional biases among indi-
viduals with greater body dissatisfaction toward appearance and body
image related stimuli. Results of the present study further support previ-
ously mentioned findings and suggest that acute exposure to thinspiration
can induce body dissatisfaction and increase the salience of body-image
stimuli in a way that encourages allocation of more attention to these stim-
uli. This only affected female participants, furthering theories that beauty
ideal exposure can lead to greater motivation towards social comparison in
those who are distressed and uncertain (Corcoran et al., 2011).
The present study also demonstrates the real potential to monitor online
activity and intervene (Engel et al., 2016). Given that preoccupation with
weight, shape, and appearance is a significant predictor of disorder onset
(Rodgers & DuBois, 2016), the present study demonstrates how the time
spent on pro-ana or thinspirational websites (Borzekowski et al., 2010)
could be monitored and targeted advertising (Boerman, Kruikemeier, &
Zuiderveen Borgesius, 2017) could deliver appropriately framed and
worded disclaimers (Smith & Rieger, 2006; Thaler & Sunstein, 2017) or
messages of affirmation (Logel, Kathmandu, & Cohen, 2019). Women
should be aware that imagery on Instagram might not be realistic (Webber,
2000) and that it is not unusual for social media users to post only the best
pictures of their appearance (Vogel, Rose, Roberts, & Eckles, 2014).
Additionally, since high-distressed participants showed a tendency toward
desiring a thinner body after viewing idealistic beauty imagery, those who
experience a state of psychological distress may need to limit their time on
social media (Krasnova, Widjaja, Buxmann, Wenninger, & Benbasat, 2015)
in order to prevent potential body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness.
Some limitations of the current study should be noted. Firstly, although
age and gender were recorded, further demographic information such as
educational attainment could have been useful. Secondly, the instruments
used to measure the desired body size might not have been sensitive
enough to detect the differences between experimental and control group,
which could explain the absence of significant effects of thin-ideal and
muscular-ideal exposure on preferred shape. Alongside this, the photoreal-
istic figure rating scale for men did not provide a shape that would repre-
sent the muscular-ideal, as the scale was based on BMI instead. In
addition, research have shown a limited evidence of the K10 validity in a
culturally diverse populations (Stolk, Kaplan, & Szwarc, 2014). Hence, due
16 K. PRNJAK ET AL.
Conclusions
Exposure to idealistic body imagery had a significant effect on females.
Idealistic body images were evaluated less positively by women. Females
desired slimmer figures for themselves and spent longer contemplating
their preferred body size. Bodybuilding images did not influence male fig-
ure preference or time spent choosing preferred shape. However, partici-
pants (both male and female) that were more distressed also experienced
more concerns regarding physical appearance. It seems that exposure to
beauty ideals in media can lead to greater motivation towards social com-
parison in those who are distressed, and might consequently increase their
body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
ORCID
Katarina Prnjak http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6152-5025
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