Ulo 1

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
College of Engineering Education

Civil Engineering Program
Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged
Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Self-Directed Learning (SDL)
Course/Subject: BCE 211/F: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
Name of Teacher: Engr. NORODDIN V. MELOG
THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR REPRODUCTION AND
DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE
USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Table of Contents
Course Outline: BCE 211/F – Fundamentals of Surveying ................................................ 3

Course Outline Policy..................................................................................................................... 3
Course Information ........................................................................................................................ 6
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a ....................................................................................................... 7

Metalanguage ................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Essential Knowledge .................................................................................................................................................. 7
Introduction to Surveying .......................................................................................................................... 7
Types of Surveying......................................................................................................................................... 8
Difference between Plane and Geodetic Surveying ......................................................................... 8
Methods of Surveying ................................................................................................................................... 8
Development of Surveying Instruments ............................................................................................... 9
Surveying Measurements ........................................................................................................................ 12
Significant Figures ..................................................................................................................................... 13
Student Field Practice ............................................................................................................................... 13
Surveying Field Notes ............................................................................................................................... 14
The Field Survey Party.............................................................................................................................. 16
Self-Help ....................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Let’s Check ................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Let’s Analyze ............................................................................................................................................................... 17
In a Nutshell ................................................................................................................................................................ 18
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b ..................................................................................................... 19

Metalanguage ............................................................................................................................................................. 19
Essential Knowledge ............................................................................................................................................... 19
Errors and Mistakes................................................................................................................................... 19
Types of Errors ............................................................................................................................................. 19
Sources of Errors ......................................................................................................................................... 20
Accuracy and Precision ............................................................................................................................ 21
Theory of Probability ................................................................................................................................ 21
Most Probable Value ................................................................................................................................. 22
Residual........................................................................................................................................................... 22
Probable Error ............................................................................................................................................. 22
Relative (Error) Precision ....................................................................................................................... 23
Weighted Observations ............................................................................................................................ 23
Interrelationship of Errors ..................................................................................................................... 24
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Measurement of Horizontal Distances .............................................................................................. 25

Measurement by Taping .......................................................................................................................... 27
Correction in Taping ................................................................................................................................. 28
Self-Help ....................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Let’s Check ................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Let’s Analyze ............................................................................................................................................................... 33
In a Nutshell ................................................................................................................................................................ 34
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1c ..................................................................................................... 36

Metalanguage ............................................................................................................................................................. 36
Essential Knowledge ............................................................................................................................................... 36
Measurement of Vertical Distances .................................................................................................... 36
Two Peg Test................................................................................................................................................. 38
Differential Levelling................................................................................................................................. 40
Profile Leveling ............................................................................................................................................ 42
Curvature and Refraction in Levelling .............................................................................................. 44
Self-Help ....................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Let’s Check ................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Let’s Analyze ............................................................................................................................................................... 47
In a Nutshell ................................................................................................................................................................ 47
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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Course Outline: BCE 211/F – Fundamentals of Surveying
Course Coordinator: Engr. Noroddin V. Melog

Email: noroddin_melog@umindanao.edu.ph
Student Consultation: By appointment
Mobile: 09276878200
Phone: (082) 296 1084 local 133
Effectivity Date: August 17, 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Time Frame: 162 hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Pre-requisite: DRAW 101/D – Engineering Drawing 1
Co-requisite: None
Credit: 3.0 units lecture / 2.0 units laboratory
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face-to-face sessions
Course Outline Policy
Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is designed
for blended learning mode of instructional delivery
with scheduled face to face or virtual sessions. The
expected number of hours will be 54 including the face-
to-face or virtual sessions. The face-to-face sessions
shall include the summative assessment tasks (exams)
since this course is crucial in the licensure examination
for civil engineers.
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 5th , 9th , 14th
and 18th week of the semester. The assessment paper
shall be attached with a cover page indicating the title
of the assessment task (if the task is performance), the
name of the course coordinator, date of submission and
name of the student. The document should be emailed
to the course coordinator. It is also expected that you
already paid your tuition and other fees before the
submission of the assessment task.
If the assessment task is done in real time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time by
the course coordinator.
Since this course is included in the licensure

examination for civil engineers, you will be required to
take the Multiple-Choice Question exam inside the
University. This should be scheduled ahead of time by
your course coordinator. This is non-negotiable for all
licensure-based programs.
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Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment

(if necessary) tasks are required to be submitted through Turnitin
with a maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This
means that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the students
will either opt to redo her/his paper or explain in
writing addressed to the course coordinator the
reasons for the similarity. In addition, if the paper has
reached more than 30% similarity index, the student
may be called for a disciplinary action in accordance
with the University’s OPM on Intellectual and Academic
Honesty.
Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

and commissioning other students or people to
complete the task for you have severe punishments
(reprimand, warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible
maximum score for that assessment item for each day
or part day that the assessment item is late.
However, if the late submission of assessment paper

has a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks
Assessments after the submission. This will be returned by email or
via Blackboard portal.
For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

require some or few of the students for online or virtual
sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate the
originality of the assessment task submitted and to
ensure that all the group members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an
assessment task. The resubmission is premised on the
student’s failure to comply with the similarity index and
other reasonable grounds such as academic literacy
standards or other reasonable circumstances e.g.
illness, accidents financial constraints.
Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the program
Papers and Appeal coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the
score given to an assessment task. The letter should
explicitly explain the reasons/points to contest the
grade. The program coordinator shall communicate
with the students on the approval and disapproval of
the
request.
If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can
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elevate your case to the program head or the dean with

the original letter of request. The final decision will
come from the dean of the college.
Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional
contact
Course discussions/exercises – 30%
1st formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment – 10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%
All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Final exam – 40%
Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.
Preferred Referencing Style IEEE Referencing
Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account

which is a requirement to access the BlackBoard
portal.
Then, the course coordinator shall enroll the
students to have access to the materials and resources
of the course. All communication formats: chat,
submission of assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be
through the portal and other university recognized
platforms.
You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.
For students who have not created their student email,

please contact the course coordinator or program
head.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Charlito L. Cañesares
Email: clcanesares@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Contact Details of the Program Engr. Showna Lee T. Sales
Head Email: ssales@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with the
course coordinator about the nature of his or her special
needs. Depending on the nature of the need, the course
coordinator with the approval of the program
coordinator may provide alternative assessment tasks or
extension of the deadline of submission of assessment
tasks. However, the alternative assessment tasks should
still be in the service of achieving the desired course
learning outcomes.
Help Desk Contact CEE Blackboard Administrator
Jetron J. Adtoon
jadtoon@umindanao.edu.ph
09055267834
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CEE
Frida Santa O. Dagatan
cee@umindanao.edu.ph
09562082442
082-2272902
GSTC
Ronadora E. Deala, RPsy, RPm, RGC, LPT
Ronadora_deala@umindanao.edu,ph
09212122846
Silvino P. Josol
gstcmain@umindanao.edu,ph
09060757721
Library Contact LIC
Brigida E. Bacani
library@umindanao.edu,ph
09513766681
Course Information- see/download course syllabus in the BlackBoard LMS
CC’s Voice: Good day dear students! Welcome to this course CE 311/F – Surveying 1
(Elementary and Higher Surveying). By now, I am confident that you really wanted
to become a civil engineer and that you visualized yourself already in the field
doing site measurements and investigations. This course deals with the
fundamentals of surveying applied to civil engineering problems.
CO: Upon completion of the course, you are expected to:
CO 1: Understand the appropriate surveys and investigations required for various

civil engineering projects.
CO 2: Know the requirements of various surveys and investigations
CO 3: Know the methodologies of carrying out the more common surveys and
investigations such as topographic surveys.
Let ug begin!
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Big Picture
Week 1-5: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 1 (ULO-1): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to:
a. Demonstrate deep knowledge and understanding on introduction of
surveying its terminologies and concepts, this includes history and
types of instruments.
b. Be able to understand horizontal distances and apply the concepts of
errors in surveying.
c. Be able to understand and apply the concept of vertical distances.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a. Demonstrate deep knowledge and

understanding on introduction of surveying its terminologies and concepts,
this includes history and types of instruments.
Metalanguage
The demonstration of this ULO requires the understanding of the following:
1. Surveying – It is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances

between objects of measuring angles between lines, of determining the
direction of lines, and of establishing points by predetermined angular and
linear measurement.
2. Geodetic Surveying – the type of surveying which considers the true shape of
the earth.
3. Plane Surveying - the type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth
is considered as a plane, or in which its spheroidal shape is neglected.
Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) , you need to fully
understand the following essential knowledge that will be laid down in the succeeding
pages. Please note that you are not limited to exclusively refer to these resources. Thus,
you are expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other resources that are
available in the university’s library e.g. library, search.proquest.com, etc.
Introduction to Surveying
One of the oldest arts practiced by man is

surveying. From the earliest times it has always
been necessary to mark the boundaries and
divide tracts of land. Through the centuries the
uses of surveying have expanded such that today
it is difficult to undertake any type of engineering
construction that does not involve some types of
surveying.
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Surveying is the determination of the relative spatial location of the points on or near
the surface of the earth. As defined by webster, it is the branch of applied mathematics
which teaches the art of determining the area of any portion of the earth’s surface, the
length and directions of the boundary lines, the contour of the surface, and of accurately
delineating the whole on paper.
Types of Surveying
1. Geodetic Surveying – the type of surveying which considers the true shape of the
earth. Geodetic Surveys are usually of a national character are mostly
undertaken by government agencies to serve as a basis for the production of
accurate base and topographic maps.
2. Plane Surveying – the type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is
considered as a plane, or in which its spheroidal shape is neglected. Plane
Surveying is of wide scope and application. The different methods of plane
surveying are employed in various surveys undertaken in engineering, scientific,
commercial, architectural, geographic, navigational, and exploratory work.
Difference between Plane and Geodetic Surveying
Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying

The earth surface is considered as a The earth surface is considered as a
plane surface. curved surface.
This survey is done for smaller area less This survey is done for large area greater
than 250 km2. than 250 km2.
Comparatively low accuracy required. Comparatively high accuracy required.
The line joining any two stations is The line joining any two stations is
considered to be straight. considered as a curved line.
The triangle formed by any three points The triangle formed by any three points
is considered as a plane. is considered as a spherical.
Methods of Surveying
1. Control Survey – Made to establish the horizontal and vertical positions of

arbitrary points.
2. Boundary Survey – Made to determine the length and direction of land lines and
on establish the position of these lines on the ground.
3. Topographic Survey – Made to gather data to produce a topographic map
showing the configuration of the terrain and the location of natural and man-
made objects.
4. Hydrographic Survey – The survey of bodies of water made for the purpose of
navigation, water supply, or sub-aqueous construction.
5. Mining Survey - Made to control, locate and map underground and surface
works related to mining operations.
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6. Astronomical Survey – generally involve imagining or mapping of regions of the

sky using telescopes.
7. Route Survey – Refers to those control, topographic, and construction surveys
necessary for the location and construction of highways, railroads, canals,
transmission lines, and pipelines.
8. Photogrammetric Survey – Made to utilize the principles of aerial
photogrammetry, in which measurements made on photographs are used to
determine the positions of photographed objects.
9. Construction Survey – Made to lay out locate and monitor public and private
engineering works.
10. City Surveys – are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the purpose of
planning expansions or improvements, locating property lines, fixing reference
monuments, determining the physical features and configuration of the land,
and preparing maps.
11. Forestry Surveys – a type of survey executed in connection with forest
management and mensuration, and the production and conservation of forest
lands.
12. Industrial Surveys – sometimes known as optical tooling. It refers to the use of
surveying techniques in ship building, construction and assembly of aircraft,
layout and installation of heavy and complex machinery, and in other industries
where very accurate dimensional layouts are required.
13. Cadastral Surveys – are usually closed surveys which are undertaken in urban
and rural locations for the purpose of determining and defining property lines
and boundaries, corners, and areas. These surveys are also made to fix the
boundaries of municipalities, town, and provincial jurisdictions.
Development of Surveying Instruments
1. Astrolabe - The astrolabe of Hipperachus is one of the best

known of the measuring instrument that have come down
from ancient times.
2. Telescope - The invention of the telescope in 1607 is

generally accredited to Lippershey. In 1609, Galileo
constructed a refracting telescope for astronomical
observations.
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3. Transit - The invention of the transit is credited to

Young and Drapper who worked independently from
each other sometime in 1830.
4. Semi-circumferentor - An early surveying

instrument which was used to measure and lay off
angles and establish lines of sight by employing peep
sights.
5. Plane Table - One of the oldest types of surveying

instruments used in field mapping.
6. Dioptra - The dioptra, which was perfected

by Heron of Alexandria, was used in leveling and
for measuring horizontal and vertical angles. It
consists essentially of a copper tube supported on
a standard and could be rotated in either
horizontal or vertical plane.
7. Roman Groma - The Roman Surveyors used the

groma as an instrument for aligning or sighting
points.
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8. Libella - The Assyrians and Egyptians are

believed to be the first users of the labella. The
instrument had an A-frame with a plumb line
suspended from its apex and was used to determine
the horizontal.
9. Vernier - The Vernier is a short auxiliary scale

placed alongside the graduated scale of an
instrument, by means of which fractional parts
of the smallest or least division of the main
scale can be determined precisely without
having to interpolate.
10. Diopter - An instrument developed by the

Greeks. It was used for leveling, laying off right angles,
and for measuring horizontal and vertical angles.
11. Compass - The magnetic compass came into

wide used during the 13th century for
determining the direction of lines and in
calculating angles between lines.
12. Ginter’s Chain - Was invented by Sir

Edmund Gunter in 1620, was the forerunner
of instruments used for taping distances.
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13. Chorobates - This instrument was designed for

leveling work. It consisted of a horizontal
straight edge about 6 meters long with
supporting legs, and a grove 2.5 cm deep and 1.5
m long on top.
14. Merchet - The merchet was a

device for measuring time and
meridian. It was first used by the
Chaldeans in about 4000 B.C. It
consisted of a slotted palm leaf
through which to sight and a bracket
from which a plumb bob was
suspended.
Surveying Measurements
A. Direct Measurements - A direct measurement is a comparison of the measured

quantity with a standard measuring unit or units employed for measuring a
quantity of that kind.
Examples:
• Applying a wire or tape to a line
• Determining a Horizontal or vertical angle with a transit
• Fitting a protractor between two intersecting lines to determine the
intersection angle
B. Indirect Measurements - When it is not possible to apply a measuring instrument

directly to a quantity to be measured an indirect measurement is made. The
observed value is determined by its relationship to some other unknown values.
It is important for surveyors and students of surveying to have a good working
knowledge of trigonometry and geometry.
The Meter
The international unit of linear measure is the meter. This was proposed
sometime in 1789 by French scientist who hoped to establish a system suitable
for all times and all people and which could be based upon permanent and
natural standards.
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The following more commonly used prefixes are added to basic names
Mega 1,000,000 Deca 10 Milli 0.001

Kilo 1,000 Deci 0.1 Micro 0.000001
Hecto 100 Centi 0.01 Nano 0.000000001
Conversion Table for some units used in Surveying
1 acre = 4047 𝑚2 1 military pace = 2.5ft

1 chain = 100 links = 4 rods = 66 ft 1 perch = 1 pole = 1 rod = 25 links
1 cubit = 18 inches 1 pin = 100 links = 1 tape length
1 furlong = 40 rods 1 section = 640 acres
1 knot = 6080 ft = 1 nautical mile 1 tally = 10 pins
1 link = 0.66 ft 1 township = 36 sections
1 mile (nautical mile) = 6080 ft = 8 furlongs 1 vara = 33 inches
1 mile (statue mile) = 5280 ft 1 yard = 3 ft
Angular Measurements
A. Sexagesimal Units – Degree, Minute and Second

1 Degree = 60 Minutes 1 Minute = 60 Seconds
B. Centesimal Units – Gradian

360 Degrees = 400 Grads
Significant Figures
✓ Rule 1 – Zeroes between other significant figures are significant.

✓ Rule 2 – For values less than one, zeroes immediately to the right of the decimal
are not significant.
✓ Rule 3 – Zeroes placed at the end of decimal numbers are significant.
Student Field Practice
• In an elementary surveying, the student acquires certain extent of field practice.

• The students are expected to have a working knowledge of surveying
instruments and their uses.
• Members of the student field parties should from time to time alternately
assume the various duties involved in the field work.
• The use of surveying instruments requires not only a thorough understanding
of the basic theories and principles of surveying but also a fairly extensive
amount of field practice.
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Surveying Field Notes
• Surveying field notes constitute the only reliable and permanent record of actual
work done in the field.
• Before any survey is made, the necessary data to be collected should be
considered carefully and in the field all such required data should be obtained.
• The field notes become the official record of the survey. It is for this reason that
notes must be complete, legible, concise, and comprehensive, and logically
arranged according to recognized practice.
• Field notes are usually worked over in the office into some more advanced form
of presentation, such as map, a report, or a computation.
• A need to rerun, extend, or otherwise make use of previous surveys may be
required for a related project. In such case it would be most logical that the old
field notes will be only available reference, and their value will depend largely
upon the completeness and clarity with which they have been recorded.
• In many engineering applied surveys the field notes are used or referred to by
office personnel who have not seen the field site or who are not familiar with
conditions on the project site. They rely entirely only upon what has been
recorded.
• A completed record written in a disorderly and confused manner often causes
more mistakes and erroneous information.
• A need to rerun, extend, or otherwise make use of previous surveys may be
required for a related project. In such case it would be most logical that the old
field notes will be only available reference, and their value will depend largely
upon the completeness and clarity with which they have been recorded.
• In many engineering applied surveys the field notes are used or referred to by
office personnel who have not seen the field site or who are not familiar with
conditions on the project site. They rely entirely only upon what has been
recorded.
• A completed record written in a disorderly and confused manner often causes
more mistakes and erroneous information.
• The notes should be recorded in the conventional and generally used format and
not according to whims of the field surveyor.
• It is essential that notes be intelligible to others without verbal explanations.
• Field work observations should be recorded directly in the notebook at the time
observations are made.
• In court, field notes may be used as evidence.
The Field Notebook
• In practice the field notebook should be of good quality rag paper, with stiff
board or leather cover made to withstand hard usage, and of pocket size.
• The field notebook may be bound in any of three ways: conventional, ring, or
loose-leaf.
• In some technical schools’ students are asked to use bond paper instead of field
notebooks when preparing and submitting their field notes.
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Types of Notes
1. Sketches - A good sketch will help to convey a correct impression. Sketches are
rarely made to exact scale, but in most cases, they are made approximately to
scale. They are drawn freehand and of liberal sizes. Please note that a sketch
crowded with unnecessary data is often confusing.
2. Tabulations - A series of numerical values observed in the field are best shown in a
tabulated format. Tabular forms should be used wherever possible. This format
prevents mistakes, allows easy checking, saves time, makes the calculation legible to
others, and simplifies the work of the person checking the field notes.
3. Explanatory Notes - Explanatory notes provide a written description of what has
been done in the field. These are employed to make clear what the numerical
data and sketches fail to do. Usually they are placed on the right-hand page of
the field notebook in the same line with the numerical data that they explain.
4. Computations - Calculations or one kind or another form a large part of the work
of surveying. Most surveying-type computations are made algebraically using
simple arithmetical steps and trigonometric functions. Electronic hand-held
calculators, desk calculators, or digital computers are now used for calculating
values.
5. Combination of The Above - The practice used in most extensive surveys is a
combination of the above. The surveyor should be able to determine for himself
which type of combination would be most logical to use in portraying the type
of data gathered in the field.
Information Found in Field Notebooks
1. Title of the Fieldwork or Name of Project - The official name of the project or title of
the field work should always be identified. The location of the survey and preferably
its nature or purpose should always be stated.
2. Time of the Day and Date - These entries are necessary to document the notes and
furnish a timetable, as well as to correlate different surveys.
3. Weather Conditions - Temperature, wind velocity, typhoons, storms, and other
weather conditions, such as in surveying operations.
4. Names of Group Members and Their Designations - The chief of party, instrument
man, tape man, and other members of the survey of the survey party must be
identified. This information will be necessary for documentation purposes and
other future reference.
5. List of Equipment - All survey equipment used must be listed, including its make,
brand, and serial number. The type of instrument used, and its adjustment, all have
a definite effect on the accuracy of the survey.
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The Field Survey Party
1. Chief of Party - The person who is responsible for the overall direction,
supervision, and operational control of the survey party. He is also responsible
for its logistical and technical requirements, and problems of a field survey
operation. Prior to the execution of a survey project, he consults or confers with
superiors regarding the project to be undertaken. He is responsible for
submitting survey reports and records. He prepares cost estimates of survey
projects.
2. Assistant Chief of Party - The person whose duty is to assist the chief of party in
the accomplishment of the task assigned to the survey party. He takes over the
duties of the chief of party during the absence of the chief. He conducts ground
reconnaissance and investigates sites of a proposed project to gather necessary
data prior to the start of a survey work. He is primarily responsible for the
employment of surveying equipment, instruments and accessories used in the
survey operation. He prepares field and office reports and survey plans for
submission to the chief of party.
3. Instrumentman - The person whose duty is to set up, level, and operate surveying
instruments such as the transit, engineer’s level, theodolite, sextant, plane table
and alidade, etc. He also assists the technician in the operation of electronic
surveying equipment.
4. Technician - The person who is responsible for use and operation of all electronic
instruments required in a field work operation. It is his duty to see to it that these
equipment's are functioning properly, are regularly calibrated, and are in proper
adjustment.
5. Computer - The person whose duty is to perform all computations of survey data
and works out necessary computational checks required in a field work
operation.
6. Recorder - The person whose duty is to keep a record of all sketches, drawings,
measurements, and observations taken or needed for a field work operation. He
keeps table of schedules of all phases of work and the employment of the
members of the survey party.
7. Head Tapeman - The person responsible for the accuracy and speed of all linear
measurements with tape. He determines and directs the marking of stations to
be occupied by the surveying instruments and directs the clearing out of
obstructions along the line of sight. He inspects and compares tapes for standard
length prior to their use in taping operations.
8. Rear Tapeman - The person whose duty is to assist the head tapeman during
taping operations and in other related work.
9. Flagman - The person whose duty is to hold the flagpole or range of pole at
selected points as directed by the instrumentman. He helps the tapeman in
making measurements and assists the axeman in cutting down branches and in
clearing other obstructions to line of sight.
10. Rodman - The person whose primary duty is to hold the stadia or leveling rod
when sights are to be taken it.
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11. Pacer - The person whose duty is to check all linear measurements made by the
tapeman. He assists the tapeman in seeing to it that mistakes and blunders in
linear measurements are either reduced or eliminated. He may also perform the
job of a rodman.
12. Axeman/Lineman - The person whose duty is to clear the line of sight of trees,
bush, and other obstructions in wooded country.
13. Aidman - The person whose duty is to render first aid treatment to members of
the survey party who are involved in snake and insects’ bites, accidents, and
other cases involving their health, safety, and wellbeing.
14. Utilityman - The person whose duties are to render other forms of assistance
needed by the survey party or as directed by the chief of party.
Self-Help
You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the lesson:
*La Putt, J.P. (2010) Elementary Surveying (3rd ed.): Baguio Research and Publishing
Center
*Kavanagh, B.F. (2006) Surveying: Principles and Applications (7th ed.): New Jersey:
Pearson Prentice Hall
Let’s Check
Surveying Methods: Research more on the different surveying methods

discussed above, provide pictures and situation in which it is applicable. Affix your
signature at the end of your submittal.
Let’s Analyze
Activity A: Find the number of significant figures
1. 10.258
2. 0.00000078
3. 500
4. 89.5870000
5.0.00860
Activity B: Solve the following problems
1. A distance was measured and as recorded to have a value equivalent to 10 perches,

5 rods, and 50 varas. Compute the total distance in feet.
2. A line was measured with 20-m tape. There was 3 tallies and 6 pins, and the distance
from the last pin and the end of the line was 3.75m. Find the length of the line in
meters.
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In a Nutshell
Introduction to Surveying: Read and understand each statement carefully.

Choose the best answer that corresponds to the statement.
1. Surveying is defined as the art and science of determining angular and linear
measurements to establish the form, extent, science of deter and relative
position of points, lines, and establish the areas on or near the surface of the
earth or on other extraterrestrial bodies through
A. pure mathematics and the social sciences
B. applied mathematics and the use of specialized equipment and techniques
C. field observations and measurements
D. cartographic, geodetic, and photogrammetric methods
E. principles of algebra and geometry
2. Plane surveying is that type of surveying in which the earth is considered to be

a flat surface. Distances and areas involved are of limited extent and the
A. approximate shape of the earth is considered
B. theoretical shape of the geoid is evaluated
C. exact shape of the earth Is disregarded
D. spheroidal shape of the earth is considered
E. shape of the earth is considered a geoid
3. A type of survey which is of wide extent and takes into account the spheroidal
shape of the earth is known as
A. geodetic surveying
B. plane surveying
C. geoid surveying
D. earth surveying
E. terrestrial surveying
4. A photogrammetric survey makes use of photographs taken with specially

designed cameras either from
A. a ship or an elevated ground station
B. the ground surface or underwater
C. a field or a laboratory environment
D. a map or a scaled drawing
E. airplanes or ground stations
5. The international System of Units or SI was promulgated by the International

Bureau of weights and Measures in
A. 1960
B. 1978
C. 1983
D. 1875
E. 1799
6. Give the importance of a survey party. Is there really a need to have a complete
party in all surveying activities? Explain
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b. Be able to understand horizontal distances and

apply the concepts of errors in surveying.
Metalanguage
1. Error – defined as the difference between the true value and the measured
value of a quantity. It is a deviation of an observation or a calculation from
the true value and is often beyond the control of the one performing the
operation.
2. Mistakes – inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some aspect
of a surveying operation is performed by the surveyor with carelessness,
inattention, poor judgement, and improper execution.
3. Horizontal distance - the distance between two points measured at a zero
percent slope.
Essential Knowledge
Errors and Mistakes
Errors are inherent in all measurements and result from sources which cannot
be avoided. They may be caused by the type of equipment used, imperfections of the
senses of the person undertaking measurement or by natural causes.
Mistakes are also caused by misunderstanding of the problem, inexperience, or

indifference of the surveyor. A large mistake is referred to as a blunder.
Types of Errors
1. Systematic Errors/Cumulative Errors - This type of error is one which will always
have the same sign and magnitude as long as field conditions remain constant
and unchanged.
• For changing field conditions there is a corresponding change in
magnitude of the error, however, the sign remains constant.
• Systematic errors conform to mathematical and physical laws. such
errors can be computed, and their effects eliminated by applying
corrections, employing proper techniques in the use of instruments, or
by adopting a field procedure which will automatically eliminate it.
• In surveying, systematic errors occur due to instrumental factors, natural
causes, and human limitations of the observer.
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2. Accidental Errors - These errors are purely accidental in character.

• The occurrence of such errors are matters of chance as they are likely to
be positive or negative and may tend in part to compensate or average
out according to laws of probability.
• There is no absolute way of determining or eliminating them since the
error for an observation of a quantity is not likely to be the same as for a
second observation.
• Accidental errors are caused by factors beyond the control of the
surveyor and are present in all surveying measurements. Also, in
comparison to systematic errors, these errors are usually or minor
importance in surveying operations.
Sources of Errors
1. Instrumental Errors - These errors are due to imperfections in the instruments

used, either from faults in their construction or from improper adjustments
between the different parts prior to their use.
Examples of instrumental errors:

✓ Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length.
✓ Using a leveling rod with painted graduations not perfectly spaced.
✓ Determining the difference in elevation between two points with an
instrument whose line of sight is not in adjustment.
✓ Sighting on a rod which is warped.
✓ Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of a transit or level.
2. Natural Errors - These errors are due to imperfections in the instruments used,
either from faults in their construction or from improper adjustments between
the different parts prior to their use.
Common examples:
✓ The effect of temperature variation on the length of a steel tape.
✓ Error in the readings of the magnetic needle due to variations in magnetic
declination.
✓ Deflection of the line of sight due to the effect of the earth’s curvature and
atmospheric refraction.
✓ Error in the measurement of a line with a tape being blown sidewise by a
strong wind.
✓ Error in the measurement of a horizontal distance due to a slope or
uneven ground.
3. Personal Errors - These errors arise principally from limitations of the senses of
sight, touch and hearing of the human observer which are likely to be erroneous
or inaccurate. This type of fallibility differs from one individual to another and
may vary due to certain circumstances existing during measurement.
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Typical errors:
✓ Error in determining a reading on a rod which is out of plumb during
sighting.
✓ Error in the measurement of a vertical angle when the cross hairs of the
telescope are not positioned correctly on the target.
✓ Making an erroneous estimate of the required pull to be applied on a steel
tape during measurements.
Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or true

value of the quantity measured. It implies the closeness between related measurements
and their expectations.
Precision refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which any
physical measurement is made. It is portrayed by the closeness to one another of a set
observation is closely clustered together, the observation is said to have been obtained
with high precision.
Theory of Probability
• Probability is defined as the number of times something will probably occur over
the range of possible occurrences.
• It is very much involved in games of chance, such as throwing dice, tossing a coin,
or in various games using cards.
• The theory of probability is useful in indicating the precision of results only in
so far as they are affected by accidental errors.
The theory of probability is based upon the following assumptions relative to the
occurrences of errors:
• Small errors occur more often than large ones and that they are more probable.
• Large errors happen infrequently and are therefore less probable; for normally
distributed errors, unusually large ones may be mistakes rather than accidental
errors.
• Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal frequency; that
is, they are equally probable.
• The mean of an infinite number of observations is the most probable value.
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Most Probable Value
From the theory of probability, a basic assumption is that the most probable
value (mpv) of a group of repeated measurements made under similar conditions is the
arithmetic mean or the average. Most probable value refers to a quantity which, based
on available data, has more chances of being correct than has any other.
Σ𝑥 (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 )
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = 𝑥 = =
𝑛 𝑛
Residual
The residual, which is sometimes referred to as the deviation, is defined as the

difference between any measured value of a quantity and its most probable value or:
𝑣 = 𝑥 − 𝑥̅
Where v is the residual in any measurement, x is a measurement made of a quantity,
and 𝒙̅ is the most probable value of the quantity measured. Residuals and errors are
theoretically identical.
Probable Error
The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the most
probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50 percent chance that the true
value of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits thus set.
If errors are arranged in order of magnitude, it will be possible to determine the

probable error. This is the error that would be found in the middle place of the
arrangement, such that one half of the errors are greater than it and the other half are
less than it.
The value of the probable error is calculated with the use of the following formulae
which are derived from the method of least squares.
∑ 𝑣2
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.6745√
𝑛−1
∑ 𝑣2
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745√
𝑛(𝑛 − 10)
Where:
PEs = probable error of any single measurement of a series

PEm = probable error of the mean
∑ 𝑣 2 = summation of the squares of the residuals
n = number of observations
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The determination and use of the probable error in surveying is primarily to give an
indication of the precision of a particular measurement. It is often an approximated
value and is not mathematically exact since only a few repeated measurements are
usually made and the conditions of measurement are not rigidly controlled.
For example, if 235.50 m represents the mean or most probable value of several
measurements and 0.1 m represents the probable error of the mean value, the chances
are even that the true value lies between 235.40 and 235.60 m, as it is also probable
that the true value lies outside of these limiting values. Note that the lower and upper
limits are determined by correspondingly subtracting and adding 0.10 m to 235.50
meters. To express the probable limits of precision for this particular case, the quantity
should be written as: 235.50 ± 0.10 m
Relative (Error) Precision
The total amount of error in a given measurement should relate to the magnitude of the
measured quantity in order to indicate the accuracy of a measurement. In surveying
measurements, ratio of the error to the measured quantity is used to define the degree
of refinement obtained.
Relative error, sometimes called relative precision, is expressed by a fraction having the
magnitude of the error in the numerator and the magnitude of a measured quantity in
the denominator. It is necessary to express both quantities in the same units, and the
numerator is reduced to unity or 1 in order to provide an easy comparison with other
measurements.
For example, if for a particular measurement the probable error of the mean is 0.10 m
and the most probable value of the measurement is 235.50 m, the relative precision
(RP) would be expressed as 0.10/235.50 or 1/2355, also written as 1:2355.
Weighted Observations
Many surveying measurements are made under different circumstances and conditions
and therefore have different degrees of reliability. The problem often encountered is
how to combine these measurements and determine the most probable values. For such
a situation it is necessary to estimate the degree of reliability (or weight) for each of the
measurements before they are combined, and the most probable values are
determined.
In some instances, weights are assigned on the basis of weather conditions prevailing
attained on a bright early morning could be considered as more reliable than one
measured on a cold and rainy day. This method of assigning weights will require good
judgement and can only be expected of more experienced surveyors.
In the case of repeated measurements, if a quantity is measured, for example, in two

repetitions by group A and in four repetitions by group B, then the measurement taken
by B should be given twice the weight of the measurement of group B is regarded as
twice as reliable as that of group A. The assignment of weights in the ratio of 2 to 1 may
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be assigned instead of 2 and 1. For instance, the weights may be 1 and 1/2; and 2, or 16
and 8.
Interrelationship of Errors
In some instances, it is required to determine how the final result is affected when a
computation involves quantities that are subject to accidental errors. Two commonly
applied principles of the theory of errors involve the summation of errors and the
product of errors. These principles are given to provide the student a better
understanding of the propagation of errors.
1. Summation of Errors
If measured quantities are added, each of which is affected by accidental errors,

the probable error of the sum is given by the square root of the sum of the
squares of the separate probable errors arising from the several sources.”
𝑷𝑬𝒔 = √𝑷𝑬𝟏𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟐𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟑𝟐 + ⋯ 𝑷𝑬𝒏𝟐

Where:
PEs = probable error of the sum
PE1, PE2, PEn = probable error of each measurement
2. Product of Errors
“For a measured quantity which is determined as the product of two other

independently measured quantities such as Q1, and Q2 (with their
corresponding probable errors), the probable error of the product is given by
the following equation.”
𝑷𝑬𝒑 = √(𝑸𝟏 ∙ 𝑷𝑬𝟐)𝟐 + (𝑸𝟐 ∙ 𝑷𝑬𝟏)𝟐
Where:
PEp = probable error of the product
Q1 and Q2 = measured quantities
PE1 and PE2 = probable error corresponding to each quantity measured.
Rules for Weighted Measurements
1. The weight is directly proportional to the number of observations or

measurements.
2. The weight is inversely proportional to the distance.
3. The weight is inversely proportional to the square of the probable errors.
4. The weight is inversely proportional to the number of set-ups.
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Measurement of Horizontal Distances
Distance by Pacing
Pacing is one the simplest method of measuring distances. It is used

in instances where approximate results can be enough for the data
needed, such as getting the rodman in position during a cross-
section survey, or simply measuring a relatively short distance
where accuracy is not that of an issue.
Pace - Length of a step. Measured heel-to-heel, or toe-to-toe.
Stride - A double step. One stride is equivalent to two paces.
Pace Factor - The distance covered by one step.
• It is suitable in determining approximate distances in situations where a low

precision of measurement is sufficient.
• Unless a mistake has been made in counting, it will seldom be more than 3
percent in error.
• To pace a distance, it is necessary to first determine the length of one’s pace. This
is referred to as the pace factor.
Important Notes:
✓ The length of a pace varies with different persons.

✓ It is important to walk naturally when calibrating one’s pace in pacing distances.
✓ An attempt to make each step predetermined length is tiring and will only give
less accurate results.
✓ The length of a pace will vary with the speed of pacing, the roughness of the
ground, the weight of the clothing and shoes used, fatigue on the part of the
pacer, the slope of terrain, as well as the age and sex of the individual.
✓ The pace will also differ when going uphill or downhill.
✓ A pedometer or passometer can be used to count the pace if the distance to be
paced is quite long.
Distance by Taping
• The most common method of measuring or laying out horizontal distances.

• Taping consists of stretching a calibrated tape between the points and reading
the distance indicated on the tape.
• Taping may vary from a relative precision of about 1:1000 to 1:25000 or better.
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Distance by Tachymetry
It is based on the optical geometry of the instruments employed and is an indirect

method of measurement.
A. Stadia Method - Horizontal distance determined

by this method will yield a relative precision of
only 1/300 and 1/1000.
B. Subtense Bar Method - The subtense bar is a convenient and practical device used
for quick and accurate measurement of horizontal distances. The bar, which is
precisely 2 meters long, consists of a rounded steel tube through which runs a thin
invar rod. A theodolite, set up at the other end of the line to be measured, is used in
measuring the subtending angle.
Distance by Graphical and Mathematical Methods
• By graphical or mathematical methods,

unknown distances may be determined
through their relationship with known
distances geometrically.
• Determining distances by scaling from maps or
aerial photographs.
• The determination of lengths of the sides of a
horizontal control system such as in
triangulation and trilateration involves
geometric and trigonometric relationships.
Distance by Mechanical Devices
These devices, however, are only applicable for low precision surveys or where quick
measurements are desired.
The more commonly used among these devices include

1. Odometer
2. Measuring Wheel
3. Optical Range Finder
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Distance by Photogrammetry
The term photogrammetry refers to the

measurement of images on a photograph. The type
of photographs used are those taken from an aircraft
with the axis of the camera pointed vertically
towards the terrain photographed. Precision is
about 1/3000 to 1/5000
Measurement by Taping
Composition of a Taping Party
1. Head Tapeman – responsible for the accuracy and speed of all linear
measurements.
2. Recorder – keeps a record of all measurements, sketches, observations
3. Flagman – holds the pole at selected points, clears out obstruction.
4. Rear Tapeman – assist the tapeman during a taping operation.
Procedure of Taping
1. Aligning the tape

2. Stretching the tape
3. Plumbing
4. Marking Full Tape Lengths
5. Tallying Taped Measurements
6. Measuring Fractional Lengths
Breaking Tape
It is a standard practice to hold the tape horizontally above ground and to plumb at one
or both ends when taping on sloping or uneven terrain surfaces. This requires the
measurement of shorter distances which are accumulated to total a full tape length. The
procedure is referred to as “breaking tape”
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This method is effective on

measuring an uneven terrain
distance to ensure more accuracy in
the results.
Slope Taping
Taped measurements may be made directly along the

slopes when the ground is of uniform inclination and
fairly smooth, rather than break tape every few meters.
This practical method is generally preferred since
measurements could be made quickly and more
accurately than horizontal measurements.
If the angle is known, we can calculate the distance

using trigonometric identities.
It can also be solved using Pythagorean theorem.
Correction in Taping
Taping corrections could either be of the following: taping to determine an unknown

length, or taping for the purpose of laying out a required or specified length. Regardless
of which of these two categories is involved, there are some corrections which are
applied to the original measurements to determine the correct and more accurate
length.
Corrections to taping are applied using the following rules:
Rule 1. When a line is measured with a taped that is “too long”, the corrections are
applied to the observed length by adding.
Rule 2. When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a tape that is “too long”,
the corrections are subtracted from the known length to determine the corrected length
to be laid out.
Rule 3. When measuring or laying out lengths with tape that is “too short”, the
corrections are applied opposite to those stated in the first two rules.
• When measuring with tape too long, add; tape too short, subtract. Do the
reverse when laying out.”
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The required degree of precision in taping will define the procedure of measurement,
equipment, and accessories to be used, and the corrections to be considered. The
following conditions which could exist during a taping operation may require the
application of corrections.
Corrections in Taping
1. The tape used is not of standard or nominal length due to either faults in their
manufacture, or damage caused by kinks, bends, cuts, and splices on the tape.
2. Ends of the tape are not held at the same level when “breaking tape” along inclined
or rough terrain surface or when undertaking slope taping.
3. Inaccuracy in keeping the tape along a straight-line during measurement or in laying
out of lengths.
4. Tape is not of nominal length due to the difference in the temperature prevailing
during the actual measurement and the temperature for which the tape was
standardized.
5. Shortening or lengthening of the tape due to the application of a pull on its ends which
differs significantly from the pull applied on the tape during standardization
6. Distance between the end points of an unsupported length of tape is less than the
specified nominal length due to the effect of sag or a strong blowing side wind.
Types of Tape Correction
1. Correction due to incorrect tape length
The absolute value for the correction per tape length (corr) is determined from the
difference between nominal length of tape (NL) or
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓. = 𝑻𝑳 − 𝑵𝑳
Correspondingly, corrected distances which are measured or laid out with a tape
that is too long or too short can be determined from the following equations
𝑴𝑳
𝑪𝟏 = 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓 ( )
𝑵𝑳
𝑪𝑳 = 𝑴𝑳 ± 𝑪𝟏
Where:
C1 = total correction to be applied to the measured length or length to be laid out
CL = corrected length of the line to be measured or laid out
ML = measured length or length to be laid out
NL = nominal length of tape
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2. Correction due to Slope
Derived: For gentle slopes it is safe to assume that the slope

distance (s) is approximately equal to the horizontal
distance (d) or
𝒉𝟐
𝑪𝒉 =
𝟐𝒔
a. For gentle slopes (grade less than 20%)

𝒉𝟐
𝑪𝒉 =
𝟐𝒔
b. Steep Slopes (Between 20% and 30%)
𝒉𝟐 𝒉𝟒
𝑪𝒉 = +
𝟐𝒔 𝟖𝒔𝟑
c. Very Steep Slopes (Greater than 30%)
𝑪𝒉 = 𝒔(𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)
Therefore, the horizontal distance (d) is equal to the measured slope distance (s)
subtracted by the slope correction (Ch): “d = s – Ch”
3. Correction due to temperature
The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and shortens as the temperature falls.
Any change in the length of a tape due to variations in temperature is critical when
undertaking precise measurements.
𝑪𝒕 = 𝜶𝑳(∆𝑻) = 𝜶𝑳(𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 )
Where:
𝛼 = coefficient of linear expansion (thermal)
L = length of the line measured
T = temperature at the time of measurement
Ts = standardized tape temperature
4. Correction due to Tension (Pull Correction)
During calibration (or standardization) a tape is subjected to a certain amount of

standard pull or tension on its ends. When used in the field during taping, it is elongated
or shortened accordingly, depending on the amount of pull applied on it.
E = Unit Stress / Elongation per unit length

Deriving:
(𝑷𝒎 − 𝑷𝒔 )𝑳
𝑪𝒑 =
𝑨𝑬
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Where:
Pm = pull applied to the tape (kg or N)

Ps = standard pull of tape (kg or N)
L = measured length
A = cross-sectional area of tape (cm2 or m2)
E = modulus of elasticity (kg/cm2 or N/m2)
5. Correction due to Sag
A tape attains its correct length when it is fully supported and subjected to the pull for
which it was standardized. If the support is only at its ends or at the two points
measured, it will sag even if the standard pull is maintained because of its own weight.
𝝎𝟐 𝑳 𝟑 𝑾𝟐 𝑳
𝑪𝒔 = 𝒐𝒓
𝟐𝟒𝑷𝟐 𝟐𝟒𝑷𝟐
Where:
𝝎 = weight of the tape per unit length (kg/m or N/m)
W = total weight of tape between supports (kg or N)
L = interval between supports or the unsupported length of tape (m)
P = tension of pull applied to the tape (kg or N)
6. Correction due to Wind
A strong wind blowing perpendicular to the direction of taping will move the middle
and unsupported portion of tape to one side of the line measured. This introduces an
error to the measurement which is similar to the effect of sag but is usually much less.
(usually given. If not use the formula for correction due to sag for given pull of wind)
Normal Tension
By exerting a sufficiently greater amount of pull on the tape when it is suspended and
sagged, the tape will be stretched and a considerable decrease in the amount of sag
results. The applied pull which will lengthen the tape to equal the shortening caused
by sag is referred to as the Normal Tension.
The formula of Normal Tension can be calculated using the given formula:
𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟒𝑾√𝑨𝑬
𝑷𝑵 =
√𝑷𝑵 − 𝑷𝑺
Where:
PN = normal tension or the pull which will eliminate the effect of sag (kg or N)
W = total weight of tape between supports (kg or N)
E = cross-sectional area of tape (cm2 or m2)
Ps = standard pull for the tape (kg)
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Self-Help
Center
Let’s Check
Problem Set: Most Probable Value and Probable Error
1. The three angles of a triangle were measured with the following results: A = 42°05’,
B = 115°38’, and C = 22°08’. Determine the most probable value of each angle.
2. The angles about a point have the following observed values: 87°07’50’’,
125°17’20’’, and 147°35’20’’. Determine the most probable value of the three angles.
3. The interior angles of a quadrilateral were observed to be: A = 100°35’40’’, B =

118°44’15’’, C = 80°54’35’’, and D = 59°45’50’’. Determine the most probable value
of each of these angles.
4. A quantity was measured ten times with the following results: 34.630, 34.626,
34.364, 34.628, 34.629, 34.626, 34.627, 34.633, 34.625, and 34.624 meters.
Determine the probable error of the mean and the relative precision of the mean.
5. A surveying instructor sent all the 40 students in his class out to measure a distance
between two points marked on a runway. The students working in groups of four
came up with 10 different measurements as follows: 920.45, 921.05, 921.65, 920.25,
920.15, 921.85, 921.95, 920.45, 921.15, and 921.35 meters. Assuming these values
are equally reliable and that variations result only from accidental errors, determine
the relative precision of single measurement and the relative precision of the mean.
6. The following values were determined in a series of rod readings made under
identical conditions: 3.312, 3.307, 3.304, 3.306, 3.309, 3.301, 3.311, 3.308, 3.312,
3.306, and 3.313 meters. Determine the following: most probable value of the
observed rod readings, probable error of a single measurement and of the mean,
and the relative precision of a single measurement and of the mean.
32
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Let’s Analyze
Problem Set: Weighted Measurements, Summation and Product of Errors
1. A line is measured on a windy day as 338.65 m. The same line measured 338.37 m
on a calm day. If the latter measurement is given four times the reliability of the first,
determine the most probable value of the measured line.
2. A distance AB is measured five times as 610.03, 610.01, 610.05, 610.04, and 610.02
meters. The measurements were given weights of 3, 2, 1, 2, and 3, respectively, by
the head tape man. Determine the weighted mean for distance AB. Also, determine
what difference results if later judgment revises the weights to 2, 3, 1, 3, and 2.
3. And angle ABC is measured at different times using various instruments and
procedures. The results, which are assigned certain weights, are as follows: 75°
09'26", weight of 4; 75°09’25’’, weight of 3; and 75° 09’27’’, weight of 1. Determine
the most value of the angle measured. probable
4. In this problem the weight an angle is assumed to be proportional to the number of

times it has been measured by repetition. Five angles in a pentagon were measured
with the of following results: 134°44’35’’, 167°02'05'’, 86°15’20’’, 75°48’50’’, and
76°08’50’’. If the number of repetitions for each measurement and were 2, 6, 6, 8,
and 4, respectively, determine the adjusted values of the angles.
5. Two sides and the included angle of a triangle were measured and the probable
error of each value were computed as follows: a = 267.55 m ± 0.05 m, b = 564.75 ±
0.06 m, and the angle C = 57°15’45’’. Determine the area of the triangle and the
probable error of the area.
6. Three sides of triangle were measured with the following results: a =1431.20 m ±
0.02 m, b = 570.77 m ± 0.03 m, and c = 1767.15 m ± 0.04 m. Determine the angles in
the triangle together with the probable errors of the angles.
7. A line AE is divided into segments for measurement with a tape. The results were
AB = 134.10 m ± 0.040 m, BC = 320.63 m ± 0.055 m, CD =173.73 m ± 0.056 m, and
DE = 160.85 m ± 0.050 m. Determine the length of the line and the probable error of
the measured length.
8. The difference in elevation between two ground points was measured by each of
three field parties using different kinds of leveling instruments. The results are as
follows: 1st Party, DE = 18.45 m ± 0.05 m; 2nd Party, DE=18.40 m ± 0.04 m; 3rd
Party, DE = 18.48 m ± 0.05m. Determine the most probable difference in elevation
between the two ground points.
9. The four approximately equal sides of a tract of land were measured and the
measurements included the following errors: ±0.085 m, ±0.014 m, ±0.175 m, and ±
0.205 m, respectively Determine the probable error for the total length (or
perimeter) of the tract.
33
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10. The dimensions of a five-sided tract of land are given by the following
measurements and corresponding probable errors: 221.63 m ± 0.004 m, 235.70m ±
0.002 m, 196.05 m ± 0.005 m, 296.13 m ± 0.012 m, and 303.18 m ± 0.015 m.
Determine the probable error of the sum of the five measurements and the most
probable value o! the perimeter.
11. Two sides of a rectangle were measured as being 226.25 m ± 0.03 m and 307.28 m
± 0.04m. Determine the area of the figure and the probable error of the area.
12. The base and altitude of triangular-shaped figure were measured with certain
estimated probable errors as follows: b = 425.67 m ± 0.07 m and h = 138.63 m ±
0.06 m. Determine the area of the figure and the probable error in the resulting
calculation.
In a Nutshell
Problem Set: Measurement of Horizontal Distance
1. In walking along a 75-m course, the pacer of a field party counted 43.50, 44.00,
43.50, 43.75, 44.50, 43.25 strides. Then 105.50, 106.00, 105.75, and 106.25 strides
were counted in walking from one market to another established along a straight
and level course. Determine the distance between the two markers.
2. A student paces a 50-m length five times with the following results: 57.00, 56.75,
56.50, 58.00, and 56.25 paces. Determine how many paces must he step off in order
to establish a distance of 450 meters in on level ground.
3. Determine the length of a line negotiated in 208 paces by a person whose pace is
0.76 meters long.
4. With the use of a 1-sec theodolite positioned at the center of a six-sided lot, the
following readings were taken on a 2-m subtense bar set up at each corner: 0° 25'
16", 0°12’35",0°15'05", 0°22'29", 0°30’45", and 0°09’50". Determine the distance of
each corner from the Instrument position.
5. A 2-m long subtense bar was first set up at A and subsequently at B, and the
subtended angles to the bar, as read from a theodolite positioned somewhere along
the middle of line AB, were recorded as 0°24'15’’ and 0°20'30', respectively.
Determine the length of AB.
6. A slope measurement of 545.38 m is made between points and B. The elevation of

A is 424.25 m and that of B in 459.06 m. Determine the horizontal distance between
the two points.
7. The sides of rectangular parcel of property were measured and recorded as 249.50
m and 496.85 m. It was determined, however, that the 30-m tape used in measuring
was actually 30.05 m long, Determine the correct area of the rectangle in hectares.
34
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8. A track and field coach wishes to layout for his team a 200-m straightaway course.
If he uses a 50-m tape known to be 50.20 m long, determine the measurements to
be made so that the course will have the correct length.
9. A 30-m steel tape is of standard length at 20°C. If the coefficient of thermal

expansion of steel is 0.0000116/1°C, determine the distance to be laid out using this
tape to establish two points exactly 1235.65 m apart when the temperature is 33°C.
10. A steel tape is 30.0-m long under a pull of 6.0 kg when supported throughout. It has
a cross-sectional ported area of 0.035 cm2 and is applied fully supported with a 12-
kg pull to measure a line whose recorded length is 308.32 m. Determine the correct
length of the line if E=2.1 x 106 kg/cm2.
11. A 30-m steel tape weighs 1.5 kg and is supported at its end points and at the 5 and
15meter marks. If a pull of 8 kg is applied, determine the correction due to sag
between supports and for one tape length.
12. Determine the normal tension required to make a tape exactly 30.0 m between its
ends when used in an unsupported mode, If the tape has a cross-sectional area of
0.045 cm2 and weighs 0.90 kg. Assume that the tape exactly 30.0 m when supported
throughout its length under a standard pull of 6.0 kg, and its modulus of elasticity
2.10 x 106 kg/cm2.
13. A 30-m tape weighs 12.5 g/m and has a cross section of 0.022 cm2. If it measures
correctly when supported throughout under a tension of 8.0 kg and at temperature
of 20°C. When used in the field, the tape is only supported at its ends, under a pull
of 9.0 kg, and at an average temperature of 28°C. Determine the distance between
the zero and 30-m marks.
14. A line was found to be 2865.35 m long when measured with a 30-m tape under a
steady pull of 6.5 kg at a mean temperature of 30°C. Determine the correct length of
the line if the tape used is of standard length at 20°C under a pull of 5.5 kg. Assume
the cross-sectional area of tape to be 0.025 cm2, elastic modulus as 2.10 x 106
kg/cm2, and coefficient of thermal expansion to be 0.0000116/1°C.
15. The sides of a triangle measure 1063.55, 1840.33, and 1325.05 m. Determine the
three angles in the triangle.
35
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1c. Be able to understand and apply the concept of
vertical distances.
Metalanguage
1. Leveling – an art of determining the relative height of different points on,

above or below the surface.
2. Elevation – the height to which something is elevated above a point of
reference, especially mean sea level.
3. Vertical distance – also known as vertical separation is the distance between
two vertical positions. Many vertical coordinates exist for expressing vertical
position: depth, height, altitude, elevation, etc. Each quantity may be
expressed in various units: meters, feet, etc.
4. Curvature – the curved shape of the earth means that the level surface
through the telescope will depart from the horizontal plane through the
telescope as the line of sight proceeds to the horizon.
5. Refraction - it is largely a function of atmospheric pressure and temperature
gradients, which may cause the bending to be up or down by extremely
variable amounts.
Essential Knowledge
Measurement of Vertical Distances
• Leveling is defined as “an art of determining the relative height of different points
on, above or below the surface”.
• Leveling is the process of directly or indirectly measuring vertical distances to
determine the elevation of points or their differences in elevation.
• The principle of levelling is to obtain horizontal line of sight with respect to
which vertical distances of the points above or below this line of sight are found.
Definition of Terms
1. Level Surface – It is a curved surface which is at any point perpendicular to the

direction of gravity or the plumb line.
2. Level Line – A level line is a curved line in a level surface all points of which are
normal to the direction of gravity and equidistant from the center of the earth.
3. Horizontal Surface – It is a plane that is tangent to a level surface at a particular
point.
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4. Horizontal Line – A straight line in a horizontal plane which is tangent to a level

line at one point.
5. Vertical Line – A vertical line at any point is a line parallel to the direction of
gravity.
6. Mean Sea Level – Mean sea level is an imaginary surface of the sea which is
midway between high and low tides.
7. Datum – Datum is any convenient level surface coincident or parallel with mean
sea level to which elevations of an area are referred.
8. Elevation – For a point, its elevation is the vertical distance above or below mean
sea level or any other selected datum.
Leveling Methods
1. Direct or Spirit Leveling – is the commonly employed method of determining the

elevation of points some distance apart by a series of setups of a leveling
instrument along a selected route.
2. Reciprocal Leveling – Reciprocal leveling is the process of accurately determining
the difference in elevation between two intervisible points located at a
considerable distance apart and between which points leveling could not be
performed in the usual manner.
3. Profile Leveling – This method of leveling is used to determine differences in
elevation between points at designated short measured intervals along an
established line to provide data from which a vertical section of the ground
surface can be plotted.
4. Trigonometric Leveling – This method of levelling is employed in determining by
trigonometric computations the difference in elevation between two points from
measurements of its horizontal or slope distance and the vertical angle between
the points.
5. Stadia Leveling – Stadia levelling combines features of direct leveling with those
of trigonometric leveling.
6. Barometric Leveling – Barometric leveling involves the determination of
differences in elevation between points by measuring the variation in
atmospheric pressure at each point by means of a barometer.
7. Cross-Section levelling – In highway or railroad constructions, it is often
necessary to obtain a representation of the ground surface on either side of the
centerline.
8. Borrow Pit Leveling – Borrow-pit leveling is a method of determining the relative
elevations of points in borrow-pit excavations for the purpose of calculation
volumes.
Types of Levels
1. Dumpy Level – the dumpy level is the most widely used direct leveling
instrument.
2. Wye Level - The wye level is very similar to the dumpy.
3. Builder’s Level – This instrument is used primarily in the different phases of
building construction where a high degree of precision is not a primary requisite.
4. Automatic Level – Self-leveling features are incorporated in automatic levels.
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5. Tilting Level – This type of leveling instrument can be tilted or rotated about its
horizontal axis.
6. Geodetic Level – The geodetic level is basically another type of tilting level.
7. Transit as a Level – The engineer’s transit has always been referred to as the
“universal surveying instrument” because of its variety of uses.
8. Laser Level – An innovation introduced to surveying operations is the use of
lasers.
9. Hand Level – The hand level is a handheld instrument used on surveys involving
short sights and where a low order of accuracy is sufficient.
Sources of Error in Leveling
A. Instrumental Errors
• Instrument Out of Adjustment
• Rod Not Standard Length
• Defective Tripod
B. Personal Errors
• Bubble Not Centered
• Parallax
• Faulty Rod Readings
• Rod Not Held Plumb
• Incorrect Setting of Target
• Unequal Backsight and Foresight Distances
C. Natural Errors
• Curvature of the Earth
• Atmospheric Refraction
• Temperature Variations
• Wind
• Settlement of the Instrument
• Faulty Turning Points
Two Peg Test
• The most common means of checking an instrument in the field and can be done
for both optical & laser levels.
• The purpose is to check that the line of sight through the level is horizontal
(parallel to the axis of the bubble)
• The line of sight is defined by the location of the horizontal crosshair.
Two-Peg Test Procedure
1. Place 2 pegs, 60 to 90m apart are established on the ground.

2. Set up the instrument such that the eyepiece is 20cm or less in front of the rod held
on one of the pegs as at A.
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3. A rod reading a is taken on the end of the telescope.

4. Telescope is then turned toward the rod now held over the other peg at B, and a rod
reading b is taken on it.
5. The instrument is next moved, set up, and leveled near where a second set of rod
readings, c and d, are taken on the rod held at B and A.
𝐷𝐸𝑎 = 𝑎 − 𝑏
𝐷𝐸𝑏 = 𝑑 − 𝑐
* 𝐷𝐸𝑎 = 𝐷𝐸𝑏 , level in adjustment, If not, level out of adjustment
When the line of sight is inclined from the horizontal, the error in the line of sight from
the distance AB is
e = difference in elevation between d and d’

e = d – d’
Alternate Procedure
1. Place 2 stakes at a distance of 200 to 300 ft (60 to 90m) apart.

2. Set up the level midway between the 2 stakes, and rod readings are taken at both
locations.
3. If the line of sight through the level is not horizontal, the errors in rod readings (Δe1)
at both points A and B will be identical (level is halfway between the points).
4. Because the errors are identical, the calculated difference in elevation between A
and B (difference in rod readings) will be true difference in elevation.
5. The level is then moved to within 5‐6ft, or 2m (minimum focusing distance of the
level) of one of the points and set up with a rod reading determined.
6. Any line‐of‐sight error generated over that very short distance will be relatively
insignificant compared to the next rod reading at B.
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7. The rod is then held at B and a rod reading obtained.
Differential Levelling
Determining or establishing elevations is, at times, the most essential activity of the
field engineer. Elevations are needed to set slope stakes, grade stakes, footings, anchor
bolts, slabs, decks, sidewalks, curbs, etc. Just about everything located on the project
requires elevation. Differential leveling is the process used to determine or establish
those elevations.
Differential leveling is a very simple process based on the measurement of vertical
distances from a horizontal line. Elevations are transferred from one point to another
through the process of using a leveling instrument to read a rod held vertically on, first,
a point of known elevation and, then, on the point of unknown elevation. Simple
addition and subtraction are used to calculate the unknown elevations.
A
single-level setup is illustrated in Figure 5-1. A backsight reading is taken on a rod held
on a point of known elevation. That elevation is transferred vertically to the line of sight
by reading the rod and then adding the known elevation and the backsight reading. The
elevation of the line of sight is the height of instrument (HI). By definition, the line of
sight is horizontal; therefore, the line of sight elevation can then be transferred down
to the unknown elevation point by turning the telescope to the foresight and reading
40
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the rod. The elevation of the foresight station is found by subtracting the rod reading
from the height of instrument. Note that the difference in elevation from the backsight
station to the foresight station is determined by subtracting the foresight rod reading
from the backsight rod reading.
Figure 5-2. Direction of Differential Leveling
Figure 5-3. Typical Format of Level Notes
A level route consists of several level setups, each one carrying the elevation forward
to the next foresight using the differential-leveling method. Figure 5-2 shows a short
level route and illustrates the typical format used in the field for differential level notes.
Differential Leveling Procedure
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1. Designate the initial or reference point of the level route as BM 1 and the final or
terminal point as BM-2.
2. Set up and level the instrument at a convenient location along the general
designated route between the two points.
3. Take and record a backsight on BM-1.
4. Direct the rodman to move forward along the level route (not necessarily in a
straight line between BM-1 and the next point) and establish TP-1.
5. Take and record a foresight in TP-1.
6. Transfer and set up the level at another suitable location beyond TP-1 and take
and record a backsight on TP-1.
7. Direct the rodman to move a convenient distance ahead of the instrument and
establish TP-2.
8. Take and record a foresight on TP-2.
9. Repeat the procedure until a foresight is finally taken on BM-2.
10. Refer to the accompanying sample tabulation for the recording of observed field
data.
Profile Leveling
Profile Leveling
Profile leveling is a method of surveying that has been carried out along the central line
of a track of land on which a linear engineering work is to be constructed/ laid. The
operations involved in determining the elevation of ground surface at small spatial
interval along a line is called profile leveling.
Stations
The line along which the profile is to be run is to be marked on the ground before taking
any observation. Stakes are usually set at some regular interval which depends on the
topography, accuracy required, nature of work, scale of plotting etc. It is usually taken
to be 20 meters. The beginning station of profile leveling is termed as 0+000. Points at
multiples of 1000m from this point are termed as full stations. Intermediate points are
designated as pluses.
42
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Figure 6-1. Profile Leveling (10m station)
In carrying out profile leveling, a level is placed at a convenient location (say I 1) not
necessarily along the line of observation. The instrument is to be positioned in such a
way that first backsight can be taken clearly on a B.M. Then, observations are taken at
regular intervals (say at 1, 2, 3, 4) along the central line and foresight to a properly
selected turning point (say TP1). The instrument is then re-positioned to some other
convenient location (say I2). After proper adjustment of the instrument, observations
are started from TP1 and then at regular intervals (say at 5, 6 etc.) terminating at
another turning point, say TP2. Staff readings are also taken at salient points where
marked changes in slope occur, such as that at X. The distance as well as direction of
lines are also measured.
Profile Leveling Procedure
1. Profile Leveling
a. Establish stakes at every full station along the center line of a 500-m long proposed
roadway at intervals of 100 meters.
b. Set up and level the instrument in some convenient location on one side of the
proposed roadway.
c. Take and record a backsight on a rod held on a nearby bench mark to determine
the height of instrument.
d. Take and record intermediate foresights from as many center line points up to
within practical limits of sighting.
e. When the rod has been advanced to a point beyond which further readings to
ground points cannot be observed, establish a turning point, and take a foresight
on it to determine its elevation.
f. Transfer and set up the instrument in another farther position and take a
backsight on the turning point just established. Then continue taking rod readings
on ground points as before until the end of the roadway is reached.
43
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g. Tabulate observed and computed values accordingly. Refer to the accompanying

sample format for the tabulation of field data.
2. Plotting the Profile
a. Plot the observed and computed data (stationings and elevations of full and plus
stations) on a special paper having horizontal and vertical lines printed on it to
represent distances both horizontally and vertically.
b. Use a scale of 1:1000 for plotting the horizontal distances and 1:100 for the
vertical distances.
c. Connect the plotted elevations for the profile by a smooth curved line drawn
freehand.
d. Label the plot of the profile accordingly. The stationings, elevations, and horizontal
and vertical scales must be indicated.
Curvature and Refraction in Levelling
For long sights and accurate levelling work, the effects of curvature of the earth and
refraction of the line of sight shall have to be taken into consideration. Due to curvature,
the points appear to be lower than they are; while due to refraction, they appear to be
higher than they actually are. The effect of curvature being greater than that of
refraction, the combined effect causes the points to appear to be lower than they are.
Curvature
Earth has a curved face which is assumed to be a level surface, but the line of sight as
furnished by the levelling instrument is horizontal and not the level line. Therefore, all
points on the line of sight are not equidistant from the surface of the earth and
consequently the points read on the staff are not strictly at the same level as horizontal
hair of the diagram.
The level line falls away from the horizontal line of sight and the vertical distance between
the horizontal line and the level line denotes the effect of curvature of the earth.
In Fig., 7.24. A’ is the instrument station and P the point where the staff is held. On looking
through the telescope, we sight along AB, the horizontal line of sight, and take the staff
reading PB. The point B is considered to be at the same level as A, but actually the points
C and A are at the same level. The true reading is, therefore, PC.
The difference BC between the observed and true staff readings denotes the error due to
curvature of the earth, which may be determined as follows:
44
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In fig 7.25,
• D= the length of the sight or the distance from the instruments to the staff station
in kilometers
• BC= he error due to curvature.
• O= the center of the earth.
• R= the radius of the earth.
By Geometry, BC x BE =BA2
Or BC (BC= CE) = BC2
Or BC2 +BC x CE=BA2
Since BC is usually very small as compared with the diameter of the earth and its square will
still be much smaller and may therefore be neglected in calculation:
taxing diameter of the earth as 12,742

kilometers, we get:
45
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Hence the error in staff reading due to curvature of the earth = 0.0785 D2 meters, where
D is the distance from the level to the staff in kilometers. The effect of curvature is to
increase the staff reading i.e., this error is positive and so the correction is negative.
True staff reading = observed staff reading – 0.0785 D2
Refraction
It is a well-established law of physics that rays of light passing through layers of

different densities do not remain straight but are refracted or bent down towards the
denser medium. Consequently, the ray of light from the staff to the instrument is not
straight as AB in fig. 7.26 but it follows a curved path AD concave towards the earth as
the near the surface of the earth is denser than the upper layers of air.
Under normal atmospheric conditions, arc AD may be taken as circular and of radius
seven times that of the earth. The effect of refraction is therefore 1/7th7 the of that of
the curvature but is of opposite nature. Hence the correction for refraction is additive
to the staff reading.
The error due to refraction:
Combined Correction due to Curvature and Refraction:

Since the effect of curvature is to increase the staff readings and that of refraction is to
decrease them and also the effect of curvature is greater than that of refraction, the
combined effect is therefore, to increase the staff readings, hence the combined
correction is subtractive.
46
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The combined error due to curvature and refraction:
And true staff reading = observed staff reading -0.0673 D2
Self-Help
Center
Let’s Check
Let’s Analyze
In a Nutshell
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UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

College of Engineering Education

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Course/Subject: BCE 211/F: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

Name of Teacher: Engr. NORODDIN V. MELOG

Course Outline: BCE 211/F – Fundamentals of Surveying ................................................ 3

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a ....................................................................................................... 7

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b ..................................................................................................... 19

Measurement of Horizontal Distances .............................................................................................. 25

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1c ..................................................................................................... 36

Course Outline: BCE 211/F – Fundamentals of Surveying

Course Coordinator: Engr. Noroddin V. Melog

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

If the assessment task is done in real time through the

Since this course is included in the licensure

Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

However, if the late submission of assessment paper

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

elevate your case to the program head or the dean with

All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

For students who have not created their student email,

Course Information- see/download course syllabus in the BlackBoard LMS

CO: Upon completion of the course, you are expected to:

CO 1: Understand the appropriate surveys and investigations required for various

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a. Demonstrate deep knowledge and

The demonstration of this ULO requires the understanding of the following:

1. Surveying – It is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances

One of the oldest arts practiced by man is

Difference between Plane and Geodetic Surveying

Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying

1. Control Survey – Made to establish the horizontal and vertical positions of

6. Astronomical Survey – generally involve imagining or mapping of regions of the

Development of Surveying Instruments

1. Astrolabe - The astrolabe of Hipperachus is one of the best

2. Telescope - The invention of the telescope in 1607 is

3. Transit - The invention of the transit is credited to

4. Semi-circumferentor - An early surveying

5. Plane Table - One of the oldest types of surveying

6. Dioptra - The dioptra, which was perfected

7. Roman Groma - The Roman Surveyors used the

8. Libella - The Assyrians and Egyptians are

9. Vernier - The Vernier is a short auxiliary scale

10. Diopter - An instrument developed by the

11. Compass - The magnetic compass came into

12. Ginter’s Chain - Was invented by Sir

13. Chorobates - This instrument was designed for

14. Merchet - The merchet was a

A. Direct Measurements - A direct measurement is a comparison of the measured

B. Indirect Measurements - When it is not possible to apply a measuring instrument

Mega 1,000,000 Deca 10 Milli 0.001

Conversion Table for some units used in Surveying

1 acre = 4047 𝑚2 1 military pace = 2.5ft

A. Sexagesimal Units – Degree, Minute and Second

B. Centesimal Units – Gradian

✓ Rule 1 – Zeroes between other significant figures are significant.