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L7 Revision Bones - Lecture notes 7

Animal Structure and Function A (University of Sydney)

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The classification of Bones

- Bones may be classified in various ways. A topographical classification

recognizes a cranial skeleton of the head (skull and mandible) and a
postcranial skeleton consisting of two divisions: the axial skeleton of the
trunk and the appendicular skeleton of the limbs. Axial skeleton include
bones of vertebrae column, ribs and sternum, exclude pectoral and
pelvic girdle（肩胛带/盆骨）. Appendicular skeleton includes.

- The second classification based on ontogeny distinguishes the somatic

skeleton, formed in the body wall, from the visceral skeleton, derived from
the pharyngeal arches.

- A third system is also based on development and distinguishes parts

preformed in cartilage and from those that ossify directly in fibrous
connective tissue（先软骨后硬 还是出来就是硬的）

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- Individual bones are classified by shape according to a rather naïve system.

 Long bones are typical of the limbs, are broadly cylindrical and
clearly adapted to perform as levers. They develop from at least
three centers of ossification. One for the shaft (diaphysis), one for
each extremity (epiphysis)

Long bones have a long shaft (diaphysis), which is capped at each

end by a flared end (epiphysis). The metaphysis is in between them.
Adjacent to the metaphysis contains the growth plate – the growth
zone is a specialised cartilage plate (the growth plate or epiphyseal
cartilage), which is responsible for growth in bone length.

 EPIPHYSEAL LINE is located at the junction of the epiphysis and

diaphysis (a region called the “metaphysis”) in adult bone. The
epiphyseal line is a remnant of the EPIPHYSEAL PLATE, which is a
cartilage plate that serves as a growth area for long bone
lengthening. The epiphyseal plate allows the diaphysis of the bone to
increase in length until early adulthood. When growth stops, the
epiphyseal plate cartilage is replaced with bone, then becoming the
epiphyseal line (you may be able to see a fine line at this point).

 Short bones have no dimension that greatly exceeds the others. Many
are grouped together at the carpus(腕骨) and tarsus(踝骨), where
the multiplication of articulation makes provision for complex
movements and may also diminish concussion. The majority of short
bones develop from a single center of ossification; replication of
centers generally indicates that the bone represents the fusion of
elements distinct in ancestral forms

 Flat bones are expanded in two direction. The category includes the
scapula/pectoral girdle, the bones of the pelvic girdle and many of
those of the skull. Their broad surfaces afford attachment to large
muscle masses and protection to underlying soft parts

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 Irregular bones are not in clearly defined categories. They don't

exhibit uniformity in development. E.g. vetebraes
 Sesamoid: found within tendons to help prevent tendon wear. Also a
sesamoid bone displaces the tendon farther from the axis of the
adjacenet joint so serves to increase the leverageexerted by the
muscle. The Best known example is the patella that forms in the
principle muscle that extends the stifle joint. Bone embedded in a
tendon or muscle. E.ga. patellaknee cap

 Splanchinic bone: develop in soft organs e.g. penis bones of dogs and
cats and the ossa cordis found in the heart.
 Pneumatic bones confined to the skull and contain the paranasal
sinuses, which communicate with nasal cavity

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The functions of bone are:

1. To provide support and a framework for the body

2. To provide levers for muscles
3.To protect soft tissue (e.g. nervous system is protected by skull and vertebral
column; heart and lungs by the rib cage)
4. To serve as dynamic storage for minerals within the body (especially calcium
and phosphorus).
5. In addition, bone marrow is the major site of blood cell production

(haematopoiesis). Red marrow – in a young animal all bone marrow is of this type.
Most is later infiltrated by fat and converted into waxy yellow marrow whose
hemopoietic potential is dormant.

Remember: homeostasis (physiology): metabolic equilibrium actively maintained

by several complex biological mechanisms that operate via the autonomic nervous
system to offset disrupting changes.

All mammals have the same basic body plan, with striking similarities in skeletal
structure. Differences reflect adaptations to specific lifestyles.

Remember: bones themselves are living structures. They have blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels, nerves, are the subject of disease, they can undergo repair and
they adjust to changes in stress.

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The organization of a long bone

- Many features of bone construction are conveniently approached through

the examination of a longitude section of a long bone

- The form of the bone is determined by a sheath of cortex of solid (compact)

bone that is composed of thin lamellae arranged mainly in series of
concentric tubes about small central canals. each such system is known as
osteon.

- The cortex is thick towards the middle of the shaft but thinner as it flares
toward each extremity, over which it continues as a crust.

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- Long bones move against or articulate with other bones at joints and their
ends have flattened surfaces and rounded protuberances (condyles) to make
this possible. The external surface is smooth except where irregularities
serve as the attachment sites of muscles or ligments; these irregularities
may be raised or depressed and in both cases permit a concentration of the
attachment. . They are given a variety of descriptive names of conventional
significance: most elevations are known as lines, crests, tubercles,
tuberosities, or spines. Most depressions as fossae or grooves (sulci). You will
also see holes (a hole is called a foramen) in the bone. Blood vessels and
nerves pass into the bone through these [nutrient foramen]

- The outermost layer of the shaft of a long bone consist of compact bone
arranged as 1. outer circumferential lamellae. Deep to this are osteones
(Haversian systems) formed by 2. concentric lamellae surrounding
longitudinally oriented vascular canals (central canals). Internal surfaces of
compact bone of adult animals consist of 3. inner circumferential lamellae
encircling the medullary cavity. The central canal of each osteone contains
capillaries and nonmyelinated nerve fibres.

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-
- The inner surface of the shaft bounds a central medullary (marrow) cavity.
It is rough. The irregularities are low indiscriminate and without apparent
significance.

- The extremities are occupied by cancellous or spongy bone, which forms a

3D lattice of interlacing spicules, plates, and tube of varing density. Spongy
(or cancellous) bone is located at the extremities of long bones, where
resistance to compression without excessive weight is needed.

- Spicules are arranged so as to resist stresses and strains imposed on bone by

weight or pull of muscles.

- SPONGY BONE TISSUE does not contain osteons. Instead, spongy bone is
composed of small needlelike pieces of bone that form an irregular
latticework called TRABECULAE ("little beams"). Trabeculae are like the
struts and beams of a tall office building, producing a lightweight
framework inside the bone. Between the trabeculae of some bones are
spaces that are filled with RED BONE MARROW. The cells of the red
bone marrow function in BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION. The spicules (or
trabeculae) are arranged so as to reduce stresses and strains imposed on
bones by weight or the pull of muscles.

- The medullary cavity and the interstitial spaces of the spongy bone are
occupied by bone marrow, which occurs in two intergrading forms. Red
bone marrow is a richly vascularized, gelatinous tissue with hemopoietic
properties- it produces the red and granular white corpuscles of the blood.
Although all marrow is of this type in the young animal, most is later
infiltrated with fat and converted into waxy yellow marrow whose
hemopoietic potential is dormant. It is the marrow in the larger spaces that
first becomes inactive then that of the spongy bone of the distal limb bones
until finally active marrow is confined to the proximal extremities of the
humerus and femur, the bones of the limb girdles and those of the axial
skeleton.

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- The articular surfaces are smooth and are more extensive than are the
areas in contact in any position of the joint to make provision for a range of
movement. They are clothed in hyaline articular cartilage, which , for
present purposes, may be regarded as a residue of the cartilaginous model,
from which the bone developed. The cartilage is not uniform in structure; it
is calcified in its deepest layer, which is firmly attached to the
underlying cortex and becomes fibrous towards the periphery, where
it blends with the periosteum and joint capsule.

- Periosteum ensheathes the remainder of the outer surface from which it can
be readily stripped, except where it is penetrated by tendons and ligments
proceeding to anchor in the compacta. Periosteum: fibrous membrane
sheath, which can be readily peeled from the cortex, except where it is
penetrated by tendons and ligaments. The deeper layer is cellular, and even
in adults retains the bone-forming capacity which is reactivated in the
healing of a fracture. The periosteum consists of 2 layers.

- 1. The outer FIBROUS LAYER of the periosteum is composed of DENSE

IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE. Tendons and ligaments attach to the
fibrous layer of the periosteum. The fibrous layer of the periosteum is richly
supplied with blood vessels and nerves that pass into the bone via the
perforating canals. The deeper layer is cellular, and even in adults retains
the bone-forming capacity which is reactivated in the healing of a fracture.

- Nutrient artery: other vessels penetrate at other points. Veins accompany

arteries and nerves accompany the larger vessels. There are no lymphatic
vessels in bone marrow.

Blood supply

Bone has a generous blood supply, 5-10% of cardiac output. The nutrient artery
penetrates towards the middle of the shaft in a position that is fairly constant for
each bone. It is usually directed toward one extremity. The artery divides into two
divergent branches within the marrow, the later division pursue very tortuous
courses, which may have the purpose of reducing the pressure within the vessels of
the delicate marrow. Osteons have a central canal supplied by blood and has
neurons covered on the surface of the each lamella concentric ring.

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Skeletal components and designs

- skulls
- vertebral column
- rib cage
- pectoral girdal
- forelimbs
- hindlimbs

Axial bone- the vertebrae:

The vertebral column (spine) consists of separate bones (vertebrae). It has roles
in the maintenance of posture and protection of the spinal cord. It supports
the body and articulates with the head, ribs and pelvis.
Each species has a vertebral formula – i.e. the number of vertebrae within each
region. In nearly all cases the number of cervical vertebrae is constant – 7
Thoracic – 13-18
Lumbar – 6-7
Sacral – 3-5
Caudal – varies (even between breeds as well as species)

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The shape and size of the vertebrae of mammals vary from the neck to the tail. In
the neck there are cervical vertebrae with the two top ones, the atlas and axis,
being specialised to support the head and allow it to nod “Yes” and shake “No”. All
mammals have 7 cervical vertebrae.

Thoracic vertebrae in the chest region have special surfaces against which the ribs
move during breathing. Grazing animals like cows and giraffes that have to
support weighty heads on long necks have extra large spines on their cervical and
thoracic vertebrae for muscles to attach to. It has prominent spinous processes.

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Lumbar vertebrae in the loin region are usually large strong vertebrae with
prominent spines for the attachment of the large muscles of the lower back.
Lumbbar vertebrase cranially directed transverse processes. Sacral vertebrae
usually fused to form roof of pelvic cavity

The sacral vertebrae are usually fused into one solid bone called the sacrum that
sits within the pelvic girdle. Finally there are a variable number of small bones in
the tail called the coccygeal (caudal) vertebrae. Caudal vertebrae become
progressively simplified

Vertebral bodies usually have a convex cranial end and a concave caudal end.

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Individual vertebrae are joined together by cartilaginous intervertebral discs,

which sit between the bodies.Vertebral arch encloses an opening called the
vertebral foramen. When the vertebral foramina are aligned, they form the
vertebral canal through which the spinal cord runs the length of (as well as blood
vessels and fat).Intervertebral foramen- spinal nerves pass out through here
There are two caudal and two cranial articular processes, one on each side of the
spinous process. These form joints between adjacent vertebrae.

Intervertebral discs contribute to the length and flexibility of the spine. In dogs they
contribute to approx 16% spinal length, 10% in ungulates and 25% in humans. The
greater the contribution to the length the greater the flexibility of the spine. They
degenerate with age leading to diminished flexibility of the spine.

Structure of the skull

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- consist of skull proper/mandible:lower jaw/ Hyoid apparatus and bone of

middle ear
- skull has two componenet: cranium(brain case),nasal cavity(facial region)
separated by ethmoid bone
- most bone are paired
- Some single bones extend across the median plane, but generally there are
paired bones within the skull. In growing animals, suture lines are visible
between individual bones. At the cessation of growth, many of the sutures
become ossified fusing adjacent bones together.
- There is great variation in the length of the rostral component of the skull
between different breeds of dog (less so in cats)
- Lower jaw consists of two bones that may or may not be
completely fused rostrally, depending on the species. Where
the left and right mandibles join is the mandibular symphysis.
- The mandibles form a joint with the temporal bone at the base
of the zygomatic arch.

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Appendicular bone:
- divide into a girdle(belt for support and a appendage
- forelimb= pectoral girdle(scapula)+forelimbs(pectoral limbs)
- hindlimb = pelvic girdle(pelvis)+hindlimbs(pelvic limbs)
-
The distal limbs of different species have been extensively modified in association
with a differences in stance from plantigrade (flat foot), to digitigrade (support
weight on digits, eg. dog), to unguligrade (support weight on tips of digits, eg. pigs,
ruminants, horse). The forelimbs and hindlimbs have different roles and this is
reflected in their structure. The differences are particularly accentuated when the
animal is moving at speed.

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