GREAT ZIMBABWE UNIVESITY

GARYMAGADZIRE SCHOOL OF AGRICULTRE & NATURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS & COMPUTER SCIENCE
BSC COMPUTER SCIENCE
PART: 2:1
NAME: FARAI NYAKUDANGA
REG NUMBER: M195325
COURSE CODE: HCS 204
COURSE TITLE: DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER
NETWORKS
EMAIL: m195325@elearning.gzu.ac.zw
LECTURER: MR L. SHAMBIRA
QUESTION: ASSIGNMENT 2
MARK: ……………………........
DATE: …………………………
COMMENT: …………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………….
M195325 HCS 204 Assignment 2 FARAI NYAKUDANGA

Question 1

a) Describe the theoretical basis of CRC error detection. Show how the CRC is computed
given the following parameters. Give the bit pattern for the final transmitted frame
including the CRC. [10]

Solution
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) error detection method is the most powerful and easy to
implement technique. Unlike checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is based
on binary division. In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy check
bits, are appended to the end of data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly
divisible by a second, predetermined binary number. At the destination, the incoming data
unit is divided by the same number. If at this step there is no remainder, the data unit is
assumed to be correct and is therefore accepted. A remainder indicates that the data unit
has been damaged in transit and therefore must be rejected.

Calculation of CRC:

𝑮(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟓 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 + 𝟏 is the generator polynomial

𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟏 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟏

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M195325 HCS 204 Assignment 2 FARAI NYAKUDANGA

100 0000 1010 0110 0001 1001

100111 10011101011110110001010100000

100111
000000
000000
101111
100111
100001
100111
110100
100111
100110
100111
110101
100111
100100
100111
110000
100111
10111 Remainder (CRC)

Therefore, the transmitted message = Frame + CRC(remainder)

= 1001 1101 0111 10110001 0101 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟏

b) Describe the physical characteristics of an optical fiber and explain how it can be used to
transmit data. Comment on the jointing techniques that are used to connect fibers and the
possible loss of signal that results. Describe how data traffic can be multiplexed onto an
optical fiber and discuss any problems that may arise. What issues need to be considered?
Optical fiber networks are replacing copper networks at a rapid rate. Why is this happening
and what are the benefits to telecommunications companies of doing this. [10]

Solution

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Physical characteristics of an optical fiber:

Fiber optic cables consist of multiple strands of optic fibers, hair like strands of pure glass
designed to transmit light. When hundreds or thousands of these strands are put together,
they are able to transmit waves of light up to 60 miles.
Surrounding the fibers is a layer of glass or plastic in the strands.

Fiber optics, or optical fiber, refers to the medium and the technology associated with the
transmission of information as light pulses along a glass or plastic strand or fiber. Fiber
optics is used long-distance and high-performance data networking.
Fiber optics are also commonly used in telecommunication services such as internet,
television and telephones. As an example, companies such as Verizon and Google use fiber
optics in their Verizon FIOS and Google Fiber services, providing gigabit internet speeds
to users.
Fiber optic cables are used since they hold a number of advantages over copper cables,
such as higher bandwidth and transmit speeds.
How fiber optics transmit data:
Fiber optics transmit data in the form of light particles -- or photons -- that pulse through a
fiber optic cable. The glass fiber core and the cladding each have a different refractive
index that bends incoming light at a certain angle. When light signals are sent through the
fiber optic cable, they reflect off the core and cladding in a series of zig-zag bounces,
adhering to a process called total internal reflection.

Optical fibers are joined either by fusion/mechanical splice, which is a permanent joint, or
by connectors, which can be disengaged repeatedly. When joining optical fibers, the
opposed cores must be properly aligned.

Possible loses include:

insertion loss which is the measurement of light that is lost between two fixed points in
the fiber. It can occur when optical fibers are spliced together, connected, or sent through
additional passive network components. IL is often attributed to misalignment,

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contamination, or poorly manufactured connectors (ferrules) and has long been used to
advocate fusion splicing.

Return loss also impacts the network’s performance but in a different way. It is the amount
of signal reflected back towards the source due to an impedance mismatch – effectively, if
this is too high, the laser within the network may stop transmitting correctly.

Data traffic can be multiplexed through use of multimode step index, which allows light
beans to move through core in different paths. This brings in the view of multiplex as traffic
is transferred in many pathways. However multimode step index is efficient over short
distances and if used over longer distance may result in loss of information or poor quality.
Installation costs need to be considered since optic fiber needs sophisticated tools and
methods in installation. Also the cost of the equipment should be considered, fiber optic
cables are expensive to buy than twisted copper cables (copper network). The design
outline must be considered in so as to cut costs on complex designs.
However, efficacy, speed and durability are to be considered first, optic fiber is more
efficient, provide faster speeds and its durable than copper networks which can be affected
by corrosive conditions.

The more complex firewalls support “stateful inspection” techniques, where the firewall
looks at the patterns in traffic flows to identify anomalies that suggest some form of attack
is underway, such DOS attacks or spoof attacks, where an intruder tries to masquerade as
a trusted resource.

Why Optical fiber networks are replacing copper networks at a rapid rate:

 Fiber optic transmission is faster.

 Fiber optic transmission can cover greater distances
 Fiber optic cables are impervious to electromagnetic interference (EMI)
 Save space and enhance cable management
 Fiber optics are future-proof

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Question 2

a) Define the role of a firewall and draw a diagram that shows where a firewall should be
positioned with relation to protecting a local network. In defining the role of a firewall you
should discuss the techniques that a firewall uses at different levels to prevent external
attacks on the network and control traffic flow through the firewall. [8]

Solution

A firewall is a type of cybersecurity tool that is used to filter traffic on a network. Firewalls
can be used to separate network nodes from external traffic sources, internal traffic sources,
or even specific applications. Firewalls can be software, hardware, or cloud-based, with
each type of firewall having its own unique pros and cons.
A firewall protects LAN resources from attackers or hackers on the Internet. Similarly, it
can prevent computers on the network from accessing various services on the Internet. It
can be used to filter packets based on rules that the network administrator sets. These rules
state what kinds of information can flow into and out of a network’s connection to the
Internet. Firewalls can be either stand-alone computer running the firewall software or can
be set up in software on a server or router. Either way, the firewall will have at least two
network connections: one to the Internet (known as the ‘public’ side), and one to the
network (known as the ‘private’ side)
The primary goal of a firewall is to block malicious traffic requests and data packets while
allowing legitimate traffic through.
Types:

 Packet-filtering firewalls
 Circuit-level gateways
 Stateful inspection firewalls
 Application-level gateways (a.k.a. proxy firewalls)
 Next-gen firewalls
 Software firewalls

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 Hardware firewalls
 Cloud firewalls

Diagram of a firewall:

b) (i) CSMA/CD protocol for MAC.

Carrier sense multiple access/collision detection, CSMA/CD is a MAC (media access

control) protocol. It defines how network devices The medium is often used by multiple data
nodes, so each data respond when two devices attempt to use a data channel simultaneously and

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encounter a data collision. The CSMA/CD rules define how long the device should wait if a
collision occurs. node receives transmissions from each of the other nodes on the medium.

(ii) Token bus protocol for MAC.

The Token bus is a network implementing the token ring protocol over a virtual ring on a coaxial
cable. A token is passed around the network nodes and only the node possessing the token may
transmit. If a node doesn't have anything to send, the token is passed on to the next node on the
virtual ring. Each node must know the address of its neighbor in the ring, so a special protocol is
needed to notify the other nodes of connections to, and disconnections from, the ring. Due to
difficulties handling device failures and adding new stations to a network token ring gained a
reputation for being unreliable and difficult to upgrade. Bus networks, such as Ethernet, had a
more flexible and reliable physical architecture, but Ethernet's access protocol could not absolutely
guarantee a maximum time any station would have to wait to access the network, so was thought to
be unsuitable for manufacturing automation applications.

In the token-bus method, the network configuration changes with the addition of a new node, the
removal of a node, or the malfunction of a node.

Token bus was used by general motors for their manufacturing automation protocol (MAP)
standardization effort.

(iii) Token ring protocol for MAC

solution

A token ring network is a local area network (LAN) in which all computers are connected in a ring
or star topology. The MAC protocol of the token ring is as follows: A specific bit pattern, called
the token, circulates on the ring. When a node wants to transmit, it waits until the token comes by.
It then replaces the token with another pattern (SFD) which indicates the start of frame, and it

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appends its packet. The node converts the token into an SFD by monitoring the signal it receives
from the ring and by modifying the token while it is stored in the interface buffer before
transmitting it.

Token Ring protocol structures have improved efficiency in bandwidth on demand, QoS, and
traffic prioritization.

The Token Ring protocol is more improved and can provide more effective traffic management
than any other LAN technology currently available.

In the token-ring method, the network is closed, and it is necessary to remove the information that
is circulated through the network.

Question 3

a. Discuss the hierarchy and addressing issues surrounding the construction of large
networks. [10]

Solution

In designing hierarchical networks, interrelated sub problems have to be solved.

The sub problems are listed below:
• Hub location (or selection) • Clustering of nodes • Interconnection of nodes in the
backbone and cluster networks • Routing
Large networks such as client/server network are very expensive to construct since they
require large investment in dedicated server which will be used to store information,
passwords and other forms of data. In maintenance client/server networks requires
professional staff to ensure efficiency operation.

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VLANs are one of the large networks with a hierarchy comprising of switches, bridges,
routers and a collection of local area networks. The issue of constructing VLANs are that
the switches, bridges, routers and LANs need to be physically connected to each other,
logically they are separate.

WAN is another large network with a hierarchy of server to client computers, nodes and
other systems. The only issue is connecting LANs since the network covers a wide range
such as continental boundaries. On construction VLANs might require construction of
network poles and wiring of too many cables which is a great issue since this adds up on
the construction expenses. Example below where communication network poles are used.

b. Possible choices for data communication infrastructure for long distance data transfer
include microwave optical fiber and radio transmission. Discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of each of these media in terms of cost political impact ease of installation
and adaptability in providing a range of services to clients. [10]

Solution

Microwaves possess the same characteristics like of radio transmission of having air as the
medium of communication. They are used where it is difficult to install cables especially
across seas.

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Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be
narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned
without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz .Therefore wider sub bands can
be assigned, and a high data rate is possible.
However Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can
be a disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.
Politically, microwave optical fibers can be disadvantageous since the use of certain
portions of the band requires permission from authorities.

Optical fiber has high adaptability in providing range of services to clients since data can
be transferred in high speeds with few or no errors. It is adaptable in providing range of
services to clients, as it can transfer multiple signals (multiplexing).
However, optical fiber is very costly in product and services since it requires more cabling
to be used. It is difficult to install, it requires sophisticated tools and methods for
installation. Its complex layout and designs add up to it being difficult to install.

Radio transmission is less costly in terms of product and service to clients. They are also
ease of installation since radio transmission signals are distributed using the antenna rather
use of cables.
It’s also very adaptable in providing a range of services to clients. Each station uses a
different carrier frequency, which means it is shifting its signal and multiplexing. Radio
waves also are Omni directional, meaning that they travel in all directions from the source.

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Question 4

Explain the following

a. The protocols in Data link layer. [12]

Solution

Data-link layer protocols are classified as LAN protocols, WAN protocols, or protocols
that can be used for both LANs and WANs.
The diagram above shows all the protocols in datalink layer.

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Synchronous Data Link Protocol (SDLC) − SDLC was developed by IBM in the 1970s
as part of Systems Network Architecture. It was used to connect remote devices to
mainframe computers. It ascertained that data units arrive correctly and with right flow
from one network point to the next.

High Level Data Link Protocol (HDLC) − HDLC is based upon SDLC and provides
both unreliable service and reliable service. It is a bit – oriented protocol that is applicable
for both point – to – point and multipoint communications.

Serial Line Interface Protocol (SLIP) − This is a simple protocol for transmitting data
units between an Internet service provider (ISP) and home user over a dial-up link. It
does not provide error detection / correction facilities.

Point to Point Protocol(PPP) – PPP is a protocol that is basically used to provide same
functionality as SLIP. It is most robust protocol that is used to transport other types of
packets also along with IP Packets. It can also be required for dial-up and leased router-
router lines. It basically provides framing method to describe frames. It is a character-
oriented protocol that is also used for error detection. It is also used to provides two
protocols i.e. NCP and LCP. LCP is used for bringing lines up, negotiation of options,
bringing them down whereas NCP is used for negotiating network-layer protocols. It is
required for same serial interfaces like that of HDLC.

Link Control Protocol (LCP) − It one of PPP protocols that is responsible for
establishing, configuring, testing, maintaining and terminating links for transmission. It
also imparts negotiation for set up of options and use of features by the two endpoints of
the links.

Network Control Protocol (NCP) − These protocols are used for negotiating the
parameters and facilities for the network layer. For every higher-layer protocol
supported by PPP, one NCP is there.

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b. The concept of WWW. [8]

Solution
World Wide Web is all the resources and users on the Internet that are using the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP). It consists of a series of servers that are interconnected through
hypertext. Hypertext is a method of presenting information in which certain text is
highlighted that, when selected, displays more information on the particular topic. These
highlighted items are called hyperlinks and allow users to navigate from one document to
another that may be 68 located on different servers.

The user can use the browser software like internet explorer, Mozilla Firefox or Netscape
navigator to navigate the web. A browser is software which helps the user navigate the
World Wide Web. The web is a graphic medium with most web pages having some amount
of images. The term home page commonly refers to the index page of any organization or
information source. From home page, the user can have links that take the user to further
levels of information within the same or different topic or links to other homes pages.
The advantages of WWW can be listed as follows:
• A link in a web document can be used to open other documents
• Web pages can contain pictures, buttons and even links to sound files, in addition to text,
thus allowing multimedia applications.
• Sophisticated web documents allow the user to interact with the application through
dialog boxes and forms.

Question 5

Comment on the current status of IPv4 in this context, identify the major emerging problems for
IPv4 and discuss how they are addressed in IPv6. [20]

Solution

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There are many major emerging problems for IPv4. First of all, today, there are 7.3 billion people
in the world. Half of them own a computer of some sort, and 6 billion have access to mobile
phones. If we handed out just one IPv4 address to every person, we would be 3 billion IP addresses
short. This makes reclaiming lost address space essentially pointless. Obviously, more addresses
are needed for a modern Internet.
The other problem with IPv4 is network address translation (NAT). Overloaded NAT — one IP
with multiple private IPs behind it — breaks quite a few applications and provides no additional
security against Internet threats. This results in a cost increase with no counter-benefit. In
their IPv4 Countdown Plan, ARIN predicts that we will exhaust IPv4 space within the next year.
This means that providers will no longer be able to supply routable public IPv4 addresses. Shortly
thereafter, you won’t be able to get additional IPv4 addresses from your provider, which means
that you will be unable to turn up new public IP services.
The other problem with IPv4 is the problem of security of communications - no means are provided
to limit access to information hosted on the network. IPv4 has never been designed for security,
but has originally designed as an isolated military network and then adapted for public education
and research network.

The problems of the IPv4 can be addressed by IPv6 through eliminating the need for NAT by
having more IP addresses than can possibly be used and assigning them sparsely. Since IP
addresses are no longer a scarce commodity, giant blocks can be handed out for only a few devices
without a risk of exhaustion. For instance, a network that once had 254 usable IP addresses (an
IPv4 /24) might now get an IPv6 /64 with 2^64 addresses.

IPv6 has 128 bits of IP space. This is 2^128 and it is a huge number. So, if you mask all but 64
bits, you still have 2^64, or 18 quintillion, addresses for 254 hosts. That’s more addresses than are
on the entire IPv4 network, which means that attacks that depend on sequential scanning for
vulnerable hosts, such as worms, are obsolete on IPv6. It would take 2 billion years for a worm to
scan a /64, scanning 10,000 hosts per second. This is far more secure than overloaded NAT.

Some of the missing IPv4 fields are occasionally still needed, so IPv6 introduces the concept of
(optional) extension headers. These headers can be supplied to provide extra information, but

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encoded in an efficient way. There are six kinds of extension headers which are Hop-by-hop
options, destination options, routing, fragmentation, authentication and encryption security
payload. . Each one is optional, but if more than one is present they must appear directly after the
fixed header, and preferably in the order listed.

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