Product Guide 2015E

Product Guide
High Voltage Gapless Metal-oxide Surge Arresters
ABB
High Voltage Products
Surge Arresters
Ludvika, Sweden
2015 Edition
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
1. Introduction 3
2. Definitions 4
3. Overvoltages 11
4. Features of MO Arrester Design 17
5. Design Requirements for MO Surge Arresters 31
6. Arrester Classification as per Standards 46
7. Standards and Testing 47
8. Arrester Selection 70
9. Installation Guidelines 85
10. Maintenance and Monitoring 89
11. Historical Background 93
12. Special Applications 99
13. References 108
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ABB HV Surge Arrester Product Guide

Edition 2015en Page 2 of 111
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1. INTRODUCTION
All electrical systems and equipment are subjected to electrical stresses caused by higher than
normal voltages many times during their lifetime. Such overvoltages are caused by atmospheric
disturbances (lightning), switching phenomena as well as system disturbances, and these cannot
be completely avoided.
It is vital that the electrical equipment operates fault-free during such abnormal conditions.
However, for economic reasons, it is not possible to insulate the electrical equipment with a
sufficiently high withstand level to survive all these overvoltages, particularly those resulting from
lightning or switching surges. Consequently, these pose a very real danger for causing failure of
the electrical equipment. An economical and safe on-line network therefore requires extensive
protection against unacceptable overvoltage loads.
Overvoltage protection is not new, and has been used in one form or another for well over 100
years. Today, overvoltage protection can basically be achieved in two ways (sometimes in
combination):
• Avoid or limit the overvoltages at the point of origin. For example, through the use of
overhead shield earth wires and lower tower footing resistance as countermeasures
against atmospheric overvoltages and pre-insertion resistors and/or controlled switching
against switching overvoltages.
• Limit overvoltages near the electrical equipment with surge arresters
In isolation, shield earth wires and pre-insertion resistors offer a degree of protection. However,
by their nature, surge arresters provide the primary protection against different types of
overvoltages (atmospheric and switching). They are generally connected between each phase
and ground, in parallel with the equipment to be protected and function to divert the surge current
safely to earth; thereby limiting the overvoltage seen by the protected object.
Insulation co-ordination is the art and science of choosing the right insulation strength of electrical
equipment taking into account normal and abnormal service conditions as well as the
characteristics and location of suitable surge arresters. Despite being a well-established
technology, there remains a degree of mysticism about the design, selection and application of
surge arresters in electrical networks. This is not made easier through the continual improvement
and development of the active elements by leading manufacturers as well as the designs and
housing material, ultimately leading to new applications for surge arresters. Resultant ongoing
changes to the Standards just add to the difficulty in understanding for the user.
This guide is intended to clear away some of this mystification, and guide the reader to a better
understanding of how to select and use modern day surge arresters. It is principally limited to the
common application of the protection of transformer insulation between phase and ground in
outdoor air-insulated substations (AIS) with system voltages up to 800kV. Other applications are
briefly discussed, but are, for the most part, considered beyond the scope of this Guide. Instead,
the reader is referred on to additional technical literature which covers the topics in more detail.
In addition, International Standard IEC 60099-5 “Surge arresters - Selection and application
recommendations” is recommended reading.
Finally, the reader is referred to the ABB surge arresters “Arresters Online” web page
(www.abb.com/arrestersonline) for continually updated information on surge arresters.
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2. DEFINITIONS
To permit the reader to understand the basis for the selection and application of surge arresters,
it is important to make a brief review of some of the common terminology used throughout this
Guide.
The surge arrester standards referred to herein are the prevailing editions of:
• IEC 60099-4, Ed. 3.0 (2014-06)

Metal-oxide surge arresters without gaps for a.c. systems
• IEEE C62.11, 2012

Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters for AC Power Circuits (>1 kV)
Arrester classification
distribution class arrester

arrester intended for use on distribution systems, typically of Us ≤ 52 kV, to protect
components primarily from the effects of lightning
station class arrester

arresters intended for use in stations to protect the equipment from transient overvoltages,
typically but not only intended for use on systems of Us ≥ 72,5 kV
Within IEC 60099-4, station and distribution class arresters are further designated as "high",
"medium" and "low" duty to indicate their specific performance requirements.
Backflashover
Occurs when lightning strikes the transmission line tower structure or overhead shield wire. The
lightning discharge current, flowing through the tower and tower footing impedance, produces
potential differences across the line insulation. If the line insulation strength is exceeded,
flashover occurs, i.e. a backflashover. Backflashover is most prevalent when tower footing
impedance is high.
Charge
Charge is calculated as the absolute value of current integrated over time. For the purpose of the
standard this is the charge that is accumulated in a single event or group of surges lasting for not
more than 2 s and which may be followed by a subsequent event at a time interval not shorter
than 60 s.
Continuous current (Ic)

The current that flows through the arrester at continuous operating voltage (Uc or MCOV).
This current is predominantly capacitive (in the range of mA) and is generally expressed as a
peak value.
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Continuous operating voltage
It is the maximum permissible r.m.s. power frequency voltage that may be applied continuously
between the arrester terminals. This voltage is defined in different ways (verified by different test
procedures) in IEC and IEEE.
IEC (Uc)
IEC gives the manufacturer the freedom to decide Uc. The value is
verified in the operating duty test. Any uneven voltage distribution in the
arrester shall be accounted for.
IEEE (MCOV)
IEEE lists the maximum continuous operating voltage (MCOV) for all
arrester ratings used in a table. The value is used in all tests specified by IEEE.
Duty-cycle voltage rating (IEEE)

The designated maximum permissible voltage between its terminals at which an arrester is
designed to perform its duty cycle.
Earthing
Solidly earthed system

A system whose neutral points are earthed directly.
Impedance earthed system

A system whose neutral points are earthed through impedances to limit earth
fault currents.
Resonant earthed system

A system in which one or more neutral points are connected to earth through
reactances which approximately compensate the capacitive component of a single-
phase-to-earth fault current
Isolated neutral system

A system where the neutral point is not intentionally connected to earth, except for high
impedance connections for protection or measurement purposes.
Earth-fault factor (ke)

The ratio of the voltages in the healthy phases during and prior to earth-fault conditions.
Energy capability
The energy capability of a surge arrester is different depending on the type, duration and grouping
of applied impulses as well as what occurs afterwards. Arrester standards have historically not
explicitly defined the energy capability of an arrester, and the current editions have specifically
focused on attempting to resolve this deficiency in the following forms (IEC 60099-4 definitions):
Repetitive charge transfer rating, Qrs

The maximum specified charge transfer capability of an arrester, in the form of a single
event or group of surges that may be transferred through an arrester without causing
mechanical failure or unacceptable electrical degradation to the MO resistors. This applies
to both station and distribution class arresters.
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Thermal charge transfer rating, Qth
The maximum specified charge that may be transferred through an arrester or arrester
section within 3 minutes in a thermal recovery test without causing a thermal runaway.
This applies only to distribution class arresters.
Thermal energy rating, Wth

The maximum specified energy, given in kJ/kV of Ur, that may be injected into an arrester
or arrester section within 3 minutes in a thermal recovery test without causing a thermal
runaway. This applies only to station class arresters.
Follow current
The current from the connected power source which flows through an arrester with series gaps
following the passage of discharge current.
Hydrophobicity Classification
The superior electrical performance of composite
insulators and coated insulators stems from the
hydrophobicity (water-repellency) of their surfaces. The
hydrophobicity will change with time due to exposure to
the outdoor environment and partial discharges (corona).
Seven wettability (hydrophobicity) classes (WC) have

been defined with a value between 1 and 7
(IEC TS 62073). WC 1 corresponds to a completely
hydrophobic (water-repellent) surface and WC 7 to a
completely hydrophilic (totally wetted filmed) surface.
These classes provide a coarse value of the wetting
status and are particularly suitable for a fast and easy
check of insulators in the field.
Fig. 1 Wettability class

(source IEC TS 62073)
Impulse (of current or voltage)

A unidirectional wave which rises rapidly to a maximum and falls, a little less rapidly, to zero. Its
waveshape is expressed by two numbers (T1/T2). T1 refers to the virtual front-time and T2 to the
virtual time to half-value of the tail; both expressed in microseconds. Some important current
impulses are defined below.
Impulse Waveshape (T1/T2)

Steep current impulse T1 = 1 µs T2 < 20 µs
Lightning current impulse T1 = 8 µs T2 = 20 µs
Switching current impulse 30µs < T1 < 100 µs T2 ~ 2T1
(usually designated 30/60 µs)
High current impulse T1 = 4 µs T2 = 10 µs
Other special impulses are rectangular impulses of 2 – 4 ms virtual total duration

and unipolar sine half-wave impulses of 2 – 4 ms total duration.
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Insulation withstand characteristic
A general term for the equipment insulation withstand voltages and comprises:
Withstand level Voltage waveshape

Lightning impulse withstand level (LIWL) 1.2/50 µs
Switching impulse withstand level (SIWL) 250/2500 µs
Power-frequency withstand (PFW) 50 Hz or 60 Hz sinusoidal
Lightning classifying current (IEEE)

The designated lightning current used to perform the classification tests.
Maintainability prediction
Mean-time-between-failure (MTBF) is the average time between failures, typically measured in
hours. MTBF is a statistical value and is meant to be the mean over a long period of time and
large number of units. In practice, MTBF is only relevant with reference to repairable items, since
calculations of MTBF assume that a system is "renewed", i.e. fixed, after each failure and then
returned to service immediately after failure. Mean-time-to-failure (MTTF) is the average time
expected to the first failure of a piece of equipment and should be used instead of MTBF in cases
where a non-repairable item is replaced after a failure. However, MTBF is commonly used for
both repairable and non-repairable items. Mean Time to Repair (MTTR) is the total amount of
time spent performing all corrective maintenance repairs divided by the total number of those
repairs. A common misconception about MTBF is that it specifies the time (on average) when
the likelihood of failure equals the likelihood of not having a failure. This is only true for certain
symmetric distributions. For typical distributions with some variance and uncertainty, MTBF only
represents a statistical value and hence is not suitable for predicting detailed time of failure.
Maximum system voltage (Us)

The highest voltage between phases during normal service expressed in kV r.m.s.
Mean breaking load, MBL

The average breaking load for porcelain-housed arresters.
Nominal discharge current (In according to IEC)

The peak value of the lightning current impulse which is used to classify the arrester.
Non-gapped line arrester, NGLA

An arrester without internal or external series gaps intended for installation in overhead lines in
parallel to the line insulators in order to prevent flashovers.
Normal service conditions

The service conditions which the surge arresters should normally be suitable to operate under
without any special consideration in design, manufacture or application.
Ambient temperature -40 °C to +40 °C

Solar radiation < 1.1 kW/m2
Altitude above sea level < 1000 m (< 1800 m according to IEEE)
Power system frequency 48 – 62 Hz
Wind velocity < 34 m/s
Erection vertical
Note: These should be seen as the minimum requirement for compliance with the Standards, and individual designs may
operate in wider extremes, even without the need for special consideration.
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Overvoltage
A voltage level exceeding the maximum allowable continuous operating voltage for an electrical
system.
Protective characteristic
The combination of the arrester’s residual voltages for different current impulses. For good
protection, the arrester characteristic should lie well below the equipment insulation withstand
characteristic at all points.
Lightning impulse withstand level (LIWV or BIL) is the equipment’s insulation withstand
level against lightning impulses
Switching impulse withstand level (SIWV or BSL) is the equipment’s insulation withstand
level against switching impulses
Lightning impulse protection level (LIPL or Upl) of the arrester is the

residual voltage for the nominal discharge current
Switching impulse protection level (SIPL or Ups) of the arrester is the residual voltage
for a specified switching impulse current.
Parameters Parameters
of the of the
system surge
arrester
Voltage
BIL / BSL
LIWL // SIWV
SIWL Protective margin
LIWV
Protection level
LIPL / SIPL
Upl / Ups
TOV
TOV capability
COV
Fig. 2 Protective function of a surge arrester
Note! IEEE standards refer to LIWV as BIL and SIWV as BSL.
Protective margin
The protective ratio minus 1 and expressed as a percentage. As an absolute minimum, the margin
should cover the voltage increase due to the connections between the arrester and the protected
equipment as well as the increase in the residual voltage due to the discharge amplitude and
front-time being different from the nominal discharge current of the arrester.
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Protective ratio
The ratio of the equipment insulation withstand level to the corresponding protection level of its
arrester.
Rated voltage (Ur)

For other apparatus, the voltage that may be applied continuously is usually called its rated
voltage. However, this is not the case for surge arresters. An arrester fulfilling the IEC standard
must withstand its rated voltage (Ur) for 10 s in the TOV test and the operating duty test. Thus,
Ur shall equal at least the 10 second TOV capability of an arrester. Additionally, rated voltage is
used as a reference parameter.
Reference current (Iref)

The peak value of the power frequency resistive current at which the reference voltage is
measured.
Reference voltage (Uref)

The peak value divided by √2 of the voltage measured across the arrester at reference current.
Residual voltage/ Discharge voltage

This is the peak value of the voltage that appears between the terminals of an arrester during the
passage of discharge current through it. Residual voltage depends on both the magnitude and
the waveform of the discharge current.
Response spectra
A response spectrum is a plot of maximum response (displacement, velocity, or acceleration)
versus a system characteristic (frequency or period and damping ratio) for a single degree-of-
freedom oscillator for a particular applied load, such as an earthquake acceleration time history.
Shielding
Protection of phase conductors from direct lightning strokes; generally by means of additional
conductor(s) running on the top of the towers and grounded through the tower structures to earth.
Stations can also be shielded by earth wires or lightning masts.
Shielding failure
Occurs when lightning strikes a phase conductor of a line protected by overhead shield wires.
Short circuit (pressure relief) capability

The ability of the arrester, in the event of its overloading due to any reason, to conduct the
resulting system short-circuit current through it without a violent explosion which may damage
nearby equipment or injure personnel. After this operation, the arrester must be replaced.
Specified long-term load, SLL

A bending moment allowed to be continuously applied during service without causing any
mechanical damage to the arrester. Often referred to simply as “continuous load”.
Specified short-term load, SSL

The maximum bending moment allowed to be applied during service for short periods and for
relatively rare events without causing any mechanical damage to the arrester. Often referred to
simply as “short-term load”.
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Surge Impedance
Studies of transient disturbances can be a complicated process involving many calculations and
iterations through travelling wave analysis. A transmission line can be modelled as a distributed
parameter network consisting of series inductance and resistance and shunt capacitance and
resistance. Partial differential equations are then written and solved for the voltage and current.
Computer programs specifically designed for solving these equations are available.
A simplified method is to approximate the transient phenomenon by considering that a lightning

strike to a conductor or the closing of a breaker will produce a travelling wave of voltage e and
current i that are related by a surge impedance Z equal to e/i that travels along the conductor at
the speed of light c. The surge impedance Z is purely resistive and therefore e and i have the
same shape. Only system components such as a transmission lines and towers, cables or a GIS
bus present a surge impedance. The surge impedance and velocity v of propagation can be
obtained from their inductance and capacitance, i.e. Z = √ (L / C) and v = 1 / √ (LC).
From which the equations can be derived: L = Z / v and C = 1 / (Zv)

where L is the inductance and C is the capacitance per unit length.
For an overhead line, v = 300 m/µs and the surge impedance of a single conductor varies in a
narrow band between about 400 and 500 ohms. The surge impedance of an oil-paper cable
varies from about 30 to 60 ohms and the velocity of propagation is taken to be around 150 m/µs.
In many cases, an equivalent surge impedance or a combined surge impedance of two or more
conductors is desired, leading to the need for more complicated calculations. Furthermore, the
simplified analysis does not take into consideration line geometry, coupling factor (whereby a
travelling wave voltage and current are impressed on only one conductor, leading to a voltage
being induced or coupled to the other conductor), points of discontinuity nor corona effects. More
detailed guidance is given in Cigré 63 and IEC 60071-2.
Temporary overvoltages (TOV)

Temporary overvoltages, as differentiated from surge overvoltages, are oscillatory power
frequency overvoltages of relatively long duration (from a few cycles to hours or longer). The
most common form of TOV occurs on the healthy phases of a system during an earth-fault
involving one or more phases. Other sources of TOV are load-rejection, energization of unloaded
lines, ferroresonance, etc.
Temporary overvoltage withstand strength factor (Tr or Tc)

This is the TOV capability of the arrester expressed in multiples of Ur or Uc respectively.
Tower footing impedance

The impedance seen by a lightning surge flowing from the tower base to true ground (earth). The
risk for backflashover increases with increasing footing impedance.
Travelling wave
Occurs when lightning strikes a transmission line span and a high current surge is injected onto
the struck conductor. The impulse voltage and current waves divide and propagate in both
directions from the stroke terminal at a velocity of approximately 300 m/µs with magnitudes
determined by the stroke current and line surge impedance.
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3. OVERVOLTAGES
An overvoltage is defined as a voltage level exceeding the maximum allowable continuous

operating voltage for an electrical system. Overvoltages may be of different types, which can be
divided into three generic groups:
• atmospheric overvoltages (lightning)
• switching overvoltages
• temporary overvoltages
Depending on the origin of the overvoltage, a differentiation is made between external

overvoltages (caused by lightning), and internal overvoltages originating from switching
operations in the network (switching overvoltages) or faults and other abnormal system
disturbances. Overvoltages can cause severe problems for the operation of the system, which is
why it is essential to limit these to a low and harmless level. One way of limiting overvoltages is
to use surge arresters to protect important apparatus.
3.1 External Overvoltages

Atmospheric overvoltages are normally divided into two different groups: those arriving from direct
lightning strokes to the lines or equipment and those induced from nearby strokes to ground or
between clouds.
3.1.1 Direct lightning strokes

A direct lightning stoke to a transmission line will result in two identical travelling
waves propagating in either direction along the line. Arrester currents of extreme amplitude and
steepness can occur in arresters located on an unshielded transmission line. For lower system
voltages, the current in these cases will be approximately a third of the stroke current since
flashover to all three phases is likely to occur.
When lightning strikes a transmission line, the line itself is usually not damaged but the
overvoltage generated may result in flashovers of the line insulators and can also cause insulation
breakdowns in apparatus in sub-stations connected to the line. A lightning impulse has a very
short front time, microseconds (µs), and the voltage on the transmission line can rapidly increase
to several thousands of kilovolts when lightning strikes the line. If the earthing impedances of the
towers are not sufficiently low, a lightning stroke to the tower or to the overhead shield wires (if
any) might cause a so called “backflashover” across the insulator strings to the phase conductors.
Travelling waves are generated at the location where the lightning hits the line and these waves
propagate along the line. The insulation is stressed further if the travelling waves reach an open
end of the line where they are reflected; causing a doubling of the voltage.
It has been acknowledged that many lightning strikes are not a single stroke, but instead consist
of a series of consecutive strokes of varying magnitude and intervals. The incidence of multi-
stroke flashes naturally varies considerably by region and season. In some cases, about
70 - 80 percent of lightning strikes may consist of multiple strokes; 3 - 4 pulses on average, with
an interval between each pulse of less than 50 milliseconds. Distribution lines are generally
unshielded, and hence bear the full force of direct strikes. Consequently, multipulse performance
is a decisive measure of survival ability and reliability of distribution arresters near direct strikes.
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3.1.2 Induced overvoltages
The induced overvoltage on the line resulting from an indirect lightning stroke is
• proportional to the stroke current
• inversely proportional to the distance between the line and the location of the stroke
• proportional to the height of the line above ground
Induced surges are lower in magnitude and the front of the wave is usually substantially longer
than for direct strokes. The front steepness is therefore seldom decisive from a protection point
of view. Further, since lightning flashes to ground rarely exceed 200 kV, their influence is typically
neglected on HV transmission lines due to the relatively high LIWV on these lines.
However, despite the fact that discharge currents are mostly lower than for direct strokes, induced
strokes can nevertheless be decisive for arrester duty requirements. This is especially true for
low voltage systems in areas where the lightning intensity is high. Due to a substantially larger
collection area compared to direct strokes, the number of arrester operations per year can be
substantial. For distribution and low voltage systems it is often the induced overvoltages which
cause the most damage to unprotected equipment.
3.2 Internal overvoltages

Internal overvoltages, i.e. switching overvoltages and temporary overvoltages, are caused by
transient phenomena including, for example, switching of transmission lines or transformers,
faults between phases and earth, etc. The duration for these overvoltages can range anywhere
from milliseconds to days, depending on the cause of the overvoltage and the system parameters.
Due to the common insulation practice with relatively low insulation levels for higher system
voltages, switching overvoltages will normally only be of interest for system voltages above
245 kV.
Switching overvoltages occur in connection with all kinds of switching operations in a network.
The waveshape can be of practically any form, with the fundamental frequency normally in the
order of some hundred to some thousand Hertz.
Large overvoltages can occur in connection with switching operations, particularly with the
following types of loads:
• Interruption of short circuits
• Disconnection of unloaded transformers and shunt reactors
• Switching of long unloaded lines
The switching overvoltages are usually defined in terms of per-unit of the system voltage. The
overvoltage factor is defined as the ratio of the peak value of the overvoltage to the peak value of
the maximum phase-earth voltage. In EHV networks, for example, it is desirable for cost reasons
to reduce the insulation level as much as possible, and thus overvoltages higher than 2.5 p.u. are
usually not accepted.
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Temporary overvoltages (TOV’s) can be defined as overvoltages which are sustained for a
number of cycles. The frequency can either be the network fundamental or a higher frequency
determined by system resonances superimposed on the power frequency.
Temporary overvoltages typically arise from events such as:

• Earth faults
• Sudden change of load
• Resonance phenomena
These overvoltages can normally be kept to acceptable levels with the help of a high short-circuit
power in the supply network, line compensation with shunt reactors, suitable generator control,
automatic fault clearing, etc. Hence, this type of overvoltage is normally not of concern for the
system equipment itself (although at system voltages of 550 kV and above it may become
significant).
Fig. 3
Um x √2 Classification of
p.u 1 p.u = overvoltages showing
√3 duration and amplitudes of
6 Lightning over-voltages
stress on insulation in
HV networks
5
4 Switching over-voltages 1 p.u = Us x √2
3 √3
Temporary over-voltages
2 System voltage
1
t
10-6 10 -4 10-2 10 0 102 104
3.3 Protection measures

Atmospheric overvoltages are particularly dangerous for low voltage, distribution and even sub-
transmission systems. Transmission lines for 300 kV and above are usually equipped with
overhead shield wires as a protection against direct lightning strokes. These overhead shield
wires are installed along the entire transmission line and are earthed at each tower and connected
to the common earthing system in the substations at the ends of the line. Lines for lower systems
voltages usually lack overhead shield wires along the entire line length. Instead, they are only
used in close vicinity (1 – 2 km) out from the substations in order to prevent direct strokes to the
phase conductors close to the stations. The amplitudes of incoming lightning surges to the
stations will thus be limited.
In some cases, earthed crossarms or spark gaps have been used close to substations in an
attempt to limit the amplitude of incoming lightning overvoltages. However, such measures tend
to increase the likelihood of flashovers near the station with the consequent generation of fast-
front surges. Special attention should be given to tower earthing near the station to lower the
probability of back flashovers at this location.
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Surge arresters constitute the primary protection for all
equipment in a network against overvoltages which may occur
as the result of lightning or switching operations. In close
vicinity to the arresters, these overvoltages are reduced to low
and harmless levels. However, at some distance away from
the arresters, high overvoltages may still occur, which is why
it is essential to position the arresters as close as possible to
important equipment. More recently, special arresters have
been taken into use out on the transmission lines. These so
called Line Surge Arresters (LSA) are installed at selected
towers along the line in order to prevent lightning and/or
switching related faults on the line itself.
A commonly used method for limiting line switching

overvoltages is to use pre-insertion resistors on the line Fig. 4 Station protected by
breakers. Other means, such as synchronized control of surge arresters
breaker closing times and the use of surge arresters (alone or
in combination), can also be used to limit these kinds of overvoltages.
Surge arresters are not normally required to protect against temporary overvoltages (although
special cases exist), but they must survive them. TOV’s can thus be decisive in selection of the
rated voltage for the arresters.
3.3.1 Cable connected to a lighting endangered line

If a travelling wave coming from an overhead line enters a cable that is connected to a transformer,
reflections will take place at the point where the surge impedance changes. Typically, about 80%
of the wave in question will be reflected at the point of changed impedance, which means that the
voltage passed into the cable will be about 20% due to the lower surge-impedance of the cable.
U Ucable = 20% of U
Ureflect = 80% of U
Fig. 5 Wave reflection with a cable connected to a transformer
For the purpose of analysis of cables connected to a transformer, the surge impedance of the
transformer is considered as infinite, so that total reflection occurs at the transformer terminals.
To further simplify the matter, the incoming wave is assumed to be rectangular. The result is a
step-wise increase in the voltage, up to potentially double the initial incident voltage, U. In
contrast, for a cable connected between two overhead lines, the voltage reflected in both ends of
the cable will increase to the value of the incoming voltage U.
In practice, the wave front is not rectangular, but has a rate of rise. This rate of rise will change
the way the cable is charged, but not the value. Generally a cable can be considered as a
concentrated capacitance, which will be able to bring down the steepness of the incoming wave,
but if the wave energy is sufficiently high, the cable does not limit the voltage rise.
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The flashover to earth of a busbar or line conductor will cause a brief power outage, but subsequent
serious damage is rare. In contrast, flashovers (puncture) in cables or at cable terminations can
cause severe damage to insulation and require extensive and expensive repairs. The resultant
outage times can be very long and costly. Cables should therefore be treated as station equipment
and be protected against lightning by well-specified surge arresters.
As a general rule, surge arresters are recommended to be

mounted at both ends of the cable; especially where the
cable is exposed to lighting from either end. In specific cases
where a transformer is connected to an overhead line by
means of a short cable, only one set of arresters is
sometimes used. However, the effectiveness of this
arrangement is less than with double-end protection. The
definition of a “short cable” - and thereby the resultant
protective zone - depends, among other factors, on whether
or not the line is provided with overhead shield wires against
direct strokes, the insulation withstand level, arrester
protection level and the presence of additional arresters on
the incoming line into the substation. The effective protective
zone will in turn influence which end of the cable the
arresters should be fitted to afford the best protection for both
Fig. 6 Cable termination protected the transformer and the cable itself.
by surge arresters
For transformers which are manufactured with internally connected cable boxes, the cable is
connected directly to the transformer terminal, without any possibility of connecting arresters at
this point. Therefore arresters can only be installed at the far end of the cable. A certain higher
degree of associated risk for insulation failure may therefore have to be accepted.
In order to achieve the greatest possible protection zone and ensure a sufficient protective margin
between the cable/transformer LIWV and the voltage that may occur, special attention should be
paid to the following for cables operating at 72.5kV and above:
 The incoming overhead line connected to the cable should have a zone of about 2km out
from the substation equipped with shield wires for cables lengths of up to 1000m. For
longer cables, the length of line with shield wires should be equivalent to at
least double the length of the cable. The shield wires and tower configuration must
effectively shield the line against direct strikes to the phase conductors as well as back
flashovers.
 Inside this zone out from the substation, the footing resistance of the towers must be kept
sufficiently low, i.e. a few ohms.
 The incoming lines should be fitted with surge arresters, to further limit the overvoltages
actually transferred into the substation.
 The location of the arresters for cable protection must be as close as possible to the
cable terminal in order to achieve the maximum degree of protection.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


3.3.2 Protection of Line-side station equipment
High voltage equipment in line bays of a substation are dielectrically designed and tested in
accordance with applicable Standards. Sometimes, however, breakdown of insulation on
equipment may still occur due to lightning overvoltages with higher amplitude and rate of rise than
prescribed by the Standards.
Specifically, flashovers are known to occur in cases when the line circuit breaker is open. This
risk is most likely to arise during normal operation as a result of subsequent strokes of the lightning
flash during the open-close cycle; presuming that prolonged opened breaker condition normally
dictates that the breaker disconnecting switches are also opened and grounded. Due to the open
breaker the incoming voltage surge will be doubled. As a result, there may be a flashover across
the open breaker or an insulation breakdown of other line-side equipment; notably instrument
transformers.
A backflashover on the transmission line towers adjacent to the substation can also lead to a
steep voltage wave propagating on the phase conductor towards the substation. The risk of
insulation failures in the substation is proportional to the rate of backflashovers on the lines. Other
important parameters are the steepness and the amplitude of the voltage wave entering the
substation. When selecting the MTBF for the substation insulation, it is important to consider the
consequences of a fault in terms of outage and repair times and costs.
Regardless of the cause, some form of protection should be used to prevent surges impinging on
the line-side equipment. Arresters should always be located adjacent to the power transformers
in the substation. With the line breaker closed, these arresters are often (subject to their effective
protective distance) all that is needed to protect apparatus connected to the same line within the
substation; presuming a low backflashover rate. However, with the breaker opened, no protection
exists for the line side of the breaker, making it and other equipment vulnerable. Occurrence of
overvoltages that may lead to flashovers is related to the key design and protection of the
incoming overhead line.
A Cigré survey made in 1989 showed that almost 60% of all reported violent failures of instrument
transformers were due to lightning. The survey concluded that the number of failures due either
to an inadequate lightning protection or to an inadequate transient withstand voltage is significant
and that this field has to be investigated to reduce the number of failures of Instrument
transformers.
A similar Cigré survey conducted in 1997 regarding circuit breakers concluded:

 Line insulation and spark gaps cannot be dimensioned to protect the breaker
 Appropriate shielding and sufficiently low tower resistance gives low risk of flashovers
 For existing lines, surge arresters placed at the incoming line end gives efficient protection
There are a number of advantages with additional arresters located on the line side of the station;
i.e. in front of line breaker
 Reduces the overvoltage seen at the station transformer
 Reduces overvoltages seen at the closed breaker; especially with long distance to the
station arresters
 Protects the open breaker by limiting the effects of multiple lightning strokes
 Protects all equipment at the line entrance e.g. instrument transformers
 Removes the risk for backflashover; especially when fitted on transmission line towers
with high footing resistance
__________________________________________________________________________________________


4. FEATURES OF MO ARRESTER DESIGN
A metal-oxide (MO) surge arrester for high voltage applications comprises the following main
components:
• MO resistors (ZnO blocks)
• Internal parts
• Housing of porcelain or polymeric material with end fittings of metal (e.g. flanges)
• A voltage grading arrangement, where necessary (e.g. external grading rings)
The internal parts can differ considerably between a porcelain housed arrester and a polymer-
housed arrester. The only certain commonality between these two designs is that both include a
stack of series connected metal-oxide resistor elements, together with components to keep the
stack together.
Fig. 7 Cut-away view of three principal designs for MO surge arresters.

Surge arrester with porcelain housing (left) and with silicone-housing
in an open-cage (centre) and tubular design (right)
__________________________________________________________________________________________


4.1 MO resistor
The most important component in the arrester is the metal-oxide (MO) resistor itself, which gives
the arrester its protective characteristics. All other components are simply used to protect or keep
the MO resistors in place.
The MO resistor is a densely sintered block, pressed to a cylindrical body. The block consists of
approximately 90% zinc oxide (ZnO) and 10% of other rare earth oxides (additives). During the
manufacturing process a powder is prepared, which is then pressed to a cylindrical body under high
pressure. The pressed bodies are sintered in a kiln for several hours at a temperature in the order
of 1200 °C. During the sintering, the oxide powder transforms to a dense ceramic body with varistor
properties, whereby the additives form an intergranular layer surrounding the zinc oxide grains.
ZnO Grains
10–15 μm
Fig. 8 MO resistors and their microstructure
These layers, or barriers, give the MO resistor its non-linear characteristics. Metal is applied on the
end surfaces of the finished varistor to improve the current carrying capability and to secure a good
contact between series-connected varistors. An insulating layer is also applied to the cylindrical
surface to give protection against external flashover and chemical influence.
Before the blocks are assembled in an arrester, they must be subjected to a variety of tests to
verify their protection performance, energy and current capability as well as long term electrical
stability.
4.1.1 How does a MO resistor work?

With reference to the following Figure 9, the voltage-current characteristic for the MO resistor can
be divided into three distinct regions with respect to the slope.
In the low current region, called the ”prebreakdown region” (Region 1), the resistivity of the
material is temperature dependant. The normal continuous operating voltage is found in this
region. Here the surge arrester acts as a capacitor, with only small resistive currents through it.
This is mainly due to the metal-oxide barrier (intergranular layers) between the zinc-oxide grains
acting as insulating barriers. However, the MO resistor’s temperature influences the insulation
capability slightly, i.e. an increased temperature leads to a higher resistive current.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


In the “breakdown region” (Region 2), when the voltage stress has increased due, for example,
to temporary overvoltages or switching overvoltages, the intergranular layers switch from
insulating barriers to conducting layers and the current carrying capability of the MO resistor
increases many-fold. For example, if the voltage stress increases from 200V/mm to 300V/mm,
the current increases 10 000 times. This acts as a voltage limitation, and gives the arrester its
protective characteristics.
At even larger current densities, the arrester is working in the “high current region” (Region 3) and
the curve turns upwards, which determines the impulse behaviour of the surge arrester. The
barriers between the ZnO grains are electrically broken down and the current increase is solely
limited by the resistivity of the ZnO grains themselves.
When the voltage across the arrester is reduced to a normal level, the working point returns again
to Region 1, without delay.
Voltage (p.u.)
Min protection levels in kV (peak)
according IEC60099-4
Region 1 Region 2 Region 3
Protection against lightning overvoltages

2.3
Protection against switching overvoltages
2.0
Rated voltage (Ur)

1.0 x √2 Ires, resistive current
Continuous operating voltage (Uc)
0.8 x √2 Effect of increased
Ires block temperature
Icap
on Ires
Icap, capacitive
current (no influence
from temperature)
10-5 10-3 102 103 104 Log scale
Current (Ampere)
Fig. 9 Current-voltage characteristic of a MO resistor
__________________________________________________________________________________________


4.2 Housing of a surge arrester
The main purpose of the insulator housing is to:
• Keep the internal parts together
• Protect against external flashovers
• Secure that the function of the arrester is independent of external influences
An arrester must also be equipped with fastening devices to ease the erection. This is achieved by
assembling flanges (or similar) at one or both ends of the insulator. If the arrester consists of several
series connected units, the flanges are also used to mechanically and electrically secure arrester
units to each other.
Insulators can be manufactured with different mechanical fracture values. The required fracture
value for a specific insulator is determined by the design and intended use of the arrester.
4.2.1 Mechanical design

A surge arrester consists internally of series-connected MO resistors (blocks), plus additional
hardware as necessary for individual designs: metal spacers, assembly plates, sealing rings,
pressure relief device, etc. To ensure a controlled environment for the blocks, the internal parts
must be shielded against the ambient environment, and this is achieved by housing the blocks in a
well-designed and securely sealed insulator.
The insulator housings for surge arresters have traditionally been made of porcelain. However,
today there is a strong trend, and even a preference, towards the use of silicone insulators for
arresters at all system voltages.
There are a number of reasons why silicone is seen as an attractive alternative to porcelain,
including:
• Better behaviour in polluted areas
• Better short-circuit capability with increased safety for other equipment and personnel
• Low weight
• Better earthquake withstand capability
It is incorrect, however, to believe that all polymer-housed arresters automatically have these
features just because the porcelain has been replaced by a polymeric insulator. The design must
be scrutinised carefully for each specific type, which can be grouped generally into the following
categories:
• Open or cage design
• Closed design
• Tubular design
These are discussed in more detail at the end of this chapter.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


4.2.2 Pollution performance
The creepage distance is the total length of the outer contour of the insulator. Simplified, the longer
this length is, the more severe environmental conditions the arrester will be able to operate under
without increasing the risk for an external flashover. Surge arresters can be supplied with different
creepage distances, and one type of insulator frequently used has a long-short
shed-form, thus enabling a short assembly height for a given creepage distance.
Silicone insulators generally perform better in polluted environments

compared to a porcelain insulator. This is mainly due to the
hydrophobic behaviour of the silicone material, i.e. the ability to bead
water and prevent wetting of the insulator surface. Hydrophobicity
results in reduced creepage currents during heavy pollution
episodes, minimising electrical discharges on the surface; thereby
reducing the effects of material ageing. However, it should be noted
that whilst most polymer materials are hydrophobic when new, not
all polymeric insulators necessarily retain their hydrophobic
properties over their service lifetime.
Two commonly used polymeric materials for the arrester housing

are silicone and EPDM rubber (Ethylene-Propylene Diene
Fig. 10
Insulators made from silicone
Monomer), and both exhibit hydrophobic behaviour when new.
retain their hydrophobic Polymer materials may lose their hydrophobicity during an
properties over their extended period of severe pollution, such as salt in combination
in-service lifetime with moisture. Silicone, however, will ultimately recover its
hydrophobicity, through diffusion of low molecular silicone oils to
the surface restoring the original material behaviour. EPDM
rubber, in contrast, lacks this ability. Hence the material is very
likely to lose its hydrophobicity completely with time, and is
consequently often regarded as a hydrophilic insulator material,
similar to porcelain.
Polymeric materials can potentially be more affected by ageing due to partial discharges and
leakage currents on the surface, UV radiation, chemicals, etc., compared to porcelain, which is a
non-organic material. For this reason, the raw material is often blended with a variety of additives
and fillers to achieve the desired material features: UV stability, anti-tracking, flame-retardancy, etc.
Silicone, as a material, has a natural resistance against these effects, and thus such additives
simply aid in further improving the material’s inherent properties.
4.2.3 Short-circuit capability

A correctly selected arrester can divert surges to ground almost endlessly, provided the energy
to be dissipated is within the capability of the arrester.
In the event that an arrester is required to dissipate more energy than it is capable of, it will
sacrifice itself by failing short circuit. Most commonly, arresters are connected between phase-
ground and the resultant earthfault will immediately collapse the voltage on that phase, thereby
protecting other equipment on the same phase. The upstream protection will initiate a breaker
trip to clear the fault, and the failed arrester can then be replaced.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


If steps are not taken, there is a likelihood that arresters which contain an enclosed gas volume
might explode due to the internal pressure increase caused by the heat generated from the short
circuit arc. This leads to the need for these arresters to be fitted with some type of pressure relief
system which will open quickly to release the enclosed gas volume to the outside. Such arresters
are normally supplied with devices at the top and bottom of each unit, which operate as soon as
the internal pressure reaches a certain value. The ionized gas will subsequently be evacuated to
the outside of the arrester, and when the two gas streams meet the internal arc will commute to
the outside, thus preventing a continual internal pressure increase.
Fig. 11
Operating principle of the pressure
relief device of an ABB type EXLIM
porcelain housed arrester.
(1) Arrester in its healthy state
(2) Arrester has failed short-circuit,

pressure relief plates open and gas
begins to be expelled through the
venting ducts
(3) The two gas streams meet and the

internal arc is commuted safely to
the outside
(1) (2) (3)
The sealing cover in ABB’s high voltage EXLIM porcelain-housed arresters also acts as an
overpressure relief device. Other manufacturers may have other solutions; a blast plate for example.
During normal service, the sealing
cover tightens against the porcelain. At
an internal short-circuit of the arrester,
an open arc occurs across the block
column. Due to the heat from the arc,
the internal pressure increases and
would soon reach a value that could
cause an explosion of the insulator if
no pressure relief device was present.
The sealing cover is designed such
that it will open, both at the top and
bottom of the porcelain housing, as
soon as the internal pressure reaches
a certain value (significantly below the
bursting pressure of the porcelain) and Fig. 12
the enclosed gas volume can be The position of the overpressure relief device on an ABB
evacuated to the outside of the type EXLIM T porcelain housed arrester. The figure shows the key
arrester. The internal pressure is thus parts of an arrester with the pressure relief and sealing plate,
relieved, and a violent shattering of the block column, spring device and the cemented metallic flange.
porcelain is avoided.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


Safer short-circuit performance is not, however, automatically achieved simply by replacing the
porcelain housing with one made of polymer. In the past, there has been the incorrect belief that
all polymer-housed arresters, irrespective of design, were capable of carrying enormous
short-circuit currents. Standardised short circuit test procedures within IEC (for both porcelain and
polymer-housed arresters) now take into consideration what might happen at failure of the MO
resistors for individual designs.
Fig. 13
Operating principle of “ pressure relief” for an ABB type PEXLIM
moulded open-cage design.
(1) Arrester has failed short-circuit and gas begins to be expelled

through the soft silicone housing
(2) The gas streams trigger an external flashover and the internal
arc is commutated safely to the outside
The short circuit capability for surge arresters (porcelain and polymer) is verified by tests to
minimize the risk for damage to surrounding equipment and personnel. However, the risks related
to an open arc in service can also be influenced by the physical positioning of the equipment as
well as by the circuit connections.
4.2.4 Internal corona

A low corona (partial discharge, PD) level during normal service conditions is essential for all
apparatus designs intended for high voltage applications. Arresters with an annular gas-gap
between the active parts and the external insulator may have large voltage differences between the
outside and inside of the arrester during external pollution and wetting of the housing surface. To
fully avoid corona under such conditions is not technically or economically feasible. Instead the
internal parts, including the MO resistors, must be able to withstand these conditions.
In order to prevent internal corona during normal service conditions for these type of arresters, the
distance between the block column and insulator must be sufficiently large to ensure that the radial
voltage difference between the blocks and insulator will not create any partial discharges.
For polymer-housed arresters lacking such annular space in their design, the radial voltage
difference is entirely across the rubber insulator. In order to avoid puncturing of the insulator, the
rubber must be sufficiently thick. It is also very important that the insulator is free from voids to
prevent internal corona in the material which might lead to problems in the long term.
The maximum voltage stress occurring across the polymer material is proportional to the length of
the insulator. A longer insulator therefore requires that the thickness of the material is proportionally
increased with respect to the increase in length. Another solution is to reduce the height of the
individual units in a multi-unit arrester, since the maximum voltage across each unit is limited by the
non-linear current-voltage characteristic of the MO resistors.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


4.2.5 Voltage grading
The performance of a MO surge arrester is defined by its protective levels, its temporary
overvoltage and energy discharge capabilities and the long term-stability of the metal-oxide
material.
The temporary overvoltage and energy handling capabilities are closely related to the temperature
of the MO resistors during normal operation. This temperature depends on the power losses,
which increase rapidly with voltage stress, due to the block material’s non-linear voltage-current
characteristics. Therefore, the most essential parameters to minimize the temperature during
normal operation are inherently low power losses in the zinc oxide material, together with a linear
voltage distribution along the block column.
Under normal operating conditions and voltage, the MO resistors act like a capacitor. The voltage
distribution along the block column then depends on the capacitance of the MO resistors and the
influence of stray capacitances. The stray capacitances are strongly dependent on the height of
the block column. Short arresters - up to about one meter in height - usually have a sufficiently
linear voltage distribution along the block column, as the self-capacitance of the MO resistors is
relatively high. For taller arresters, the influence of stray capacitances makes the voltage
distribution less linear. If no measures are taken to prevent an uneven voltage distribution on a
tall arrester, the local voltage stress at the top may reach (or even exceed) the knee-point of the
voltage-current characteristic of the zinc oxide material. This leads to a localized increase in the
power losses, with high temperatures in the block column as a consequence.
Corona
Above the knee-point of the current-voltage characteristics, the
ring
blocks start to conduct large currents, which would ultimately lead to
the failure of the arrester. The amount of this current is determined
by the applied voltage and the total stray-capacitance of the arrester
to earth and can be considerable; particularly for high-voltage
arresters. Further, the localized heating of the MO resistors (hot-
spots) leads to a reduced energy absorption capability of the
arrester.
Tall arresters therefore must be equipped with some type of voltage

Grading
grading. This can be achieved by additional grading capacitors
rings
and/or grading rings. Provision of suspended grading rings is the
most common way of improving the voltage distribution. It should
be noted that it is only grading rings hanging down from its electrical
connection point that helps to improve the voltage grading of the
arrester. Large metallic electrodes, including metallic flanges or
rings to reduce corona without any suspension from its electrical
contact point to the arrester, actually increases the stray-
capacitances to earth, thereby amplifying the uneven voltage
distribution.
An important point, which often goes unconsidered, is that an

actual surge arrester installation constitutes a three-dimensional
problem with three phase-voltages involved together with certain
stipulated minimum distances between phases and to grounded Fig. 14
(earthed) objects. All this must be considered when making Example of grading ring
electrical field calculations. To not consider the influence of and corona ring arrangement
adjacent phases, for example, will lead to an underestimation of on an ABB type EXLIM surge
the maximum uneven voltage distribution of up to 10%. arrester for 550 kV
__________________________________________________________________________________________


Both IEC and IEEE standards require the maximum voltage stress to be taken into consideration
in accelerated ageing tests on MO resistors. However, it is not possible to determine the correct
voltage stress to be used in these tests without proper calculations of the maximum voltage stress
occurring in practical three-phase installations. If no such calculations have been performed, the
tests should therefore be carried out with a voltage stress corresponding to the knee-point of the
voltage-current characteristics, i.e. at the reference voltage.
Type tests in accordance with Standards to verify the long-term stability of the MO resistors are
hence not valid if the actual voltage stress on the arrester during service is allowed to exceed the
applied voltage stress proven in the type tests.
When grading arrangements for surge arresters are based on complete electrical field
calculations for each arrester design at the maximum continuous operating voltage and with the
maximum possible three-phase influence taken into account, this guarantees that the voltage
stress remains below the critical level at all points along the block column. This maximum voltage
stress level is then used in accelerated ageing tests on the MO resistors. In this way, the long-
term stability of the MO resistors is verified at the highest possible voltage stress found in any
installation under normal service conditions.
A guide for the determination of the voltage distribution along surge arresters using simplified
representations of arrester geometries and boundary conditions (applied voltage, proximity and
voltage applied to other objects in the vicinity) is given in IEC 60099-4.
4.3 Polymer arrester designs

The potential weight reduction for polymer arresters can be considerable compared to porcelain
housed arresters. As an example, one of the standard ABB type EXLIM arresters with porcelain
insulator for a 362 kV system voltage has a mass of approximately 420 kg. A PEXLIM silicone-
housed arrester for conventional up-right erection, with the same rated voltage, has a mass of only
approximately 150 kg.
This leads to the obvious benefit of lighter structures with subsequent reduced costs, and even the
possible complete elimination of the need for a structure at all if alternative mounting arrangements
are acceptable; e.g. suspended mounting.
Fig. 15
Two examples of possible mounting arrangements for ABB type
PEXLIM silicone housed surge arresters
__________________________________________________________________________________________


Since the soft outer polymeric insulator does not have the necessary mechanical strength to keep
the block column together, other insulator materials must be used in the design. The most common
material used for this purpose is glass-fibre reinforced plastic.
There are then several types of mechanical designs in common use: loops or rods, cross-winding
and tubes. These designs can be grouped generally into three basic categories:
• Open or cage design
• Closed or wrap design
• Tubular design
4.3.1 Open or cage design

This design may consist of loops of glass-fibre, glass-fibre rods or a cage of glass-fibre weave
around the block column. It is worth noting that there are solutions which can be considered “open”
or “cage” or a combination “open-cage”. What defines this type of design is that the active
components are not fully enclosed by hard materials. Instead, a body of soft polymer material
directly surrounds the internal components.
An outer insulator with sheds is required over the inner body, with two common methods for
achieving this being:
• A pre-moulded polymer insulator is made in a separate process, and then slipped over the
internal component assembly (which itself may be enclosed in soft polymer). The boundary
between the internal assembly and the outer polymer insulator is usually filled with grease
or gel, generally of silicone.
• The outer housing is moulded directly onto the internal components to form a void-free,
sealed housing along the entire length of the insulator.
Such designs lack enclosed gas volume. Should the arrester be stressed in excess of its design
capability, an internal arc will be established. Due to the design principle, the arc will easily tear or
burn its way through the polymer material, permitting the arc, along with any resultant gases, to
escape quickly and directly. Hence, special pressure relief vents or diaphragms are not required
for this type of design. However, it is important that the design is not “too open”, otherwise the
internal active elements may be violently cast out.
Penetration of water and moisture must also be prevented, which places strict requirements on the
sealing of the insulator at the metallic flanges (in the case of a pre-moulded housing) and adherence
or bonding of the rubber to all internal parts (in the case where the polymer is directly moulded onto
the inner body). It is equally of great importance that these designs are totally “void-free” and no
air pockets are present, otherwise partial discharges might occur, which would lead to the
destruction of the insulator over time.
ABB employs a unique, patented design for the PEXLIM arrester to enclose the MO resistors of
each module under pre-compression in a cage formed of glass-fibre reinforced loops fixed
between two yokes which form the electrodes. A special mineral-fibre is wound as belts around
the loops resulting in an open-cage design for the module. This achieves high mechanical
strength and excellent short circuit performance, through the belt-windings preventing explosive
expulsion of the internal components.
Each module is then passed through a computer-controlled cleaning and priming process.
Thereafter, the module is loaded in a highly automated vulcanising press, where silicone is
injected at high pressure and temperature to completely bond to the active parts, leaving no
internal voids or air spaces.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


4.3.2 Closed or wrap design
Surge arresters in this category incorporate a “void-free” (partial or total) polymer housing around
the internal assembly, while surrounding the active components themselves with hard material. In
contrast to the open design, they have been mechanically designed to not include a direct path for
externalising the arc during internal short circuit.
Typical designs include a glass-fibre weave wound directly on the block column or a separate tube
in which the MO resistors are mounted. A soft polymer insulator is then fitted (either
pre-moulded or directly moulded) over this internal component assembly; often together with grease
or gel to fill the interfaces.
In order to obtain a good mechanical strength, the weave/tube must be made sufficiently strong,
which, in turn, might lead to a too strong/closed design with respect to short-circuit strength. The
internal overpressure could rise in the tube design to a high value before cracking the tube, which
may lead to an explosive failure with parts being thrown over a wide area. To prevent a violent
shattering of the housing, a variety of work-around solutions have been utilised, e.g. slots in the
tube. When glass-fibre weave is used, an alternative has been to arrange the windings in a special
manner to obtain weaknesses that may crack. These weaknesses are intended to ensure a
pressure relief and commutation of the internal arc to the outside; thus preventing an explosion.
Note that such alterations do not inherently then make these an “open/cage design”, as the arc path
is not considered to be direct and the internal components are still, in practical terms, completely
surrounded by hard material.
Sealing and partial discharge issues also require consideration in a similar manner as for the open
or cage design.
4.3.3 Tubular design

The tubular design incorporates a distinct annular gas-gap between the active parts and the external
insulator. It is designed in more or less the same way as a standard porcelain arrester, but with the
porcelain housing having been substituted by an insulator of a glass-fibre reinforced epoxy tube,
moulded with an outer insulator of silicone or EPDM rubber. Together they form a composite
housing.
The internal parts are, in general, almost identical to those used in an arrester with porcelain
housing. In particular, the arrester must be equipped with some type of sealing and pressure relief
devices, similar to what is used on porcelain-housed arresters.
This design has the prime advantage that very high mechanical strength is possible (potentially
even higher than for porcelain) in combination with relatively low mass. Among the disadvantages
compared to other polymeric designs is less efficient cooling of the MO resistors and, if appropriate
precautions are not taken in the design, an increased risk of exposure of the polymeric material to
corona that may occur between the inner wall of the insulator and the block column during external
pollution.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


4.4 Silicone for use as an insulator
There is a worldwide trend towards the use of polymer housings for surge arresters because of
their light weight, flexibility and non-shattering performance. Silicone is recognised and proven
worldwide as the technically superior polymer for all high voltage outdoor applications. Its
exclusive use is prevented only by its comparatively high raw material cost. Nevertheless, an
increasing number of utilities are specifying the more expensive silicone composite insulators;
especially for more demanding or polluted environments; recognising silicone's long-term cost
benefits over porcelain and other polymer materials.
The unique properties of silicone makes it ideal for use as an electrical insulator due to its superior
properties in the following key areas:
• Natural resistance to Ultra Violet (UV) Fig. 16

Silicone demonstrates a natural resistance to UV Silicone polymeric chain
radiation without the need for additives. Of all the
polymers, it best resists UV energy induced Methyl
CH 3 CH 3 Silicone
polymer chain scission. Because the main polymer
chain has silicon-oxygen bonds instead of carbon- O Si O Si
carbon bonds (which are subject to oxidation) Oxygen CH 3 CH 3
n n > 1000
silicone polymer molecules do not split, and
therefore surface properties do not degrade to any EP-rubber
significant extent. This results in inherently superior
UV performance compared to other polymers. Carbon H H H H H H
C C C C C C
m > 1000
• Stable pollution/anti-tracking performance Hydrogen H H CH 3 H CH 3 H m
Silicone has a wet-polluted withstand strength
much greater than a similarly dimensioned
porcelain or alternative polymeric insulator.
Experiments show that even with the deposit of
extreme pollution, silicone materials provide
superior performance with respect to leakage
current, electrical withstand and anti-tracking when
compared with other polymers and certainly
porcelain.
• Unique hydrophobic recovery mechanism

Silicone gains the advantage in pollution
performance due to its superior hydrophobic
properties, i.e. the ability to bead water.
Importantly, this property is maintained with age.
Whilst other polymeric materials may demonstrate
the ability to bead water when new, they can
eventually degrade under contaminated conditions
over a period of time. Not so with silicone rubber -
even with a large amount of contamination on the
Fig. 17 Principle of silicone
surface, the hydrophobic recovery properties of hydrophobicity recovery
silicone rubber reverses degradation of its surface
properties.
This exceptional pollution performance is achieved due to silicone’s unique dynamic surface
properties resulting in low molecular weight silicone oils diffusing towards the surface to encapsulate
the pollution layer, so that no electrolyte is present that can conduct current. As a result, silicone-
housed arresters exhibit lower leakage and consistently higher flashover values over the total lifetime
of the arrester.
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
• Fire self-extinguishing and freedom from any toxic combustion products
Due to an inherently high temperature index (temperature required to sustain burning in air), silicone
is the last to catch fire with increasing temperature and the first to self-extinguish. This natural
performance of silicone can be further enhanced by the addition of functional fillers – typically
Aluminium Trihydrate (ATH) - which releases bound water at high temperature to cool the arc
resulting from the short-circuit after an arrester overload.
• Negligible thermal ageing

Silicone has low surface energy, resulting in it remaining stable over a wide temperature range. Due
to its high continuous rating, no significant embrittlement occurs.
• Well tested and proven

Silicone materials have been used in various applications for insulators and cable
terminations since 1960. ABB has been using silicone housings on surge arresters since 1985.
PEXLIM silicone-housed arresters tested according to IEC 60099-4 for 1000 hours salt–fog and
5000 hours multi-stress show no deterioration in material performance or change in electrical
characteristics from before to after the test. Similar superior performance apply with other customer-
specific tests; including long-term site tests.
4.4.1 Comparison between types of silicone

Silicone covers a wide range of materials, with those used in high voltage applications including
dielectric fluids, greases, coatings and polymers. These in turn can be grouped based on their
form and application. All nevertheless have the same silicone-oxygen backbone structure that
provides the inherent stability and low reactivity common to all silicones.
RTV is the generic group of “Room Temperature Vulcanised” silicone materials, which includes
many of the commercially available household sealants, grease coatings, etc.
 RTV 1 component Condensation curing at room temperature through catalyzation by

the moisture in the air diffusing into the rubber. Typical
applications are gluing and sealing.
 RTV 2 component Addition curing with platinum catalyst; permits faster curing at
higher temperatures. Typical applications are casting and
encapsulating.
LSR is the generic group of “Liquid Silicone Rubbers”. These are two component addition cured
by platinum catalyst at high temperature. Typical application is injection moulding.
HCR is the generic group of “High Consistency Rubbers”. These are a one component solid
rubber compound which crosslinks at high temperature (130 – 190 oC) with the aid of either a
peroxide or platinum catalyst. Typical applications are injection moulding and extrusion, and
includes the HTV (“High Temperature Vulcanised”) silicone used for ABB type PEXLIM and
TEXLIM surge arresters.
HCR currently holds around 85% of the insulator market at high voltage, but LSR market use is
growing (particularly in niche markets). HCR is a solid rubber material while LSR has a pasty to
liquid consistency, which lends them to use in different applications and different processing
methods.
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
4.4.1.1 LSR
Processing
• Allows the use of low pressure injection systems, leading to lower investment costs
• Can be fully automated
• Fast cycle times at relatively low temperature
Physical properties compared to HCR

• Higher mechanical strength
• Lower specific gravity (weight)
• Lower hardness, more flexible
• Permits more angled shed profile
Electrical properties compared to HCR

• Lower dielectric constant
• Higher dielectric strength
• Similar tracking resistance
• Erosion resistance similar to common HCR, but not as good as the best HCR
4.4.1.2 HCR
Processing
• Needs high pressure & clamp force injection machine, leading to high investment costs
• Platinum cured HCR faster cure rate than peroxide cured HCR, but slower than LSR
• Mould may not need as close tolerances as for LSR, leading to lower cost
Physical properties compared to LCR

• Elongation and tear strength relatively low
• Higher hardness
• Specific gravity is typically between 1.5 – 1.65
Electrical properties compared to LCR

• Higher tracking resistance
• Best material shows no erosion at 3.5, 4.5, 6.0kV tracking and erosion test
4.4.1.3 Application
All groups belong to the silicone family and therefore each permit the fundamental and generic
advantages of silicone to be utilized. However, since there is an expectation of a long in-service
life for HV surge arresters, a high degree of security is required. The manufacturer must carefully
consider the complete design as a whole – including the choice of housing material - to ensure
the final product has adequate performance in all key areas of concern for a given application and
not just excellent in one specific area at the expense of others.
For example, ABB type PEXLIM surge arresters utilize a housing moulded from a specially
formulated HTV-silicone in order to ensure excellent performance in all key areas; including:
● Physical properties ● Electrical properties

● Wet electrical performance ● Hydrophobicity recovery
● Tracking and erosion resistance ● Environmental ageing resistance
● Salt-fog performance ● Flame retardancy
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
5. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR MO SURGE ARRESTERS
There are a variety of parameters influencing the dimensioning of an arrester, but the demands as
required by a user can be divided into two basic categories:
• Protection against overvoltages
• High reliability and a long service life
Additionally, there is the requirement that the risk of personal injury and damage to adjacent
equipment shall be low in the event of an arrester overloading. Users are also beginning to put
requirements on environmental aspects, for example that arresters should be separable, recyclable
and only contain non-hazardous materials.
The above two main requirements are somewhat in contradiction to each other. Aiming to minimise
the residual voltage normally leads to the reduction in the capability of the arrester to withstand
power-frequency overvoltages. An improved protection level may therefore be achieved by slightly
increasing the risk of overloading the arresters. The acceptance for increase of this risk is, of course,
dependent on how well the amplitude and duration of the temporary overvoltages (TOV’s) can be
predicted. The selection of an arrester is therefore always a compromise between protection levels
and reliability.
A more detailed classification could be based on what stresses a surge arrester is normally
subjected to and what continuous stresses it shall withstand. For example:
• Continuous operating voltage
• Ambient temperature
• Rain, pollution, sun radiation
• Wind and possible ice loadings as well as forces in line terminal connections
and additionally, non-frequent, abnormal stresses, for example:

• Temporary overvoltages, TOV’s
• Overvoltages due to transients, which affect
• thermal stability and ageing
• energy and current withstand capability
• external insulation withstand
• Large mechanical forces (e.g. from earthquakes)
• Severe external pollution
and finally, what the arrester can be subjected to only once:

• Internal short-circuit
For transient overvoltages, the primary task for an arrester is to protect. But it must also normally
be dimensioned to handle the current through it, as well as the heat generated by the overvoltage.
The risk of an external flashover must also be very low.
Detailed test requirements are given in International and National Standards, where the surge
arresters are classified with respect to various parameters such as energy capability, current
withstand, short-circuit capability and residual voltage.
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
5.1 Designing for continuous stresses
5.1.1 Continuous operating voltage

Maximum continuous operating voltage, denoted as Uc in the IEC standard, is the maximum r.m.s.
voltage level the arrester is designed to operate under during its entire lifetime. The arrester shall
act as an insulator against this voltage. The entire voltage is across the MO resistors and these
must be able to maintain their insulating properties during their entire lifetime.
The continuous operating voltage for AC surge arresters is mainly at power frequency, i.e. 50 Hz or
60 Hz with some percent of superimposed harmonics. For other applications, e.g. HVDC, the
waveform of the voltage might be very complex or even a pure DC voltage. It must therefore be
verified for all applications that the MO resistors are able to withstand the actual voltage under their
technical and commercial lifetime; normally stated to be in the order of 30 years.
The basis for the dimensioning is the result from ageing procedures where possible ageing effects
are accelerated by performing tests at elevated temperature.
5.1.2 Ambient temperature

Temperature extremes are tracked and measured daily from multiple locations on earth. The
generally acknowledged highest temperature ever recorded was 56.7 oC measured in Death
Valley, California, USA on July 10th, 1913. The highest average annual mean temperature was
34.4 °C in Dallol, Ethiopia during the period October 1960 – December 1966.
Notwithstanding potential brief daily extremes, operating requirements for arresters under
prolonged high ambient temperatures are arguably often overstated by users. It is worth noting
that the ambient air temperature surrounding the arrester is not necessarily the temperature of the
MO resistors themselves. Arresters installed outdoors, for example, will always have a proportion
of their housing in the shade. Thus, even if the ambient air temperature is considered high, it is the
average ambient temperature of the blocks themselves which should be the determining factor for
the evaluation of verifications made for thermal stability during the type tests. Further, this
temperature is normally considered to be the average over a 24 hour period.
In order for a manufacturer to verify that the arrester is capable of withstanding the highest possible
temperatures, certain type tests must be performed. All arresters, according to the IEC standard,
must be designed to withstand an ambient air temperature of -40 °C to +40 °C without impairing the
surge arrester’s function. Due to the MO resistor current-voltage characteristic, high MO resistor
temperatures may be decisive for the arrester’s design as resistive leakage current increases with
higher temperatures at Uc.
5.1.3 Rain, pollution, sun radiation

A contaminated insulator surface in combination with moisture causes a creepage (external
leakage) current on the insulator surface that can reach high values. This leakage current may
negatively influence the arrester with respect to internal corona, heating of MO resistors and
external flashovers. Thus the arrester must be designed in such a way that the internal parts will
endure, during a limited time, a high internal corona level (for arresters with an annular gap between
insulator and block column), and that the blocks will withstand a higher grading current, and
subsequent higher power losses, than normal without failing. The risk of an external flashover must
also be minimized.
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
For a given pollution level, the performance of gapless arresters can be generally improved by
employing any or all of the following measures:
• Increasing the creepage distances of the housings to reduce external leakage current
• Using MO resistors of larger volume to improve the energy absorption capability
• Improving the TOV capability, i.e. increase the rated voltage (Ur) for the same arrester type
• Improving the heat transfer mechanism
• Using blocks with lower losses at Uc
A well-designed arrester should already employ blocks with very low losses and the heat transfer
mechanism should be optimized for these blocks. Thus, in practical terms, pollution performance
is usually improved by using one or more of the first three methods. In this regard, it is important
to note that an increased Uc without corresponding improvement in TOV capability is not effective.
Heating of the arresters due to direct sun radiation and self-heating is normally a minor problem.
The influence from the sun radiation is sometimes thought to be significant, as one might assume
that sun radiation can result in considerably high surface temperatures. However, it is the average
surface temperature of the complete arrester that counts, and sun radiation falls on less than half
of the insulator surface at any point in time. In fact, the closer to the equator an arrester is situated,
the smaller the fraction of the insulator surface that is subjected to direct radiation due to the
sheds. Furthermore, the average block temperature will be well below the localized surface
temperature possible from direct sun radiation and, provided the arrester has low power losses,
self-heating is also negligible. Heating from sources other than sun radiation must be checked
separately for each case.
The effect of direct sun radiation is accounted for in the IEC Operating Duty test of arrester sections,
whereby energy and thermal capacity are verified at a starting temperature of 60 °C; being actual
MO resistor temperature, which adds additional safety margin.
5.1.4 Wind, ice, external forces

A surge arrester is not a post insulator and should not be used as such, since normally its
mechanical strength is limited. In all but extreme cases, wind and ice loads are usually not a problem
for surge arresters. It is only if hurricanes (gales) could be expected at the arrester location, that a
detailed check is necessary of whether or not a standard arrester will mechanically withstand the
wind forces. By suitable selection of the housing strength or its physical mounting, a surge arrester
may be designed to withstand very high winds. Similarly, severe ice storms are normally required
to build up sufficient ice to load the arrester significantly.
The most suitable way to connect an arrester to the overhead line is to arrange the tee-off vertically
and slack to the line terminal of the arrester to minimize the bending moment on the arrester. Since
surge arresters have a certain maximum bending moment for each design type, expressed in Nm,
the maximum force at the line terminal is lower for a tall arrester than for a shorter one of the same
type.
5.1.5 Considerations for polymer arrester designs

The design for continuous stresses on polymer arresters must also take into consideration their
effect on the behaviour and characteristics of the polymer material. For example, polymeric
materials can potentially be more affected by ageing due to partial discharges and leakage currents
on the surface, UV radiation, chemicals, etc., compared to porcelain. Further, polymers, as a rule,
become softer at higher temperatures with a higher degree of creeping (cold flowing), while at cold
temperatures the material becomes brittle.
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
Many of these characteristics are strongly dependent on temperature and load time. It therefore is
of great importance that the arrester design is tested with different temperature and load
combinations to verify that all possible sealings operate adequately over the entire temperature
interval.
Composite materials, such as glass-fibre joined in a matrix with epoxy or other polymeric materials,
can exhibit behaviour changes at high loading. The rate of this material degradation is determined
by temperature, applied force, velocity of the applied force, humidity and the time during which the
load is applied. It is therefore not sufficient to simply dimension the arrester with respect to its
breaking force, but rather consideration must also be taken to how the arrester withstands cyclical
stresses.
5.2 Designing for non-continuous stresses
5.2.1 Temporary overvoltages (TOV)

TOV’s in networks are primarily caused by earth faults, load rejection, energising of unloaded lines
and resonance. By definition, a TOV is above Uc and normally will last from some few cycles up to
some seconds. However, in certain isolated systems, the duration of an earth-fault may last several
days. Further, the TOV's may be preceded by a switching surge.
A MO arrester is considered to have withstood a TOV if:

• the MO resistors are not destroyed due to energy under the TOV i.e. cracking, puncturing
or flashover of the blocks does not occur, and
• the surge arrester is thermally stable against Uc after cessation of the TOV
Since the resistive leakage current through the arrester is temperature-dependent, achieving
thermal stability is also dependent on the final block temperature. If, for example due to a prior
switching surge, the arrester already has a high starting temperature before being subjected to a
TOV, it will naturally have a lower overvoltage capability. This is exemplified in the TOV
characteristic given below (Figure 19), which shows the ability of a specific MO arrester to withstand
overvoltages with and without a preceding energy absorption.
For MO arresters, the TOV amplitudes are normally at, or immediately above, the knee-point of the
current-voltage characteristic. If a station class arrester is designed to fulfil the IEC standard, it shall
be able to withstand a TOV equal to the rated voltage of the arrester for at least 10 seconds; after
having first been pre-heated to the designated start temperature and immediately prior subjected to
rated thermal energy injection. In the case of distribution class arresters, rated thermal charge
transfer shall be used instead of thermal energy. This voltage level is also designated as the ”rated
voltage” of the arrester in compliance with IEC.
The TOV is generally regarded as a stiff voltage source, i.e. the surge arrester cannot influence the
voltage amplitude. For the dimensioning to fulfil a certain TOV level, the MO resistor characteristic
must be chosen such that the current through the arrester, and consequently the energy dissipation,
will not result in a temperature above the thermal instability point.
The TOV capability given for a certain surge arrester should always be assumed with a stiff voltage
source. However, if this is not the case, the TOV capability of the arrester is, generally, significantly
higher.
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
An important parameter concerning the dimensioning for TOV's is to accurately control the knee-
point voltage, since the non-linearity of the characteristic is at its most extreme in the TOV range.
This is best achieved by defining a reference voltage close to the knee-point on the voltage-current
characteristics, and then checking through routine tests that every arrester has a reference voltage
above a guaranteed minimum voltage.
A manufacturer is relatively free to assign any data for the arresters. A given arrester with MO
resistors capable of absorbing a certain amount of high energy (charge) could therefore be assigned
a high energy/charge classification with low TOV capability or, conversely, a low energy/charge
classification with high TOV capability. The ideal should naturally be to assign the highest energy
and charge rating together with the highest possible TOV capability.
5.2.2 Transient overvoltages - Protective function

The arrester shall, for an expected maximum current, limit an overvoltage to a level well below the
insulation withstand level of the protected equipment.
The protective characteristic for a MO resistor is slightly dependent on the steepness of the
expected current. The below Figure 20 shows the characteristics for a specific arrester for three
different current shapes given in the Standards.
As can be noted from the diagram, the protection level for currents having a front time of 1µs are
approximately 10% higher compared to currents with a wave form 8/20µs or longer. However, even
more important than this marginal increase for steep current waves, is the effect of positioning the
arrester in relation to the protected equipment and the length of the connections. There is also an
effect as a result of the arrester’s own height (length). These effects add inductance (L) into the
circuit, typically 1µH/m for outdoor arresters, which results in a further increase in the overall residual
voltage against steep current impulses according to the formula U = L.di/dt.
In order to obtain an efficient protection against fast transients, for example caused by
backflashover close to a substation, large margins are therefore required between the protection
level of the surge arrester and the protected equipment’s insulation level.
A MO resistor with larger diameter normally has a better protection level with maintained
overvoltage capability. A better protection level, in this case, also automatically results in a better
energy capability.
Computer programs are used to make accurate calculations of the resulting overvoltages in a
substation originating from lightning and detailed models of the transmission line and substation are
made. In these type of calculations, a MO arrester may be modelled as shown in Figure 18.
HIGH FREQUENCY MODEL OF A SURGE ARRESTER Fig. 18

Equivalent scheme for MO arresters used
in computer calculations.
L1 L1=(LENGTH OF CONNECTING CABLES +
ARRESTER HEIGHT)*1 µH/m
Apart from the standard current-voltage
characteristic for an arrester (”ZnO”
above) a circuit is included for modelling
L2=0.029 µH/kV RATED VOLTAGE
the increase of the residual voltage for
L2 R1 R1=0.06 /kV RATED VOLTAGE
Ω shorter times than 8/20 µs (”R1” and
”L2” above). The effects from connection
leads and arrester height is modelled with
ZnO=U-I CHARACTERISTIC FOR
ZnO the inductance ”L1”.
8/20 µs CURRENT IMPULSES
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
Fig. 19
Example of TOV-capacity for
a specific MO surge arrester.
The upper curve is valid if the

arrester has not been
subjected to any energy prior
to the TOV and the lower
curve is valid if the arresters
has absorbed rated thermal
energy prior to the TOV.
The TOV capability is

normally based on the lower
curve, being the “worst
case”.
Fig. 20
Example of protective
characteristics for a specific
MO surge arrester.
The protection level is given

in % of the residual voltage
at a current impulse with
wave-shape 8/20 µs and
amplitude 10 kA.
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
5.2.3 Transient overvoltages - Energy capability and current withstand strengths
In service, a surge arrester may be subjected to different energy impulses originating from such
sources as lightning, faults in the network, switching of lines or capacitor banks, etc. The arresters
must be designed in such a way that the MO resistors will withstand the energy or current without
failing. Additionally, the arrester must be able to withstand the thermal energy, i.e. it must be able
to cool against Uc after an energy absorption.
High voltage arresters were historically designated according to IEC with a specific line discharge
class 1 through 5, in ascending order of energy capability. The previous “Long duration current
impulse test” and “Switching surge operating duty test” consisted of the application of current
impulses in various forms to simulate discharges through the test sample of a pre-charged line
with defined parameters of line length, surge impedance and overvoltage factor. The testing was
not explicitly intended to represent an actual in-service condition that was likely to occur, but
instead was to be a means to compare performance under the same criteria between different
manufacturer’s designs.
With time, the meaningfulness and purpose with the testing has been neglected, e.g. if a Line
Discharge Class (LDC) 3 arrester was specified, then all LDC 3 arresters were often considered
equal without consideration to relative performance. Furthermore, the specified line discharges
represent very specific situations and these may not be representative to use with results from
system studies for other cases where energy stresses totally different from line discharges will be
imposed on arresters, e.g. capacitor switching, reactor switching, lightning discharges in line
arresters, etc.
There was increasing pressure from users for testing to answer the following sorts of questions:
• What are the energy handling capabilities for long duration currents of different
amplitudes or time durations or protective levels rather than those specified in the five
line discharge classes?
• What is the energy handling capability for any other current shape (single, repeated or
multiple impulse or alternating current)?
• What exactly is the difference between thermal and impulse energy handling capability?
• What is the highest possible “single event” energy stress that will not damage the MO
resistors, even if the thermal energy limit has not been reached?
• How often can these energy “events” be passed without damage to the arrester?
The classification system used in IEC 60099-4 prior to Edition 3.0 was not capable of sufficiently
answering these questions. Furthermore, the line discharge class gave only indirect information
on energy handling capability as it depended on the protective level. Whilst this may be useful
from a system perspective, it does not give adequate information about the arrester design
performance as a whole.
The former line discharge classes (LDC 1 – 5) are removed in Edition 3.0 and instead charge is
used to classify the arresters with respect to discharge capability. A repetitive charge transfer test
replaces the previous long duration current impulse withstand test.
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
Furthermore, in an attempt to separate the thermal rating of the arrester from the impulse rating,
station class arresters undergo an Operating Duty test that verifies the arrester’s ability to
thermally recover after injection of the rated thermal energy, applied TOV and subsequent
continuous operating voltage conditions. Distribution class arresters are instead evaluated by
their ability to transfer a thermal charge.
Aside from withstanding the energy from current impulses, the MO resistors must also have a
sufficiently high dielectric withstand so as to ensure that the voltage across the block will not result
in a puncture or a flashover across the block. To ensure a sufficient insulation withstand margin for
normal stresses, the MO resistors (together with all internal parts in a high voltage arrester) are
dimensioned to withstand current impulses with an amplitude of at least 100 kA, having a wave form
of 4/10 µs.
Requirements for high energy absorption capability can be solved by increasing the block volume -
either by using blocks with larger diameter or by paralleling block columns and/or arresters. To
ensure that the latter designs will operate correctly during service, a very careful procedure is
required to ensure a good current sharing between the block columns and/or arresters connected
in parallel. Furthermore, possible changes of the block characteristic due to the normal applied
service voltage as well as energy and voltage stresses must be extremely small.
5.2.4 Transient overvoltages - External insulation withstand

The primary function of an arrester is to limit, and thus render harmless, overvoltages to which
the protected equipment is exposed. It is obvious therefore, that its own insulation (both external
and internal) is the best-protected of all against overvoltages.
In contrast to other HV apparatus, the insulation level for surge arresters therefore does not
inherently need to fulfil a standardised insulation class. Distance effects need not to be
considered. A longer arrester may, in fact, lead to less effective protection for steeper surges for
which the inductance of the arrester itself becomes more significant. Hence, the stipulation of high
external insulation withstand values (e.g. equal to that for the protected equipment) may thus be
disadvantageous for the protected equipment.
Instead, the arrester standards stipulate a specific safety margin between the residual voltage of
the arrester to the voltage withstand level of its external insulation to be sufficient. The voltage
across an arrester can never be higher than that determined by the arrester's protective
characteristics. Only the need for an additional (statistical) safety margin, including correction for
installation altitude, can technically justify a higher external insulation strength. Generally, the risk
of an external flashover less than or equal to 10-3 (0.1 % per year) is considered acceptable (IEC
60071-2); which leads to a factor of approximately 1.10 to 1.15 (excluding altitude correction)
between the arrester protective levels and the SIWV and LIWV of the housing, respectively.
Both the IEC and IEEE arrester standards clearly stipulate that such a margin is sufficient. For
example, IEEE stipulates that the external LIWV of the housing shall be 20 % above the discharge
voltage at 20 kA, 8/20 µs impulse plus an altitude factor of 9% per every 3000 feet (roughly equal
to 10 % per every 1000 m). IEC stipulates a LIWV margin of 15 % above the discharge voltage
at nominal current plus an altitude factor of 13 % for up to 1000 m.
The complete arrester, including possible grading rings, must also be designed to give a
reasonable safety margin against external flashovers. With the specified margins in the IEC
Standard, an acceptable low risk for external flashovers is obtained up to an altitude of 1000 m.
For higher altitudes, special consideration needs to be given on a case-by-case basis.
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
5.2.4.1 Consideration of altitude correction
Air Insulated Substations (AIS) are, by definition, dependent on the dielectric (insulating)
properties of the air surrounding the insulators. Considering Peek's law, which defines the electric
potential gap necessary for triggering a disruptive discharge between two wires, the relative
dielectric strength of air is considered as primarily a function of pressure (until the pressure is low
enough that a “good” vacuum is created, at which point the dielectric strength improves) and, for
standard atmospheric conditions, relative air density (RAD) at standard pressure and temperature
(p0 = 101.325 kPa and t0 = 20 oC) is approximately equal to:
𝑝𝑝1 273 + 𝑡𝑡0 (2.89 × 𝑝𝑝1 )

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = × =
𝑝𝑝0 273 + 𝑡𝑡1 (273 + 𝑡𝑡1 )
where p1 is barometric pressure (kPa)

t1 is temperature (oC)
RAD then varies directly with pressure and inversely with temperature. The normal value of air
pressure at mean sea level is 101.325 kPa although, depending on meteorological conditions, air
pressure at sea-level may vary from approximately 91% to 107% of this value. In areas above
sea-level air pressure is lower than at sea level and in areas below sea-level higher than at sea
level. Humidity also affects dielectric strength, with the extent dependent on the type of voltage
stress. From a standard humidity of 11 g/m3 , a dryer climate has a tendency to lower the
insulating quality of air while a moister climate tends to increase it due to irregular disruptive
discharge at relative humidity RH >80%.
For determination of the applicable atmospheric correction factor, IEC 60099-4 has concluded it
may be assumed that the effects of ambient temperature and humidity tend to cancel each other
and therefore, for insulation co-ordination purposes, only the air pressure corresponding to the
altitude of the location need be taken into account for both dry and wet insulations.
According to IEC 60071-2, an altitude correction factor, Ka, is then based on the dependence of
the atmospheric pressure on the altitude as given in IEC 60721-2-3. This correction factor can
be calculated from:
𝐻𝐻
𝑚𝑚� �
𝐾𝐾𝑎𝑎 = 𝑒𝑒 8150
where H is the altitude above sea level (in metres)

m is conservatively taken to equal 1.0 for Us < 800 kV.
Comparison of normal air pressure related to that for altitudes above sea-level at which
substations are anticipated to be installed and the correction factor Ka are given in the Table 1
below.
Altitude H Air pressure Relative pressure Calculated

above sea (kPa) at altitude Ka = e(H/8150)
level (m)
0 101.3 1 1
1000 89.9 1.13 1.13
2000 79.5 1.27 1.28
3000 70.1 1.45 1.44
4000 61.6 1.64 1.63
5000 54.0 1.88 1.85
Table 1. Altitude correction factor based on air pressure
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
It is justifiable that the same principles for altitude correction using an “adjusted protection level”
as the basis may then reasonably be used for determination of the required minimum flashover
distance and insulation withstand at high altitudes for Us < 800 kV.
𝐻𝐻
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 × 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 × 𝑒𝑒 �8150�
where H is the actual altitude of the site
This method is deemed the most appropriate method and will sufficiently compensate for air
pressure effects at the respective altitude. The suitability of other methods sometimes proposed
by designers for altitude correction are debatable for use on arresters, since current knowledge
is limited and practice too diverse; for example:
• insulation withstand level required only for the altitude difference over 1000m
• creepage distance adjustment
A surge arrester typically has a much longer housing than “necessary” to fit the internal active
elements. Therefore, even taking into account the down-hang of grading rings (when applicable),
the voltage withstand across the housing is usually much higher than should be needed with
respect to the stipulated safety margin to the protection level of the arrester according to IEC. The
result is that, even though the IEC design-altitude may be 1000masl, many standard arresters
are suitable for installation at significantly higher altitudes; without the need for additional
flashover-length/insulation withstand thanks to their design and inherently low protection levels.
5.2.5 Large mechanical forces

It is relatively simple to calculate the individual maximum bending moment (M) in Nm at the base
of a self-supported arrester from loads caused by wind and terminal pull, ie M = F x Happlied.
For the earthquake forces, however, the situation can be a lot more complicated.
The US-based IEEE Recommended Practice for Seismic Design of Substations (IEEE 693) is
often taken to be the “worst case” earthquake criteria since it provides a comprehensive
prescription for the seismic qualification of equipment. It allows for equipment to be certified as
meeting one of three levels of seismic resistance; with the appropriate level selected by
considering the peak ground acceleration for the 2500-year return period hazard spectrum at the
site, i.e. 2 % probability of occurrence in 50 years. Nevertheless, actual criteria for a specific
location should always be used in any analysis and caution is required when applying earthquake
design spectra from different design codes. True requirements demand consideration with
respect to the applicable zero period acceleration, return period, damping, subsoil type, structural
performance factors, assumed ductility, location, near-fault factors, design methodologies and
expected performance given the nature of the equipment.
When the earthquake is defined as a maximum horizontal acceleration, the bending moment can
be easily calculated when considering the arrester as a rigid body. When more accurate
calculations are necessary, the elasticity and damping of the arrester must first be determined in
a snap-back test; whereby a safe, but significant, force is applied to the terminal and then
suddenly released and the decay of the oscillations evaluated. Knowledge about elasticity,
resonance frequencies and related damping is also required when the earthquake is specified by
a frequency response spectrum. In such cases, a specially developed computer program will
need to be used to perform a Finite Element Method (FEM) response spectrum dynamic analysis.
However, a reliable calculation needs to also have adequate information about the support
structure on which the arrester is erected. For example, mounting the arrester on a rigid structure
which has a sufficiently high natural frequency may reduce or remove the seismic loading on the
arrester.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


Further, experience has shown that loads from short-circuit forces, wind and ice have not had a
significant influence during past earthquakes and therefore arresters need not be designed for
such loads to act concurrently with an earthquake.
Historically, testing has been done using a variety of test methods; with time history considering
a required response spectrum (RRS) being them most widely accepted. Typically a triaxial shake
table is then used to simulate the forces applied during an actual earthquake - including amplitudes,
frequencies, and energy levels that occur in a similar simultaneous manner. A test response
spectrum that envelops the RRS is applied in the two perpendicular horizontal axes of the
equipment together with a reduced response spectrum in the vertical axis (e.g. 80% of that in the
horizontal axes).
Since polymer-housed arresters are more or less elastic, temporary loads – including earthquake
forces and short-circuit forces - can be looked upon differently compared to rigid bodies like
porcelain insulators. The reason for this is that the forces do not have time to act fully due to the
elasticity of the material and mass inertia, i.e. the forces are spread out in time leading to the arrester
not encountering any high instantaneous values. These advantages, combined with a design with
small mass participation, have been fully utilised by ABB for the 550 kV arrester shown in
Figure 21. This arrester withstands a ground horizontal acceleration in excess of the highest
seismic demands as per IEEE standards. Seismic qualification testing has also been successfully
made on other standard ABB surge arresters (without additional bracing), even at the most
arduous 1.0g High Performance level. Alternatively, suspending polymer surge arresters directly
from the overhead line is a viable mounting alternative to eliminate seismic and other large
cantilever loads altogether.
Fig. 22
ABB type TEXLIM surge
arrester undergoing seismic
testing on triaxial shake table.
Fig. 23
IEEE 693 RRS for 0.5g
(High Seismic Level)
with 2% damping.
1,800
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
a (g)
0,800
0,600
Fig. 21 0,400
ABB type PEXLIM surge arrester 0,200
for 550 kV purpose- designed 0,000
to meet extreme earthquake 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 1,1 8 15 20 25 33 50
requirements in the Los Angeles f (Hz)
area (USA).
__________________________________________________________________________________________


5.2.6 Severe external pollution
For AC outdoor insulators under dry conditions, the voltage and electric field distribution are
determined by capacitive elements (both internal and external capacitances to ground). Under
completely wet conditions the voltage distribution is determined by the surface resistance. Under
partially wet conditions the electric stress distribution fluctuates between those determined by
capacitive and resistive elements. The geometry of the insulator, both shape and surface
property, cause outdoor insulators to be partially wet more often than completely.
High radial voltage stresses may occur between the block column and the outside of the insulator
during severe external pollution. Generally, external pollution may influence a surge arrester in
the following ways:
• External flashover
• Internal corona
• Heating of the blocks
• Tracking and/or erosion of the insulator
For a given pollution level, the performance of gapless arresters can be generally improved by
employing any or all of the following measures:
• Increasing the creepage distances of the housings to reduce external leakage current
• Using MO resistors of larger volume to improve the energy absorption capability
• Improving the TOV capability, i.e. increase the rated voltage (Ur) for the same arrester type
• Improving the heat transfer mechanism
• Using blocks with lower losses at Uc
To avoid external flashover, the creepage distance of the arrester, i.e. the shed form and the
length of the insulator, is typically designed in compliance with the same criteria valid for other
insulation at the actual site. If this is not sufficient alone, problems for arresters with porcelain
housings installed in extremely polluted areas have historically been solved by greasing the
insulator, thus improving the pollution performance. The aim of the greasing is to reduce the
leakage currents on the insulator surface. Hydrophobic materials, like silicone, give a similar
effect. This is one of the strongest motivations for why silicone has been seen as an attractive
insulator material.
A common belief is that all polymer-housed arresters have better pollution performance compared
to arresters with porcelain housings. However, a more correct statement would be that
hydrophobic materials (like silicone) have better performance in polluted areas due to reduced
external leakage currents. In contrast, EPDM rubber, which can lose its hydrophobic properties
quickly, should be designed in the same manner as porcelain from a pollution performance point
of view.
It is very difficult to avoid internal corona during severe external pollution on arresters containing
an annular gap between the MO resistors and the insulator, irrespective of whether the insulator
is made of porcelain or a polymeric material. The design of such arresters must therefore be able
to withstand corona during such pollution episodes; with some “rules-of-thumb” being:
• ”No” corona during dry conditions
• Minimise the use of organic materials in the arrester. When organic materials are used,
they must have been thoroughly tested and subjected to realistic corona tests
• Prevent the possibility of electrical discharges directly onto the MO resistors
__________________________________________________________________________________________


For polymer-housed arresters which do not have any annular gap, large radial stresses may occur
between the blocks and the outside of the insulator during severe external pollution episodes. It
is therefore very important that the rubber insulator is sufficiently thick to avoid a puncture of the
material. Furthermore, steps need to be taken to avoid large air pockets or cavities, otherwise
corona may occur that would eventually lead to an arrester failure.
Possible thermal stresses are determined by the leakage currents that might be present on the
outer surface of the insulator. For porcelain arresters, it has been shown that the integral of the
leakage current, i.e. the charge, can be regarded as independent of the creepage distance, and
instead is approximately linearly dependent on the diameter of the housing. An insulator with a
larger diameter thus may give rise to higher thermal stress during conditions with external pollution,
provided the service conditions are otherwise the same.
Lower leakage currents on the insulator surface is achieved with a hydrophobic surface, eg. the use
of silicone insulators. Figure 24 shows leakage currents as measured on a porcelain insulator and
a polymer-housed arrester having a silicone insulator. The values are taken from test stations at
Dungeness on the English Channel as well as Kelso in South Africa. As can be noted, the
amplitudes of the leakage currents on the silicone insulators are significantly less compared to on
the surface of the porcelain insulator during the specific measuring interval.
Fig. 24
Comparison of the number of peak currents over 30 mA for silicone-housed and porcelain apparatus insulators
during storm periods. The numbers in the legend represent the specific creepage distance (mm/kV Us).
Source: Cigré A3-104
For applications requiring arresters with parallel housings and several units connected in series, the
general rule is that the units should not be connected in parallel except at the top and bottom. This
is because, during pollution episodes, the MO resistors in one unit could conduct the external
leakage current from all of the parallel connected arresters which consequently may give an
increased thermal stress on that unit. Since the MO resistors have a negative temperature
coefficient in the leakage-current region, i.e. the leakage current increases with increased
temperature, the heating of one unit will lead to a reduction of the voltage characteristic with
subsequent increase of the current. An increased current through the unit leads to higher power
losses with increased temperature, and so the cycle continues. Not even a careful current-sharing
test (matching) of the arrester units will be of help below the knee-point of current-voltage
characteristic.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


5.2.7 Thermal stability
Thermal stability is one of the most important application criteria for MO arresters, and hence a
thermally stable arrester is a pre-condition for the safe protection of equipment. The majority of
the previously mentioned stresses are all potential sources of heat input to the arrester, which
must withstand them without loss of thermal stability, i.e.
• Continuous operating voltage
• Temporary overvoltages
• Transient overvoltages
• Ambient temperature
• Pollution effects
• Non-linear voltage distribution
• Uneven current sharing between parallel columns
The concept of thermal stability can be depicted with the help of a heat loss – input balance
diagram, as depicted in the following Figure 25. This shows principally how the ability of an arrester
encapsulation to dissipate heat and the temperature dependent power losses of the MO resistors
result in a working temperature at a certain ambient temperature and chosen voltage stress (”A” in
the Figure). An upper maximum temperature also exists (”B” in the Figure), above which the design
is no longer thermally stable for a given voltage stress.
Relative power losses

Fig. 25
5 Thermal capacity for an
arrester housing and power
B losses for MO resistors at
4 different relative voltage stresses
Porcelain curve (ambient temperature +40 °C)
3
Losses at 0.9*Uref
2 Losses at 0.8*Uref
Losses at 0.7*Uref
A Losses at 0.6*Uref
1
A = Service temperature at 0
B = Thermal limit at 0.8*Uref
0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
It can also be seen from Figure 25 that the instability threshold is very much dependant on the
applied power frequency voltage. As the power losses curve is non-linear, a lower applied service
voltage than verified in test, for example, would shift the upper intersection point further to the
right, thereby increasing significantly the temperature limit at which thermal runaway becomes a
risk.
To explain the concept further: The power losses of a typical MO resistor (curved line) due to a
constant applied power frequency voltage is extremely temperature dependent. At the same time,
the ability of the arrester assembly to dissipate heat is generally linear (straight line) and
proportional to its thermal design and temperature rise above the ambient temperature.
Consequently, there are two intersections of the two curves: one at low temperature – a so called
stable operating point, and the other at high temperature – a so called instability threshold. To
obtain thermal stability, the temperature rise due to power losses in the MO resistors must be
balanced against heat dissipation to the environment.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


If power losses exceeds heat dissipation, then excess energy is stored in the MO resistors and
their temperature slowly increases. Conversely, if heat dissipation exceeds power losses, the
temperature of the MO resistors decreases. The MO resistor temperature may well increase
significantly due to the application of transient or temporary overvoltages, but will always
ultimately settle back at the stable operating point, as long as the MO resistor temperature does
not exceed the instability threshold. As the two characteristics diverge beyond the instability
threshold point, a thermal runaway will invariably occur from MO resistor temperatures above this
point, whereby the temperature will continue to increase until the arrester ultimately fails.
Some “rules-of-thumb” for ensuring a design with good heat dissipation, and thereby low risk for
thermal runaway:
• Low-loss MO resistors
• Reduced voltage stress/mm
• Increased MO resistor size
• Homogenous block material
• Non-ageing MO resistors
• Good physical design with regards to thermal heat transfer
5.2.7 Performance specification of design requirements

When writing a project specification, as much detail as possible should be given about the system,
installation and environmental conditions under which the arrester will be operated. This will
enable the arrester manufacturer to select the most optimally configured arrester from their range.
Notwithstanding the end user’s desire for commonality irrespective of the ultimate supplier, e.g.
for stock logistics, if the intent is to obtain the best possible overvoltage protection for the primary
plant, the specification should avoid unnecessarily locking in pre-fixed arrester ratings, i.e.
specific Ur and Uc. The user may indicate their preferred ratings, but the arrester manufacturer
should be given the freedom to propose their best fit-for-function solution. A performance-based
IEC specification for standard AIS applications should include the following details:
 Applicable Standard: IEC 60099-4, Ed 3.0
 Maximum system voltage: Us (including harmonics, if applicable)

(assuming phase-ground installation) Minimum specified Uc is then not more than Us/√3.
 Temporary overvoltages: Important to be correctly determined and defined.
 Protected equipment insulation

withstand levels and desired
arrester protection levels: To be realistic and relevant; e.g. from studies.
 Arrester Classification: Higher gives better protection for primary equipment.
 Energy and charge demands: To be realistic, relevant and well-defined without

unnecessary added margin; e.g. from studies.
 Mechanical load demands: System short-circuit fault current.

Terminal loads; to be limited by installation.
 Environmental considerations: Site ambient temperature extremes, altitude,

pollution severity, wind speed, seismic activity, etc.
 Installation: Details about the type of equipment being protected

and how the arrester is to be mounted.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


6. ARRESTER CLASSIFICATION AS PER STANDARDS
Station and distribution class arresters are classified by IEC 60099-4 as indicated in Table 2. The
letters "H", "M" and "L" in the designation stand for "high", "medium" and "low" duty, respectively.
The test requirements and performance characteristics related to the different class designations
must be upheld. The nominal currents do not, however, reflect the limits of the characteristics.
For example, an arrester with nominal discharge current of 10kA can withstand current impulses
of significantly higher amplitude without damage or deterioration.
Arrester class Station Distribution

Designation SH SM SL DH DM DL
Nominal discharge current 20 kA 10 kA 10 kA 10 kA 5 kA 2.5 kA
Switching impulse discharge current 2 kA 1 kA 0.5 kA - - -
Repetitive charge transfer rating, Qrs (C) >2.4 >1.6 >1.0 >0.4 >0.2 >0.1
Thermal energy rating, Wth ( kJ/kV Ur ) >10 >7 >4 - - -
Thermal charge transfer rating, Qth ( C ) - - - >1.1 >0.7 >0.45
Table 2. Arrester classification according to IEC 60099-4 Ed. 3.0
By comparison, classification as per the IEEE C62.11 standard is as shown in Table 3. Station
and Intermediate arresters are to be tested for switching surge energy rating and single-impulse
withstand rating – being similar, but not identical, to the IEC test for W th and Qrs; respectively. All
designs further undergo a Duty-cycle test to verify that the arrester can withstand multiple lightning
impulses of classifying current without causing thermal instability or dielectric failure (a similar
style test was removed from the IEC Operating duty test as it was deemed unnecessary since
lightning impulses give relatively negligible stress compared to that otherwise verified in separate
energy tests).
Arrester classification Max. system voltage (kV) Impulse value crest (kA)
Station 800 20
Station 550 15
Station < 550 10
Intermediate All 5
Distribution, Heavy Duty All 10
Distribution, Normal Duty All 5
Distribution, Light Duty All 5
Table 3. Lightning impulse classifying current as per IEEE standard
__________________________________________________________________________________________


7. STANDARDS AND TESTING
In order to fulfil the requirements of users, Standards specify uniform tests and test methods aimed
at verifying an arrester’s:
• ability to protect against overvoltages
• reliability and long lifetime
The protective function is verified with different measurements of the voltage level for different
current amplitudes and current waveforms (residual voltage tests) and the reliability is checked
through a number of electrical and mechanical tests. An important part of the electrical tests is the
operating duty tests in which an arrester, or a pre-scaled model of the arrester, is subjected to a
combination of stresses representing anticipated service stresses that an arrester might be
subjected to during its lifetime. The lifetime is further verified by subjecting the MO resistors to an
accelerated ageing test procedure.
According to Standards, the tests can be divided into three main categories:
• Type tests (Design tests according to IEEE)
• Routine tests
• Acceptance tests
These test categories can be defined as follows:
Type tests are performed after completion of the development of a new arrester design to
establish representative performance and to demonstrate compliance with the relevant
standard. Once made, these tests need not to be repeated unless the design is changed
in a way which may negatively influence the performance. Only the relevant tests need to
be repeated in such a case.
Routine tests are made on each arrester or arrester unit, as well as components, as a
quality control integrated in the production. Their aim is to ensure that the products meet
the design specification.
Acceptance tests are made on a number of randomly chosen arresters from a delivery
lot when it has been specially agreed between the manufacturer and the purchaser at the
time of ordering.
Specifically how surge arresters shall be tested is defined in detail in the Standards, with the two
most widely accepted being IEC 60099-4 (International Standard) and IEEE C62.11
(American National Standard). Since the IEC standards are international and thereby have a wider
scope for use, the coming sections focus primarily on the requirements specified by
IEC 60099-4.
The Standard IEC 60099-4 superseded the old Standard for gapped silicon-carbide surge arresters,
IEC 60099-1. IEC 60099-1 standard is not at all applicable to gapless MO arresters; especially
since there are no series gaps there can be no defining sparkover voltage testing.
IEC 60099-4 reflects a completely different approach on how to select test sections and verify the
arrester characteristics. Ongoing changes to IEC 60099-4 (from Amendment 2 in 2001) deal with
specific issues of importance, including: polymer-housed arresters, short-circuit performance,
accelerated ageing, voltage distribution, environmental and weather ageing tests, mechanical
testing and energy classification. See Table 4.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


Arrester class Station Station Distribution
10 kA
20 kA 20 kA
Nominal discharge current 5 kA
10 kA 10 kA
2.5 kA
Typical Us > 245 kVrms ≤ 245 kVrms ≤ 52 kVrms
Insulation withstand tests
on the arrester housing
a) Lightning impulse x x x
b) Switching impulse x Not required Not required
c) Power-frequency Not required x x
Residual voltage test
a) Steep current x x x
b) Lightning impulse x x x
c) Switching impulse x x Not required
Test to verify long term stability under
x x x
continuous operating voltage
Repetitive charge transfer withstand x x x
Heat dissipation behaviour verification of test
x x x
sample
Operating duty test x x x
Power-frequency voltage versus time (TOV) x x x
Arrester disconnector/fault indicator (when fitted) x x x
Short-circuit tests x x x
Bending moment x x x
Environmental tests for porcelain-housed arresters x x x
Seal leak rate for arresters having an enclosed
x x x
gas volume and a separate sealing system
Radio interference voltage (RIV) x x Not required
Test to verify the dielectric withstand of the internal
x x x
components of an arrester
Test of internal grading components x x x
Polluted housing test for porcelain-housed
x x x
multi-unit arresters
Weather ageing test for polymer-housed arresters x x x
UV light test for polymer-housed arresters x x x
Lightning impulse discharge capability for arresters
x x Not required
to be used on overhead lines (NGLA)
Table 4. Type test requirements for AIS gapless MO arresters as per IEC 60099-4. Ed 3.0
Note: Separate and specific criteria apply to arresters for UHV (Us > 800kV), gas-insulated metal enclosed
arresters, separable and dead-front arresters, and liquid-immersed arresters. These are beyond the scope of
this guide.
7.1 Type Tests

Set requirements on arresters and their dimensioning are considered to be satisfactorily verified
by subjecting the arresters to generic type tests. By definition in the IEC 60099-4 standard, a
“type test” is intended to verify the performance and guaranteed data for a particular design-type
of arrester. Each type test has a specific purpose and the arrester section intended for a particular
type test must correctly represent the performance of the complete arrester during a specific test.
Thereafter, in fulfillment of IEC, a test may have the primary goal to verifying individual elements,
separate components or, in a few cases, a complete arrester. Depending on the intent of the test,
the given test object may vary in name and reference, but this does not make it any less applicable
to the complete arrester as a whole. Provided that requirements and guidelines given in
IEC60099-4 for modeling of the test section are followed, the type test is then valid for the entire
arrester family of the same inherent design.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


7.1.1 Test sections (prorated test sections)
In order to verify guaranteed arrester data, tests are made on both complete arresters as well as
on units of arresters and on components. According to IEC 60099-4 definitions, an “electrical unit”
is the portion of an arrester in which each end of the unit is terminated with an electrode which is
exposed to the external environment. A “mechanical unit” is the portion of an arrester in which the
resistors within the unit are mechanically restrained from moving in an axial direction.
Furthermore, it is both customary and accepted that some of the tests are made on scaled-down
models of the arresters, thus making it possible to also scale-down the requirements on the test
equipment. These scaled-down arresters units are called ”section of an arrester” or ”prorated
section”. According to the definition in the IEC Standard, the arrester section intended for a particular
test must correctly represent the performance of the complete arrester during a specific test. An
arrester section may therefore look different depending on the intended tests:
• Thermally prorated section

The arrester section for thermal recovery tests shall thermally represent the arrester being
modelled. It need not be a sliced portion of the arrester and need not contain only the same
material as in the arrester. It may have a design different to that of the modelled arrester and
introduce components that are usually not part of the design. The principal design of a thermally
prorated section for a polymeric arrester is shown in Figure 26.
Electrical
Electrical
connection
connection
Sheets of compressed Glassboltfibre bolt

Glasfiber
Sheets
wool of
compressed wool Insulator
Insulator
Sheets of compressed
wool MO
ZnO resistors
block
Electrical
Electrical
connection
connection
Insulation
Fig. 26 Principal design of a thermally pro-rated section for a polymer-housed arrester.
• Dielectrically prorated section

The arrester section for internal dielectric strength tests shall represent a sliced portion of the
arrester being modelled, including the MO resistors, the housing and the supporting structure.
It shall be an exact copy of the real arrester with regard to diameters, materials etc.
In both cases, the prorated section may also be a real arrester or arrester unit of the design.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


It is, however, not sufficient to specify only the design of a section; it must also be verified through
test:
• Thermal comparison
Verification is made by heating a complete arrester unit and the thermally prorated section to an
elevated temperature by application of voltage. Thereafter, the MO resistor temperatures in the unit
and the section are measured during the cooling time. Cooling curves shall be established and
compared. A correctly designed thermal section shall not cool faster than the arrester unit, otherwise
any corresponding temperature difference shall be added to the start temperature for all thermal
recovery tests.
• Dielectric withstand of internal components

Verification is made by heating the dielectrically prorated section in an oven to obtain thermal
equilibrium to at least 60 °C, and then applying one high-current impulse. A correctly designed
dielectric section shall not dielectrically breakdown or be otherwise negatively affected. Since the
purpose of this test is to verify the internal dielectric withstand capability of an arrester under
impulse currents of amplitudes higher than nominal discharge current, the test is not required if the
conditioning part of the operating duty test was performed on a dielectrically prorated section; as
this consists of two such high-current impulses. Additionally, if it can be demonstrated by
calculations that, for a specific arrester, the electrical field at critical locations is less than or equal
to the electrical field on an arrester which has been successfully tested at higher or equal voltage,
no test is required.
7.1.2 External insulation withstand

The external insulation of arresters need not fulfil a certain standardized insulation class since the
arrester effectively protects its own insulation against overvoltages, both external as well as internal.
This is also reflected in the Standards, where the insulation requirements for arresters are based
on the arrester’s protection levels with a reasonable safety margin added. The MO resistors can
naturally not be assembled in the arrester during such a test on the housing, since no laboratory
equipment exists which is capable of generating the very high currents that would be needed. The
tests are therefore performed on empty unit housings. For multi-unit arresters, other elements are
used in place of the MO resistors to mimic the voltage grading of the actual arrester.
IEC 60071-1, for insulation co-ordination principles and rules, states that when it has been
demonstrated that one condition (dry or wet) or one polarity or a combination of these produces
the lowest withstand voltage, then it is sufficient to verify the withstand voltage for this particular
condition. Hence, insulation withstand tests shall be wet tests for outdoor arresters where wet
conditions are expected to lower the withstand voltages. Experience shows that this is the case
for power frequency tests and switching impulse tests, but not for lightning impulse tests. If the
arresters are intended for indoor use, dry tests are considered sufficient in all cases.
All distances between the arrester’s own external parts, e.g. grading ring to flanges, must be
checked with respect to voltage stress and withstand. Insulation withstand tests are thus specified
on the complete housing for arresters intended for use on systems of Us > 245 kV; being the
voltage level where multi-unit housings and significantly large external grading rings are most
commonly used. During the test, the assembled shall be equipped with the complete external
grading system, but the internal MO resistors shall be replaced by resistors, capacitors or higher
resistance MO resistors to obtain, approximately, the same voltage grading of the arrester during
high current discharges as would be given by the actual MO resistors used in the arrester.
Nonetheless, formulas are given for insulation withstand strength for lightning, switching and
power frequency voltage and, provided the calculated flashover distances from the formulas are
fulfilled, no tests are then actually required on the complete arrester.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


The following minimum values (in kV) for the external insulation on arresters intended for use on
systems of Us < 800 kV must be upheld in order to comply with the inherent requirements of the
respective arrester standards:
IEC
(installation < 1000 m) IEEE
Us < 245 kV Us > 245 kV (installation < 1800 m)
d is the dry arcing distance across the arrester housing
Station class:
Power frequency
(1.06 /√2) x Ups
Distribution class: Station class:
IEC:
(0.88 /√2) x Upl 0.82 x Ups
50 Hz, 1 minute Not applicable
No test is required if Distribution class:
(U/859) 0.833
d > [1.82 x (e – 1)] 1.36 x (10 s TOV)
IEEE:
where U = peak value of the
60 Hz, 10 second
power-frequency test voltage
1.25 x Ups
SIWV
No test is required if
250/2500 µs Not applicable Not defined
d > 2.2 x [e(U/1069) – 1]
where U = 1.25 x Ups
1.3 x Upl
LIWV 1.42 x Upl at 20 kA
1.3 x Upl No test required if
1.2/50 µs for all arresters
d > 1.3 x Upl /500
Table 5. Comparison of IEC and IEEE requirements for insulation withstand voltages
Note: IEEE does not use the same correction factors as IEC due partly to the difference
in maximum required design altitude (1800 m for IEEE compared with 1000 m for IEC).
7.1.3 Residual voltage (Discharge-Voltage according to IEEE)

The purpose of these tests is to verify the protection level of the surge arrester. All residual voltage
tests are made by subjecting the arrester or a section of the arrester (usually some MO resistors)
to current impulses with different amplitudes and waveforms, and measuring the residual voltage
across the test object. The measured voltage represents the protection level of the arrester for the
actual current and waveshape.
The Standards make a distinction between different current impulses, based on different events in
the network:
• Currents caused by lightning (lightning impulse current)

The testing is made with a current impulse having a front time of 8 µs and a half-value
time of 20 µs. The impulse is normally designated as an 8/20 µs impulse.
• Currents caused by switching overvoltages (switching impulse current)

The testing is made with a current impulse having a front time of 30 – 100 µs and a
half-value time on the tail of roughly twice the virtual front time. The impulse is
normally designated as an 30/60 µs impulse.
• Currents having a steep front (steep current impulse)

The testing is made with an impulse with a front time of 1 µs while the half-value time
may be any value. However, normally a test circuit generating a half-value time of
approximately 2 µs to 20 µs is used, i.e. a 1/(2-20) µs impulse.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


It is of course possible that switching events or a fault can result in steeper current pulses than
30 µs, or that the current at lightning overvoltages may show both shorter or longer front times than
8 µs. For switching surges with longer front times, the deviation in the residual voltage from the
30/60 µs wave for the same current amplitude is very small; within a few percent. For lightning
surges having a shorter front time, the residual voltage shows an increase of less than 10% with a
reduction in front time from 8 to 1 µs.
Residual
Residual voltage
voltage for 1/2 current
for 1/2µs currentimpulse
impulse
Residualvoltage
Residual voltage for 8/20
8/20µs current
current impulse
impulse
Voltage (kV) Fig. 27
12
Comparison between residual
8
voltage levels for current
pulses 8/20µs and 1/2µs.
4
The upper curves show the
0 Currentimpulse
Current impulse voltages and the lower the
8/20µs
8/20 currents.
-4
Current
Current impulse
impulse
Note that the curves have
-8
1/21/2µs been misaligned for clarity.
-12
The lower time scale is valid
Current (kA) 0 10 20 30 40 50 for the 1/2µs impulse, while
the upper scale is valid for
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (microseconds)
the 8/20µs impulse
By testing with different current amplitudes for each of the current-shapes, a complete protection
characteristic is obtained for each waveform. For current impulses with the same amplitude, the
residual voltage level increases slightly for shorter front-times. This frequency dependence is
illustrated in Figure 27 showing results from a test with 10 kA for waveforms 8/20 µs and 1/2 µs.
The steeper front, 1 µs, may be the result of a lightning stroke very close to a substation protected
by surge arresters. Further, inductance effects can become significant with steep current impulses,
and IEC specifies that the steep current impulse residual voltage tests include inductive voltage
contribution – Magnitude of inductive voltage drop for AIS arresters: 2.5, 5, 10 or 20 kV/m of
arrester length for arresters with nominal discharge current of 2.5, 5, 10 or 20 kA, respectively.
In order to generate the specified current pulses an impulse generator is needed with the
capability to create currents up to 40 kA. To be able to create such currents through a complete
arrester at high voltages would require very large impulse generators, since the test equipment
must principally be able to simulate full-scale lightning. Tests on complete arresters are however
not necessary, nor desirable for reasons of accuracy. IEC therefore recommends that the residual
voltage tests are made on scaled-down models of the arrester and specifies also how the measured
values shall be re-calculated to be valid for a complete arrester.
According to IEC, the objective of the residual voltage type tests is to verify the claimed protection
levels by checking the relationship of protection levels at different current waveforms and
amplitudes to a level which is checked in routine tests on all arresters. Normally the residual voltage
at 10 kA with waveform 8/20 µs is used as a reference. This means that the 10 kA level with this
waveform must be verified in a routine test and given for all manufactured arresters. The
requirement for a routine test can be fulfilled by measuring the residual voltage for each individual
block within the arrester and summing up the result. This procedure will be correct, since all blocks
in a single column arrester will be subjected to the same current.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


7.1.4 Accelerated ageing
One of the key basis for the dimensioning of an arrester is the result from the accelerated ageing
test procedure, where an acceleration of possible ageing effects is obtained by performing the test
at an elevated temperature. Surge arresters limit overvoltages by conducting current, but during
most of the arresters’ lifetime it shall act as an insulator. The entire continuous operating voltage is
across the MO resistors and these must keep their insulating properties during their lifetime.
IEC 60099-4 specifies an accelerated ageing test during 1000 hours at an elevated temperature of
115 oC as a type test. For arresters filled with air, the MO resistors need not be encapsulated during
the test. If the surrounding atmosphere is something else (e.g. nitrogen or other gas) the test must
be performed with the blocks in that particular atmosphere. For polymer-housed arresters, where
the blocks are in direct contact with other materials, the ageing test must be made including all
materials which are in direct contact with the blocks to show that the blocks are not negatively
affected (i.e. aged) due to influence from the other materials.
The accelerating ageing test is based on the Arrhenius law, which provides good confidence on life
expectancy of MO resistors. When tested according to the IEC requirements, the equivalent
minimum demonstrated lifetime is predicted to be 110 years at the conservative average ambient
temperature of 40 oC.
An important parameter during the ageing test is the selection of the voltage stress on the blocks.
The test voltage must reflect the highest possible local voltage stress in the arrester when it is
energized at the highest possible continuous operating voltage, Uc, assigned to the arrester. A
thorough electrical field calculation therefore must be made for each arrester type and rated
voltage which, in turn, is the basis for determining the relevant voltage stress during the
accelerated ageing test procedure. Influence from all phases in a three-phase configuration must
also be taken into account when performing the calculations.
Fig. 28 Accelerated ageing test profile (source IEC 60099-4)
The test shall be considered passed if the following criteria are met:
• any increase of power losses from Pmin is not greater than 1.3 times Pmin during the remaining test period
• all measurements of power losses throughout the ageing period ,including the final measurement, Pend ,is not
greater than 1.1 times Pstart
__________________________________________________________________________________________


MO resistors are normally manufactured in batches of some thousands of blocks, and variations
(even minor ones) may have a negative influence on the block characteristics. From a quality point
of view, it is thus necessary to perform ageing tests as sample tests on blocks from each
manufactured batch. Separate from the type test, ABB further verifies the stability of every
production batch of MO resistors by routinely performing an accelerated ageing test on some blocks
picked out randomly from the whole batch. Power losses after 1000 hours, extrapolated from a test
with shorter duration, at an elevated temperature of 115 oC at 1.05 x Uc shall not exceed the losses
at the start of the test and not more than 10% above the lowest losses occurring during the test
period. Batches in which unapproved blocks appear are rejected.
It is however not sufficient to check only the characteristics of the blocks, but rather the entire
arrester must be seen as a unity. The ability of the arrester housing to dissipate heat must also be
adjusted to the power losses of the blocks during different service conditions with respect to voltage,
temperature and even frequency. This is necessary to ensure that the average block temperature
will not considerably exceed the ambient temperature, and thereby remain thermally stable.
7.1.4.1 Internal grading components

If internal grading components such as capacitors or (non-linear) resistors are used in the arrester
they shall also be subjected to an accelerated test to verify their long term stability under the same
conditions as the MO resistors, i.e. 1 000 hours at 115 °C while energized at maximum continuous
operating voltage (including any voltage unbalance effects ). In order to pass, there shall not be
any evidence of a dielectric breakdown, puncture, flashover or cracking of the grading
components and their electrical performance shall be essentially unaffected.
If the samples pass, then MO resistors, equal in number to those used in parallel to the grading
components in the arrester, shall be connected in parallel to the test sample, and two lightning
impulses shall be applied. In order to pass, there shall not be any evidence of electrical
breakdown and their electrical performance shall be essentially unaffected.
Additional samples shall also undergo a thermal cyclic test, whereby five 48 hour cycles of heating
and cooling to 60 °C and - 40 °C (maintained for at least 16 hours, respectively) shall be applied;
but without any voltage on. In order to pass, there shall not be any evidence of cracking and their
electrical performance shall be essentially unaffected. If the samples pass, then MO resistors,
equal in number to those used in parallel to the grading components in the arrester, shall be
connected in parallel to the test sample and withstand lightning impulses in the same way as for
the similar test described above.
7.1.5 Repetitive Charge Transfer rating, Qrs

A surge arrester limits incoming overvoltages by diverting the surge current. The energy the arrester
absorbs is given by the equation:
𝑡𝑡
𝑊𝑊 = � (𝑢𝑢 × 𝑖𝑖) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0
where u = voltage across the arrester

i = current through the arrester
Investigations conducted by Cigré identified differences in the failure energy depending on the
type of energy being injected, or the charge being transferred. With some exceptions, energy
handling capability was generally found to be higher for short impulses of high current density
compared to long lasting events of low current density.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


It was thus decided to require a charge transfer test for station class arresters by application of
long duration current impulses, which shall also cover TOV stress, but to allow for testing at
shorter impulses for line arresters and arresters in distribution systems in order to make use of
the generally higher charge transfer handling capability under this kind of stress which might be
closer to reality in these applications. However, for testing practicality, the choice of the test
current is left to the manufacturer.
A total of 10 samples of MO resistors are each to be subjected to 20 current impulses in 10 groups

of 2 impulses, with time between impulses within a group 50 - 60 s and time between groups
sufficient for cooling to ambient temperature. For station class arresters, intended for use in a
station, long-duration (rectangular) impulses of 2 – 4 ms virtual total duration, or unipolar sine
half-wave impulses of 2 – 4 ms total duration, are to be used. Each class of arrester has a
minimum requirement to meet as stated in Table 2 above. Other styles of impulses are to be
used for arresters intended for overhead lines and distribution class arresters. Table 6 gives an
overview of the test procedure to verify the repetitive charge transfer rating, Qrs.
The classification for the repetitive charge transfer rating value (Qrs) is to be taken from the
following list, with the final claimed rating to be not more than 90 % of the tested level:
• from 0.1 C to 1.2 C in steps of 0.1 C
• from 1.2 C to 4.4 C in steps of 0.4 C
• from 4.4 C up to 10.0 C in steps of 0.8 C
• from 10 C to 20 C in steps of 2 C
• from 20 C upward in steps of 4 C
Initial tests • Residual voltage test at nominal discharge current

• Reference voltage test at specified reference current
Repetitive charge transfer Application of 1.1 times Qrs
• 1st sequence: 20 impulses per sample (10 samples)
• if not more than one sample failure during 1st sequence: test passed
• if not more than two sample failures during 1st sequence: conduct 2nd
sequence
with 10 samples, 20 impulses per sample
• if more than two sample failures in 1st sequence or any sample failure in
2nd sequence: test failed
Test evaluation • No mechanical damage at visual inspection
• Change of reference voltage within ±5%
• Change of residual voltage at nominal discharge current within ±5%
• Withstand capability to one 8/20 current impulse of at least 0.5 kA/cm2 peak
current
density or 2 times In, whichever is lower
Table 6. Repetitive charge transfer test
It is important to note that the test shall be made with 10% higher charge than the rated value.
The test charge shall also be further increased to take into consideration the MO resistors with
highest permitted residual voltage in the arresters. This means that if MO resistors with, say, 10%
higher residual voltage than the nominal value are allowed in the arrester, the test shall be
performed at 1.1 x 1.1 = 1.21 times the rated charge in the case MO resistors with nominal residual
voltage are tested.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


7.1.6 Thermal energy rating, Wth
In an attempt to separate the thermal rating of the arrester from the impulse rating, station class
arresters are to undergo an Operating Duty test that verifies the arrester’s ability to thermally
recover after injection of the rated thermal energy, applied TOV and subsequent continuous
operating voltage conditions. Distribution arresters are instead evaluated by their ability to
transfer a thermal charge (Qth).
Three prorated sections shall undergo the test procedure to verify the thermal energy rating, Wth,
as per Table 7. If the test sections used for the conditioning part are a dielectric prorated section
then the first high current impulse of the conditioning may be considered to also test the dielectric
withstand of the internal components, otherwise a separate test to verify the internal insulation
strength is required. Thermally prorated sections shall be used for the thermal recovery part of
the test.
For station class arresters, intended for use in a station, long-duration (rectangular) impulses of
2 – 4 ms virtual total duration, or unipolar sine half-wave impulses of 2 – 4 ms total duration, are
to be used. The current amplitudes and number of impulses is not critical, provided the
accumulated energy within a time of 3 minutes is at least equal to 1.0 to 1.1 times the claimed
thermal energy rating (accounting for any current sharing in the case of multi-column designs).
Other styles of impulses are to be used for arresters intended for overhead lines and distribution
class arresters. Each class of arrester has a minimum requirement to meet as stated in Table 2
above.
The classification for the rated thermal energy value (Wth) is to be taken from the following list:
• from 1 kJ/kV to 5 kJ/kV in steps of 0.5 kJ/kV
• from 5 kJ/kV to 16 kJ/kV in steps of 1 kJ/kV
• from 16 kJ/kV to 30 kJ/kV in steps of 2 kJ/kV
• from 30 kJ/kV up in steps of 6 kJ/kV
Pre-tests • Verification of thermal equivalence of the thermally prorated section

• Determination of the start temperature for the thermal recovery part
Initial tests for sample • Residual voltage test at nominal discharge current
characterization • Reference voltage test at specified reference current
• Check for correct current sharing in case of multi-column arrester design
Determination of continuous operating voltage and rated voltage
Conditioning part Two high current impulses (100kAp, 4/10μs), with cooling to ambient temperature in
between.
Hold for future use
Thermal recovery part Preheating to start temperature (as defined in the standard dependent on if
Us is < 800 kV or > 800 kV)
• Rated thermal energy injection, Wth, within three minutes by one or more
long-duration current impulses or by unipolar sine half-wave current impulses
Application of Ur for 10 s (within 100 ms after energy injection)
Application of Uc for at least 30 min (until pass or fail is evident)
Test evaluation • Thermal recovery
• No physical damage
Table 7. Operating duty test as applicable to station class arresters
__________________________________________________________________________________________


7.1.7 Power frequency voltage versus time characteristic (TOV)
A characteristic curve shall be established by test (see Table 8) to show the allowable duration of
power-frequency temporary overvoltages which may be applied to the arrester after it has first
been heated to the start temperature (minimum 60 oC) and thereafter had rated thermal energy
applied (for station class arresters), without leading to damage or thermal runaway. The pre-
defined time ranges cover the period 0.1 to 3600 seconds to account for the majority of in-service
situations. For completeness and comparison purposes, a separate curve is also to be determined
for “without prior energy” duty.
Initial tests for sample • Residual voltage test at nominal discharge current
characterization • Reference voltage test at specified reference current
• Check for correct current sharing in case of multi-column arrester design
Determination of continuous operating voltage and rated voltage
Preheating Preheating to start temperature (as defined in the standard dependent on if
Us is < 800 kV or > 800 kV)
With prior duty Rated thermal energy injection, Wth, within three minutes by one or more long-duration
(4 new samples) current impulses or by unipolar sine half-wave current impulses
Application of test voltage and duration according to TOV curve (within 100 ms)
Application of Uc for at least 30 min (until pass or fail is evident)
Without prior duty Application of test voltage and duration according to TOV curve (within 100 ms)
(2 new samples) Application of Uc for at least 30 min (until pass or fail is evident)
Test evaluation • Thermal recovery
• No physical damage
Table 8. TOV test as applicable to station class arresters
7.1.8 Arrester disconnector / fault indicator

For arresters fitted with such devices – typically for use on distribution systems and transmission
lines – these tests demonstrate the correct operation of the device. The device should withstand,
without operating, the respective repetitive charge transfer and operating duty test. A
characteristic is also to be established to show the time delay to achieve effective and permanent
disconnection with different power-frequency short-circuit currents.
An additional temperature cycling and seal pumping test shall verify that the device is secure
against moisture ingress. Further, bending moment, tensile load and torsional load tests shall be
performed on disconnectors used with NGLA.
7.1.9 Short circuit (pressure relief) tests

As the primary requirement for an arrester is to protect under all circumstances, this leads to the
higher possibility for a failure (overload) compared to other high voltage equipment. This is also
generally accepted, and should not be considered as a “failure” in the design.
As a result, special requirements are set on arresters to ensure that a possible arrester failure will
not cause consequential damage to other equipment or injury to personnel. The Standards
therefore require tests where a deliberate internal short-circuit has been made to check the short-
circuit / pressure relief capability.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


Previously, tests were made as specified in the ”old” IEC 60099-1 Standard for gapped SiC
arresters. In these test requirements, it was taken for granted that an arrester fulfilling a certain
current class with respect to pressure relief capability automatically also fulfilled all lower current
classes. It was subsequently realized that this was not always the case (particularly for porcelain-
housings), and a design may include ”grey zones” if it is only tested against the highest possible
current amplitude. In order to avoid this uncertainty, IEC 60099-4 requires that arresters must not
only be tested with the highest short-circuit current (100%), but also at approximately 25 % and
50 % of the highest current. In addition, similar to the “old” standard, a low current test shall be
performed at 600 + 200 A.
For the high current tests, the test samples should be the longest mechanical section with the
highest rated voltage of each different design of arrester. It is accepted that approved high current
tests made on the longest housing also covers all shorter insulators of the same design. For the
low current test, however, the test sample may be a mechanical section of any length with the
highest rated voltage used for each different design and chosen length of test sample.
High current Low current
Arrester class = nominal Rated short- Reduced short-circuit Short-circuit current,

discharge current circuit Current Is Currents (+ 10 %) with a duration of 1 s
A A A A
20 000 or 10 000 80 000 50 000 25 000 600 + 200
20 000 or 10 000 63 000 25 000 12 000 600 + 200
20 000 or 10 000 50 000 25 000 12 000 600 + 200
20 000 or 10 000 40 000 25 000 12 000 600 + 200
20 000 or 10 000 31 500 12 000 6 000 600 + 200
20 000 , 10 000 or 5 000 20 000 12 000 6 000 600 + 200
10 000 or 5 000 16 000 6 000 3 000 600 + 200
10 000, 5 000, 10 000 6 000 3 000 600 + 200
2 500 or 1 500
10 000, 5 000, 5 000 3 000 1 500 600 + 200
2 500 or 1 500
Table 9. Short circuit (pressure relief) test currents
7.1.9.1 Classification of arrester designs

Two basic designs, designated “Design A” and “Design B”, have been defined in IEC 60099-4.
They differ in the relative volume of an enclosed gas channel that runs along the length of the
arrester.
Arresters with "Design A" have a gas channel running along the entire length of the arrester unit
and fills >50% of the internal volume not occupied by the internal active elements. For this design,
the probability of a failure initiated in the gas volume is much higher than in the solid material.
This type of design makes use of the internal overpressure which is built up due to the internal
arc resulting from the short-circuit of the active elements. The overpressure is created by heating
the enclosed volume of gas, which expands, leading to bursting or flipping of a pressure relief
device (including pre-fabricated weak spots in the housing). In this case the tests are sometimes
called “pressure relief tests”. The arrester housing is dimensioned to not violently break before
the overpressure is relieved. Typically, these arresters are porcelain-housed or polymer-housed
with a composite hollow insulator incorporating an annular gap, i.e. tubular design.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


Arresters with "Design B" are of a solid design with no enclosed volume of gas or having an
internal gas volume filling <50% of the internal volume not occupied by the internal active
elements. For this design, there is a higher probability of failure initiated in the solid material. The
short-circuit performance of this design depends on the arc directly burning through or tearing the
housing without explosively expelling the internal components. Typically, these are void-free
polymer-housed arresters without any separate pressure relief device, i.e. open, cage, closed or
wrap design.
In “Design A”, a breakdown or flashover in the gas channel will develop an arc very quickly over
the entire length of the arrester. This may generate an intensive shock wave in the gas channel,
stressing the housing over its entire length and imposing high requirements on pressure relief
devices to open quickly. For “Design B”, in case of a breakdown in the solid material, the arc will
develop more slowly.
7.1.9.2 Test procedure – Failure mode

There has been a lot of discussion over the years whether the short-circuit current should be
initiated by a fuse wire along the MO resistor surface, a fuse wire through a drilled hole in the
centre of the blocks or by pre-failing (electrical overloading). A short-circuit test has to consider
worst-case scenarios, but at the same time the test should represents the most relevant failure
scenario without placing too harsh/simple requirements on the design.
For "Design A" arresters, it is generally agreed

that the fuse wire in the gas volume along the
surface of the MO block column represents the
most relevant failure scenario, since this design
has mainly to prove its ability to handle the
shock wave caused by the internal arc.
For "Design B" polymer-housed arresters, a

fuse wire along the MO resistor surface can
generally not be accepted since this does not
represent the worst case scenario for this design
(too simple) and may result in unsafe arresters
Fig. 29 Comparison of modes
being considered reliable from a short-circuit
for short-circuit initiation
point of view.
On the other hand, a fuse wire through holes drilled in the blocks is conversely a too harsh
scenario for this kind of arrester, as it extremely unlikely that all MO resistors of a failing polymer
arrester with this design will be punctured. It is therefore justified to specify the pre-failing method
for “Design B” polymer-housed arresters, which among the alternatives gives a reasonable
compromise with regard to test severeness and realism, and it automatically covers possible
influences of material homogeneity. Conversely, the pre-failing method may be less severe for a
porcelain-housed “Design B” arrester in the case where the arc develops elsewhere than in the
solid material. To cover for the worst-case scenario, “Design B” porcelain-housed should have a
fuse wire drawn along the surface of the block column as far away as possible from the gas
channel.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


Design Housing Initiation of short circuit current
Design A Porcelain Fuse wire along surface of MO block column; within, or as
close as possible to, the gas channel
Polymer Fuse wire along surface of MO block column; within, or as
close as possible to, the gas channel
Design B Porcelain Fuse wire along surface of MO block column; located as
far away as possible from the gas channel
Polymer Pre-failing by constant voltage or constant current source.
See Note 1)
Table 10. Summary of short circuit test pre-failure modes
Note 1) The overvoltage shall be a voltage exceeding 1.15 times Uc leading to an

electrical failure of the arrester within 2 – 8 minutes; after which the arrester is
subjected to the short-circuit current test within 15 minutes.
7.1.9.3 Test procedure – Circuit arrangement

The required arrangement for connection of the test circuit is also specified in IEC 60099-4. Either
the so-called C-connection or Z-connection should be used in such a manner that would represent
the worst-case scenario for a particular design. Refer Figure 30.
Porcelain-housed arresters Polymer-housed arresters

(C-connection) (Z-connection)
Fig. 30 Circuit layout for short circuit testing (source IEC 60099-4)
For porcelain-housed arresters, the C-connection provides the most unfavourable conditions
during the initial phase of the test before venting occurs. Once the arc is externalized, it may then
be kept in close proximity to the arrester housing, resulting in a thermal shock effect causing
excessive chipping and shattering of porcelain sheds. During the remaining arcing time, this
routing forces the arc to move away from the arrester, and thus reduces the risk of the arrester
catching fire.
For polymer-housed arresters, the conductors should be routed as per the Z-connection. In this
way, the arc will stay close to the arrester during the entire duration of the short-circuit current,
thus creating the most unfavourable conditions with regards to fire hazard.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


A specific exception is “Design A” arresters with polymeric sheds which are not made of porcelain
or other hollow insulator, but which are as brittle as ceramics. These shall be considered and
tested as porcelain-housed arresters.
It had been observed in many cases that after non-violent thermal breaking of the porcelain
housing the active part, completely intact, fell down such that its top end collided with the
enclosure (which previously had a radius equal to the arrester height) and some parts of its top
end fell just outside the enclosure. Though in these cases the short-circuit performance was good,
the arrester did not pass the test. In order to avoid this conflict the radius of the enclosure has
now been chosen to be 20% larger than the arrester height; dimensioned according to the below
formula or, in any case, at least D = 1.8m.
𝐷𝐷 = 1.2 × (2 × 𝐻𝐻 + 𝐷𝐷𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 )
where D diameter of the enclosure (or side in the case of a square)
H height of the test arrester
Darr diameter of the test arrester
7.1.9.4 Test duration and “Asymmetry factor”

The test duration for the high current and reduced current tests shall be 0.2 seconds, reflecting
the time it takes for a circuit breaker to disconnect a fault. To avoid an explosion of the housing,
especially for a “Design A” arrester, it is generally considered necessary that the internal arc is
transferred (commuted) to the outside of the housing within the first half-cycle of the short-circuit
current.
As it usually takes more time than up to the first current peak until the arc has fully commutated
to the outside of the housing on “Design A” arresters, a certain amplitude for the first peak of the
current is defined in the test procedure for the rated short-circuit current - which has to be at least
2.5 times the r.m.s value of the symmetrical component of the prospective short-circuit current.
Many difficulties have arisen in trying to achieving a value of 2.5 for the “asymmetry factor” on
certain polymer arrester designs. These difficulties lead to a limitation of laboratories that could
perform the tests or a modification in the testing procedures (too severe/simple); neither of which
is truly desirable. Specifically for “Design B” arresters, it has been proposed that a symmetrical
current transfers more energy during the first 2 – 3 ms, which is the typical time of the housing to
open for this design. Regardless, skipping the asymmetry factor on these designs permits the
arresters to be tested in full length, and this is considered to be more significant to verifying short
circuit behaviour than any marginal energy differences because of a first peak factor. Thus, for
“Design B” arresters, the peak value of the first half cycle of the prospective current shall be at
least √2 times the r.m.s. value of the rated short circuit current, but otherwise there is no specific
requirement for asymmetry factor with this design.
Similarly, for the reduced short-circuit currents and regardless of design, the peak value of the first
half cycle of the appropriate test current need only be at least √2 times the r.m.s value. In the
case of the low current test, the actual first half cycle peak of the test current must be at least √2
times the r.m.s value. The low current shall flow through the arrester for 1 second or,
for “Design A” porcelain-housed arresters, until venting occurs.
As polymer-housed “Design A” arresters are being produced in increasingly longer units with high
rated voltages, the first asymmetric peak current of 2,5 may not be easily achieved. If this is the
case, IEC 60099-4 proposes testing of an additional (shorter) test sample as well as possible
special adjustments of the test circuit.
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
7.1.9.5 Test evaluation
The basic pass criteria are that no violent shattering occurs and open flames shall be self-
extinguished within 2 minutes. However, for practical reasons, it is considered unrealistically hard
to have such requirements as “remain completely intact” or “no piece shall be ejected” as the
pass criteria for surge arresters undergoing short-circuit tests. These would judge the arrester as
having failed the short-circuit test, though the arrester basically performed well. Very often
fragments of hard material such as porcelain or MO resistors just "jump" over the enclosure of
the test circle, without any dangerous kinetic energy. Similarly, soft parts of polymeric material
can do little or no damage should they be cast off.
IEC 62271-200 for metal-enclosed substations and IEC 61330 for medium-voltage/low voltage
prefabricated substations explicitly deal with internal arc testing with respect to the safety of
personnel and public in case of failures within such stations. Two levels of accessibility have been
adopted, where the accessibility B refers to stations that are directly accessible to the public.
Although these standards deal with the safety of persons and are therefore very restrictive
concerning possibly arising danger, they permit projection of parts out of the station up to a weight
of 60 g. Since it is advantageous if all standards dealing with similar parts of a power system
specify similar requirements, it was decided that the same criteria be also adopted for the short-
circuit testing of surge arresters. Hence, fragments of ceramic material (MO resistor or porcelain)
of up to 60 g are allowed to be found outside the enclosure, as are pressure relief vent covers
and diaphragms and soft parts of polymeric materials.
7.1.10 Mechanical (Bending moment)

Surge arresters are normally self-supported, and consequently will be subjected to a bending
moment when mechanical forces are applied. These forces can originate from various sources,
including:
• line connectors
• wind, ice and snow
• seismic accelerations (earthquake)
• arrester’s own weight
These forces will cause a bending moment, which typically has its maximum at the base of the
arrester. The arrester must withstand this moment. In the case of multi-unit arresters, individual
units must also withstand the moment at their length resulting from the applied forces. Bending
moment tests are performed by fixing the housing to the floor and subjecting it to a horizontal
force at the top. The force is then slowly increased until the housing breaks, or in the case of
verification, that the declared value is reached. The test may be performed on complete arresters
or arrester units.
According to IEC 60099-4, several sample tests should be performed on porcelain-unit housings to
determine the mean value of breaking load (MBL). It is then possible to assign the housing a
maximum specified short-term load (SSL), i.e. the 100% value in Figure 31, which can be
considered its maximum withstand moment against dynamic loads such as short circuit forces,
gust winds, earthquake, etc.
SSL is also to be verified by test with the active elements in place to ensure the design really can
withstand this load and not be affected. This should not be confused with the breaking limit proven
during testing of porcelain-housings, which is an average of 20% above this value. The specified
long-term load (SLL), which is the maximum static (continuous) moment, should be limited to 40%
of the SSL on porcelain arresters.
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
Fig. 31 Definition of mechanical loads (source IEC 60099-4)
7.1.10.1 Considerations for polymer arrester designs

Polymer arresters have historically lacked common rules for the definition of dynamic and static
service loads, which strongly depend on the arrester design. For example, IEC 61462 “Composite
Insulators” gives alternative definitions and criteria for specified mechanical load (SML) and
maximum mechanical load (MML). While this standard may be applicable to the housing of
polymer arresters with enclosed gas volume (i.e. tubular design), it is not appropriate to use for all
polymer arrester designs, and especially those for which the internal components have an influence
in determining the mechanical performance of the complete arrester.
If potential effects of “mechanical ageing” during continuous loading are not considered, load
levels may be chosen at very high levels compared to what the arrester design can actually
handle. In other words, the short-term load level could be set just a little below the breaking load.
However, it is in doubt whether the arrester would handle these high mechanical loads at the
given load levels (continuous and short-term) under actual conditions during its service lifetime.
There are a number of potential problems that can arise by exposing an arrester to a continuous
load that is too near to the breaking load. These include:
• Damage to the housing of the arrester, which could cause the arrester structure to
completely collapse and break
• Damage to internal parts of the arrester, for example damage to the MO resistors
causing electrical malfunction
• Cracks in the polymer housing or sealing, which could lead to moisture ingress and
electrical failure
Of specific interest is the performance of polymer arresters under continuous loading of a cyclic
nature. Due to their construction, polymer arresters of all designs may flex under mechanical load
and, when this is repeated cyclically (as would occur over their service lifetime), may be the
primary factor which determines the true limit of permissible mechanical loading. A specified
short-term load verified on new arresters not previously subjected to any tests may thus give a
too optimistic value.
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
Subjecting the arrester, in a cyclic way, to continuous load
may result in significant deflection which in turn may affect
the likelihood of moisture ingress and/or jeopardise the
mechanical integrity of the metal oxide blocks.
Additionally, insulation withstand clearances to other
equipment may be compromised if the deflection is
extreme. Furthermore, the maximum short-term load that
can be applied without breaking may be significantly
reduced after the arrester has been subjected to a
continuous load in a cyclic manner. Hence, a test is
required to verify that an arrester, even after many years
in service and having potentially been mechanically
fatigued, can both remain sealed and still be capable of
withstanding a serious mechanical incident that occurs; for
example a short circuit or earthquake.
IEC 60099-4 specifies a mechanical test to be performed

on three complete arrester units with the highest rated
voltage of the unit, whereby each is subjected to a cyclical
bending moment at the specified long-term load (SLL) for
1000 cycles. Thereafter, two of the arrester units are
subjected to a bending moment test at the short term load
(SSL), while the third undergoes thermo-mechanical
preconditioning as discussed in section 8.1.12. All three
Fig. 32 Consideration of deflection
units are then subjected to a water immersion test during cyclical loading
(see also 8.1.12).
If the arrester passes 1000 cycles at the SLL and subsequent water immersion and evaluation
tests, it is considered likely that the arrester can continuously be subjected to the SLL
Furthermore, the test validates that the SSL is a load which the arrester could be subjected to
even after many years in service. For short polymer arresters, i.e. arresters for system voltages
not exceeding 52 kV, a cyclic load test has not been considered necessary; neither for porcelain-
housed arresters, considering the long experience of this type of arrester.
7.1.11 Environmental
The environmental tests are intended to demonstrate by accelerated test procedures that the
sealing mechanism on porcelain-housed arresters and the exposed metal components, e.g.
flanges and terminals, are not impaired by environmental conditions. For polymer-housed
arresters, it is considered that the weather ageing test imposes sufficient environmental stress,
and hence no additional tests are needed on these types of arresters.
The requirement consists briefly of the below listed individual tests, with the criteria described in
more detail in the relevant IEC 60068-2 documents. The arresters shall be considered
satisfactory provided no degradation in the sealing has occurred.
• Temperature cycling test (IEC 60068-2-14)

The specimen is exposed to changes of temperature in air by exposure in a chamber to
prescribed temperatures varied at a controlled rate.
• Salt mist test (IEC 60068-2-11)

This test is applied to compare the resistance to deterioration from salt mist of
specimens of similar construction. It can be useful for evaluating the quality and the
uniformity of protective coatings.
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
7.1.12 Sealing and Moisture ingress test
Sealing breakdown has historically been a major cause of arrester failure, particularly for
distribution arresters.
Sealing tests on arresters with enclosed gas volume and a separate sealing system should be
made using a sensitive method that can detect very low leakage rates (for example,
max 1W = 1 x 10-6 Pa. m3/s = 1 x 10-5 mbar.litre/s according to IEC 60099-4). Example of test
methods which are commonly used include:
• Helium-mass spectrometer
• Vacuum over water
• Pressure or vacuum decay
• Halogen detection
A moisture ingress test - which applies to polymer arresters only as an integral part of the bending
moment test (see 8.1.10.1) – is performed as a means to demonstrate the ability of the arrester
to resist ingress of moisture after being subjected to specified mechanical stresses.
The test includes subjecting the arrester to both thermal as well as mechanical cycling, as depicted
in Figure 33. After the cycling, the arrester is placed in boiling salt water for 42 hours, and thereafter
moisture is given time to possibility penetrate the arrester (Figure 34). Electrical measurements are
made both before and after the test sequences to verify that the specimen has not absorbed any
moisture. If the electrical characteristic of the arrester has changed during the tests, the most likely
conclusion is that moisture has penetrated inside the housing, which would imply that the arrester
no longer fulfils the original requirements.
Temperature
+60 ºC
+45 ºC
24 h 48h 72 h 96 h
Time
-25 ºC
-40 ºC
Load direction: Load direction: Load direction: Load direction:

0º 180º 270º 90º
Fig. 33 Thermo-mechanical preconditioning Fig. 34 Water immersion test

(Source IEC60099-4) (Source IEC60099-4)
7.1.13 RIV and Partial discharge

Radio interference voltage (RIV) testing, as the name suggests, is aimed primarily at detecting
external corona which can cause interference with communication equipment. In contrast to
internal partial discharge tests, which are performed on individual arrester units, an RIV test needs
to be performed on a complete arrester, fully assembled with all fittings (since the aim is to detect
discharges from sharp edges, bolts, pins etc.). After voltage pre-stress, the value of RIV is
measured at different applied voltage levels. RIV instruments measure the voltage drop (recorded
in microvolts) caused by a partial discharge just within a narrow frequency band, transforming it
by a weighting circuit according to the sensitivity of the human ear.
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
IEC 60099-4 permits a radio interference level at 1.05 times Uc and all lower voltage steps of
maximum 2500 μV, or that RIV testing may be omitted altogether if the same arrester has passed
a partial discharge test where both internal and external discharges are recorded.
A low corona level – both internal and external – is essential for all surge arresters to achieve
during normal operating conditions. As a consequence, more significance is placed on checking
for corona as a routine test on all produced units rather than as a single type test. Hence a type
test for partial discharge is no longer required by IEC, and instead the partial discharge routine
test is intended to detect internal corona which could otherwise lead to problems in the long term.
The arrester unit must be first pre-stressed at significantly higher than its normal operating voltage
in order to create the potential for initiation of discharges. Thereafter the voltage is reduced to a
value somewhat higher than the arrester unit’s continuous operating voltage, at which the internal
partial discharge level is recorded (measured as apparent charge in pico-coulomb, pC). IEC
60099-4 permits an internal partial discharge level of not more than 10 pC at 1.05 times Uc;
however an arrester manufacturer may choose to set tougher criteria than this.
7.1.14 Artificial pollution

Artificial pollution tests are intended to provide information on the behaviour of external insulation
under conditions representative of pollution in service, although they do not necessarily simulate
any particular service conditions.
A number of different methods have been trialed for artificial pollution tests on surge arresters,
with those specifically intended for porcelain-housed arresters having the intention of determining
• risk for external flashover
• effect of partial discharges inside the surge arrester due to radial fields between the
external surface and the internal active elements
• adverse temperature rise of the internal active elements due to a non-linear and
transient voltage grading caused by the pollution layer on the surface of the housing
Different methods are intended to test for one or more phenomena. Further, artificial pollution
tests aimed at determining localised temperature rise are only considered applicable to multi-unit
arresters, since single-unit arresters do not have a direct electrical connection between inside to
outside along their length. However, the risk of puncture exists for very long units. The conclusion
is, of course, that it is necessary to have an arrester design (both internal and external) which
minimizes such stresses and/or their effect under all anticipated conditions.
A problem with many of the pollution test methods is that their relevance to real conditions during
arrester life is questionable. Such methods test the arresters behaviour in more-or-less irrelevant
respects, and thus help neither users nor manufacturers to judge between arrester designs with
respect to pollution performance. A meaningful test program for surge arresters must therefore
start with an investigation of the pollution conditions which arresters can see in real life and what
effect these conditions will actually have on arrester designs.
Consequently, field-tests of arresters in areas with severe natural pollution have been performed
to sort out the relevant mechanisms for arrester performance under polluted conditions. Since
1982, ABB installed MO surge arresters at different sites with known severe pollution conditions
(marine, desert, tropical, industrial, etc.). The testing was carried out in collaboration with
recognized leading power utilities around the world. The field tests included conductivity
measurement of natural-polluted layer, recording of external and internal currents with counting
of current pulses and temperature recordings. The results and experience gained from these field-
tests contributed greatly in the designing of ABB type EXLIM porcelain arresters to ensure their
optimum pollution performance, even under the most severe conditions.
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
For example, the results show that the temperature rise during real pollution episodes has not
been seen to be sufficient to increase the block temperature to such an extent as to create a risk
for thermal runaway in the EXLIM design. The value of this experience is recognized also in the
IEC Standard, with the possibility for agreement between user and manufacturer to omit
performing an artificial pollution test, based (for example) on service experience in specified
environments. IEC 60099-4 further acknowledges that artificial pollution tests, as prescribed for
porcelain-housed arresters, are not strictly applicable to polymer-housed arresters. Instead, for
the time being, only a weather ageing test for the polymer material is specified.
7.1.15 Weather ageing

In contrast to porcelain which, as a material, can reasonably be expected to remain unchanged
over its lifetime, there exists concerns (real or perceived) about the longevity of polymer insulators
in extreme weather conditions.
The weather ageing test in IEC 60099-4 is thus applicable only to polymer housed arresters. The
test is intended as a continuous test with a duration of 1000 hours under salt fog conditions at
constant power frequency voltage equal to Uc. It shall be performed on the longest electrical unit
with the minimum specific creepage distance and the highest rated voltage recommended for the
arrester type.
This test is primarily intended to age the polymer material so as to cause tracking, erosion or
puncture; although other failure mechanisms may also occur. Interruptions due to flashover are
permitted and the arrester shall then be washed with clean tap water and the test restarted with
a lower salt content for the fog. The test is considered passed if no tracking occurs, erosion does
not occur through the entire thickness of the external housing to the next material layer, the sheds
and housing are not punctured, and the electrical performance of the arrester is substantially
unchanged from before to after the test.
Some users may consider their environmental conditions so extreme - intense solar radiation,
frequent temperature inversion with condensation, pollution – that they desire an extended multi-
stress test to validate the design. Such a 5000 hour continuous duration test was an option in
previous editions of IEC 60099-4. However, this has since been removed completely as it was
deemed generally unnecessary after past experience, especially in the case when silicone is used
as the housing material; being the majority of designs today.
Solar radiation simulation has otherwise been incorporated as a separate test to evaluate the
recognized main key element for potential ageing of polymer materials. This is in the form of a
1000 hour ultra-violet (UV) light test on housing-material specimens using either a Xenon-arc or
Fluorescent UV method. In order to pass, the material shall not be visibly degraded by the test.
7.1.16 Lightning impulse discharge capability

Line surge arresters (LSA) are potentially subjected to high energy and current stresses from
lightning strikes to the transmission line. Further, the current waveforms – with duration of several
10’s of microseconds for shielded lines to 100’s of microseconds for unshielded lines – are
considerably different to the waveforms used in other tests with line discharges. Arresters
intended for use as a LSA on system voltages exceeding 52kV need to verify their ability to
withstand a test sequence incorporating impulses with duration of 200µs (considered as a
compromise to cover both typical applications as well as the effect of multiple strokes). Thereafter
the arrester shall be given a rated lightning impulse discharge capability; corresponding to the
lowest current, energy and charge applied during the test.
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
7.2 Routine Tests
The ambition with the routine tests is to ensure that the produced arresters meet the design
specification. All test results have to be within preset limits to qualify the arresters for delivery.
The routine tests are consequently an integrated part of the quality control during manufacture.
As a minimum requirement for routine tests, IEC 60099-4 specifies the following to be performed
on each arrester or arrester unit:
• Reference voltage measurement

o The measured value of the reference voltage Uref must lie within the range allowed by the
manufacturer. The lower limit of the Uref guarantees the thermal stability of the arrester.
The higher the value of Uref, the smaller the power losses at Uc and therefore better stability
during network operation. The practical upper limit is determined by the operating
characteristic in order to pass the residual voltage test.
• Lightning impulse residual voltage test

o This proves that the guaranteed protection level of the arrester is not exceeded. If not
measured directly on the complete arrester, residual voltage can be measured on the
individual MO resistors or arrester units at a suitable lightning impulse current and then
summed together to give the value for the complete arrester.
• Internal partial discharge check

o This test serves to prove that the arrester will be free from internal corona at normal service
voltage. IEC permits a maximum level of 10 pC at a test voltage of 1.05 x Uc, but
manufacturers may set their own tougher criteria.
• Leakage check of the sealed housing (for arresters with a sealed housing)
o This test proves that the housing hermetically seals the active parts of the arrester.
Common test arrangements are helium-mass spectrometer, vacuum over water, pressure
or vacuum decay and halogen detection. This test is not applicable to certain polymer
arrester designs, when the active parts are directly sealed in the housing material.
• Current distribution test on multi-column arresters

o Where an arrester consists of multiple-columns, adequate current and energy sharing
between each column is to be verified by application of a suitable impulse current across
groups of parallel MO resistors. The highest current through any one column is not to
exceed the upper limit set by the manufacturer.
IEEE specifies similar requirements for routine tests as per IEC, but uses slightly different
terminology:
• Power-frequency test
• Discharge-voltage test
• Partial discharge (PD) test
• Seal test
• Current sharing test
Manufacturers may also choose to perform additional quality checks. For example, all ABB type
HV arresters are subjected to the above tests (as applicable), plus a measurement of power
losses and grading current at Uc (MCOV). In addition, ABB also routinely undertakes energy
withstand tests on all produced MO resistors (with those having insufficient capability being
automatically rejected), together with accelerated life and impulse current tests as well as a check
of low current characteristics, protection characteristics and capacitance on samples from every
produced batch of MO resistors.
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
7.3 Acceptance Tests
An acceptance test, as per IEC vocabulary, means testing to be made/repeated in the presence
of the user or his representative in order to facilitate their acceptance of the delivery lot. The
number of arresters to be tested is the nearest lower whole number to the cube root of the number
of arresters in the delivery lot.
Acceptance tests according to IEC 60099-4 incorporate:

• Measurement of power frequency voltage
• Lightning impulse residual voltage test
• Internal partial discharge measurement
Additionally, a Special Thermal Stability test is given as an option, which has to be specially
agreed upon. This is, in principle, a shortened version of the Operating Duty test, performed on
blocks from the same batch (or similar) as those used in the arresters from the delivery lot.
7.3.1 Comment to the value of acceptance tests

There exists a degree of confusion as to the meaning, and thereby the value, of acceptance tests
on surge arresters as some users believe they will be getting greater information-value by testing
an arrester fully assembled. However, unlike other high voltage apparatus, acceptance tests on
surge arresters are permitted to be made on individual units of the arrester in the case of a multi-
unit arrester.
That said, the tests made after assembly of a single-unit arrester are then performed on a
“complete arrester”. However, to fulfil the requirements of the Standard, an additional lightning
residual impulse voltage test on the unit may be required if this is not performed as routine. It is
permitted, for example, as a routine test to measure residual voltages on individual MO resistors
for a specific applied current and then sum up the values to give the total residual voltage for the
unit. Because of the lower voltage required at the block level, this permits testing with high
lightning impulse currents (e.g. 10kA) and good measuring accuracy. Conversely, testing a
complete unit (or complete multi-unit arrester) at higher voltages can present problems regarding
circuit capacity to achieve high lightning impulse currents, as well as potential loss of accuracy in
the measured values compared with performing the test on individual blocks.
For a multi-unit arrester, consisting of several individual units, the units may be regarded as
impedances connected in series, where each individual unit has a specific voltage drop (or
residual voltage) for a specific applied current. Thus, measured values on units when summed
up can be regarded as valid for the complete arrester. Specifically in the case of reference voltage
measurement at reference current, provided that the current is high enough to not be affected by
stray capacitances during the measurement, then the summed values on individual units can also
be regarded as valid for the complete arrester. Similarly, for the internal partial discharge test,
provided the pro-rata voltage used on individual units is equal to or higher than the required test
voltage, then assembling the units together will not influence the result with respect to internal PD
measurement.
Acceptance tests made on completely assembled multi-unit arresters will therefore not give any
additional information about the surge arrester characteristics than obtained during tests on
individual units, nor add value or security to the arresters from a delivery lot.
With regards the Special Thermal Stability test, there is a good reason that it is an additional test
to only be made after separate agreement: The test is, in essence, a truncated version of the
Operating Duty type test, and thus if an Operating Duty test applicable to the surge arresters has
been performed in recent years, additional testing should not be necessary as undertaking such
a test will not give any additional information about the ordered arrester’s inherent performance.
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
8. ARRESTER SELECTION
This section contains only a brief guidance for selection of the most important parameters of HV
surge arresters used for standard applications such as transformer protection. For a more
comprehensive guide, reference is made to IEC 60099-5 and ABB Application Guides. For
specialized applications, a more detailed system analysis or insulation co-ordination study may
be necessary to permit selection.
It is vital that the correct arrester is selected which will provide the desired protection, as well as
withstand normal and specified abnormal service conditions. The basic selection is carried out in
two major steps:
• Match the electrical characteristics of the arrester to the system’s electrical demands
• Match the mechanical characteristics of the arrester to the system’s mechanical and
environmental requirements
8.1 Matching the electrical characteristics

In selecting arresters in a 3-phase network, it is first of importance to know if they are to be
connected between phase-ground, neutral-ground or phase-phase. The most common practice
is to connect arresters phase-ground.
The simplified process for selection of the electrical characteristics is depicted in the following
flowchart (Figure 35).
Fig. 35 Flowchart for simplified electrical selection of surge arresters
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
8.1.1 Selection of continuous operating voltage and rated voltage
a) Obtain System Parameters

The maximum highest system voltage (Us) should be known. But if not, it may be estimated as
5 to 10% higher than the nominal system voltage.
The most commonly occurring TOV is that at a single line earth fault. The amplitude is given by
multiplying Us/√3 by the earth-fault factor ke, which in turn is determined from the earthing
conditions. Figure 36 gives the value for ke based on the system sequence reactances and
resistances for the most unfavourable fault resistance. Should these system parameters be
unknown, ke is often assumed to be 1.4 for directly earthed systems and 1.73 for resonant earthed
or isolated neutral systems.
Fig. 36
Curves showing relationship between
R0/X1 and X0/X1 for constant earth fault
factor ke and zero fault resistance
(Source: IEC 60071-2)
R0 = zero sequence resistance

X0 = zero sequence reactance
X1 = positive sequence reactance
The duration of the applied TOV during earthfault depends on the fault-clearance time. If this is
not known, it may usually be estimated to be in the range of 1 to 3 seconds for directly earthed
HV systems and 3 to 10 seconds for directly earthed distribution systems. For isolated neutral or
resonant earthed systems, the duration is important to determine more specifically, as it may
vary from a few seconds to some hours or even days; depending on whether fault-clearing is used
or not. For an anticipated fault duration over 2 hours, the TOV should generally be considered
(in most cases) as continuous, and the arrester rating chosen accordingly.
For the most common 3-phase systems, specific TOV and durations are proposed in Table 11.
The assumptions made for directly earthed neutral systems include some combined effects of
earth faults and load rejection; considering if an earth fault occurs during a load rejection, the TOV
on the healthy phases tends to rise further than it would if the events occurred separately.
TOV in p.u. of Us/√3 Fault duration
Directly earthed neutral systems

Us < 123 kV 1.55 1s
Us > 123 kV 1.5 1s
Resonant earthed & isolated neutral systems 1.73 10 s or 1 h
Table 11. Common choice for earth fault factor and fault duration
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
Generally, only the TOV during earth-faults and at load rejection are of interest. Certain network
configurations can however give resonance overvoltages. These may also arise during non-
simultaneous operation of breaker poles. Nevertheless, resonance overvoltages should be
avoided by proper system design (especially for normal AC transmission and distribution systems)
and usually should not need to be the basis for selection of the arrester TOV capability.
In some cases, efforts are made to reduce the earth-fault current by selectively earthing the
neutrals of only a few transformers, yet maintaining an effectively-earthed system overall. In such
cases, there is a possibility that some parts of the system may become non-effectively earthed
(i.e. increase in value of ke) for certain periods of time when one or more of the earthed-neutral
transformers are out of service. An earth fault during this time may lead to higher TOV and
subsequent arrester failure if this contingency is not taken into account. Since such occurrences
are rare, it may be justified to accept a risk of arrester failure instead of selecting an arrester with
higher TOV capability and thus a higher protective level.
b) Select the Continuous Operating Voltage

In a 3-phase system with arresters connected phase-ground, the actual continuous operating
voltage, Uca, is not higher than Us/√3. If the system does not have any abnormal service
conditions, Uc should therefore be equal to or higher than Us/√3. It should be noted that any
arresters with Uc > Uca are generally equally suitable, with regards solely to continuous operating
voltage.
Special consideration applies to an arrester on the delta tertiary winding of a transformer where
one corner of the delta is permanently connected to ground. In such applications, the continuous
operating voltage applied to the arrester will be the full phase-phase voltage even though the
arresters are connected phase-ground.
Should a considerable amount of harmonics (> 10%) be present in the system, a safety factor of
1.05 (i.e. 5%) is recommended (IEC 60099-5) to account for the increase in peak value of Uca.
However, in systems with short automatic fault-clearance times, a safety factor of 1.0 is often
sufficient nevertheless since the limited duration is normally covered by the TOV characteristic of
the arrester.
The manufacturer should be consulted if abnormal service conditions exist which are outside of
those specified by the Standards: such as ambient temperature below –40 °C or above +40 °C,
frequencies under 48Hz or above 62Hz, presence of heat sources (e.g. furnaces) near the arrester,
etc. Such abnormal service conditions may lead to the need for selection of higher Uc and/or rated
voltage (Ur), unless the arrester has been designed and verified to withstand the specified service
conditions. All ABB arresters, for example, can withstand wider ranges of temperature (–50 °C to
+45 °C) and frequency (15 Hz to 62 Hz), without the need for special consideration.
c) Select a sufficiently high Rated Voltage to meet TOV demands

In general, surge arresters are not used to protect equipment against TOV as this would require
an enormous number of parallel columns of blocks. Such applications may be considered only
in cases of limitation or elimination of resonance TOV, and carefully detailed studies are then
required to select arresters with suitable energy capability.
Factors affecting the TOV capability of an arrester are pre-energy absorbed (i.e. the initial
temperature of the blocks) prior to the application of TOV and the applied voltage following the
TOV.
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
For a given arrester type, the rated voltage (Ur), defined as per IEC, is a measure of its overvoltage
capability. Hence, the additional TOV capability of the arrester can be specified as a multiple of
Ur. A different philosophy adopted by some manufacturers is to give the TOV capability in
multiples of Uc.
The following procedure is suggested to select an arrester with sufficient TOV capability:
• Select a preliminary rated voltage (Ur0) based on Uc, with Ur0 = Uc/0.8
where 0.8 is the “design factor” for MO arresters
• Determine the TOV amplitude and duration at earth fault as

o TOVe = ke * Us/√3
o ke < 1.4 normally for directly earthed systems (effectively earthed)
o ke = 1.73 normally for resonant earthed and isolated systems (non-effectively
earthed)
o For specific cases, determine the actual ke factor.
• Determine other temporary overvoltages TOV1, TOV2, … TOVn with amplitude and
duration as calculated or estimated, e.g. using the common choice guide in Table 11.
• Consider the possible energy absorption W (in kJ) prior to the TOV and calculate W/Ur0.
For each TOV, determine the minimum required rated voltages Ure, Ur1, Ur2, … Urn by
dividing the determined TOV amplitude by the temporary overvoltage strength factor Tr for
a selected type of arrester for the actual duration of the TOV and the calculated energy
absorption W/Ur0. If the calculated specific energy absorption W/Ur0 is higher than the
value given for the first choice of arrester type, then increase Ur0 or select an arrester type
with a higher energy capability.
o Thus Ure = TOVe/Tre, Ur1 = TOV1/Tr1, Ur2 = TOV2/Tr2, etc
• Select a final rated voltage, Ur, which is the highest of the values Uro, Ure, Ur1, Ur2, etc.
If this is a non-standard rating, choose the next higher rating.
8.1.2 Selection of nominal discharge current

It is often difficult to calculate the arrester current, especially those caused by lightning. Therefore,
rough estimations are mostly used. The relatively small variations in discharge voltage with
current waveshape and amplitude makes this estimation less critical with MO arresters.
Important parameters affecting the selection of the nominal discharge current are:
• the importance of the protected object
• number of lines connected to the station
• the line insulation
• ground flash density in the area
• line performance with respect to backflashes and shielding failures some spans out from
the station
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
As a general guidance, nominal discharge currents with an 8/20µs waveshape as given in the
following Table 12.
Maximum system voltage (kV) Nominal current (kA)

800 20
550 20 (or 15 as per IEEE)
245 < Us < 420 10 or 20
36 < Us < 245 10
< 36 5 or 10
Table 12. Common choice selection of nominal currents
8.1.3 Selection of Energy Capability

In the case where transient system studies have been performed, the results should give the level
of energy the system will discharge into the arrester and a suitable minimum thermal energy rating
and repetitive charge transfer rating can then be defined for the arrester.
To avoid expensive computer studies, a simplified method can be applied as a first attempt to
estimate the arrester stresses caused by switching as per the previous edition of IEC 60099-4. A
simple single-phase model is useful in many cases; although if these calculations reveal high
energies and the need for more qualified studies than had been considered initially, a more
accurate study would be justified. In order to use the simplified method, the parameters for
evaluation according to the previous Line Discharge Class must be determined in some way for
comparison.
If the surge travel time of the line is short compared with one cycle of power frequency and the
line presents a low impedance, Z, the current through the arrester will have a rectangular shape
with a duration equal to twice the travel time T of the wave on the line. The current through the
arrester and its residual voltage at this current are given by the intersection of the relevant
switching surge characteristics and the load line, and can be determined by plotting a load
diagram, as depicted in Figure 37.
Fig. 37
Load Diagram
UL Prospective overvoltage
Z Line surge impedance
Ia Surge arrester current
Ups Surge arrester switching surge
protection level (residual voltage)
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
The prospective overvoltage (UL) depends on a number of parameters such as location of
arresters, type of switching operation, presence or absence of pre-insertion resistors, the feeding
network and the parallel compensation. The wave propagation time (T) depends on the line
length and the velocity of wave propagation. For aerial lines and GIS bus ducts the propagation
velocity (v) is approximately equal to the velocity of light (0.3 km/µs), while for cables the velocity
is much lower (around 0.15 km/µs).
When no such studies are unavailable in any form, a good fallback practice is always to utilize
positive service experience. If, for example, an arrester of a specific Line Discharge Class has
served well, then a new arrester with similar capability should be the first choice. The difficulty is
then limited to comparing the old Line Discharge Class system with the new classification. This
is discussed in more detail in separate document 1HSAT2014-15-001, to arrive at the following
suggested comparative performance for station class arresters:
Line discharge Corresponding rating

class according
to “old” IEC Thermal energy Repetitive charge
W th Q rs
kJ/kV (U r ) C
2 5 1.1
3 8 2
4 11 2.8
5 15 4
Table 13. Suggested comparison between old and new classification system and given requirements
(reference: 1HSAT2014-15-001)
If the chosen energy or charge capability is not sufficient, the most economical solution is to
increase the arrester rated voltage. If this leads to an unacceptable protection level, then select
another type with a higher energy/charge capability. For very high demands, parallel MO block
columns and/or arresters may be needed to meet the energy requirements. In these cases,
proper and careful matching must be undertaken to ensure sufficiently equal current sharing, as
full current sharing is not necessarily assured with standard arresters.
At lower system voltages (below 245 kV), the energy due to switching will generally be low. At
the same time, less attention is often paid to effective grounding and shielding of such systems.
Hence the design capability will be determined by lightning stresses. A conservative estimate for
the arrester energy capability for lightning surges is obtained in the high current test using a
4/10 µs impulse with standardized peak amplitudes of 100 kA or 65 kA (IEC and IEEE, respectively).
This wave subjects the arrester to high energy during a very short time and hence to a thermal
shock as well. It is worth noting that discharges of the amplitudes stipulated in the tests rarely occur
in reality, and the real impulse durations seen in service may be longer than the stipulated test
impulse duration.
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
An arrester with blocks of larger diameter will withstand the lightning stresses better for two
reasons:
• the current density will be lower
• the residual voltage will be lower and consequently also the energy discharged
Hence, it is advantageous to choose an arrester with larger diameter blocks (and consequently
higher discharge capability) for
• areas with high lightning activity
• important installations and apparatus
• lines and stations where grounding or shielding conditions are inadequate
8.1.4 Check of protection levels (Upl and Ups)

For insulation co-ordination purposes, consider the lightning impulse protection level (Upl) at the
selected nominal discharge current (2.5, 5, 10, 15 or 20kA according to Table 12). Similarly, the
switching impulse protection level (Ups) for co-ordination purposes is taken with a 30/60µs
waveshape having a current amplitude ranging from 0.5kA to 2kA, depending on the arrester
designation. Refer Table 14 for typical values based on system voltage.
Maximum system voltage (kV) Maximum current (kA)

420 – 800 2
145 – 362 1
< 145 0.5
Table 14. Common choice switching surge co-ordinating currents
Special consideration may need to be given to protection levels for a very steep time to voltage
crest, e.g. 1µs. For this type of very steep voltage wave, the effect of connection leads as well as
the distance between the arrester and the protected object must be carefully considered in order to
accurately determine the voltage stress on the equipment. Withstand curves can then be plotted
to check that a sufficient safety margin exist.
8.1.5 Protection margins

Protection margins (in %) calculated at co-coordinating impulse currents, are defined as follows:
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
• Margin for lightning impulses = �� 𝑈𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
� − 1 � × 100
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
• Margin for switching impulses = �� 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈
� − 1 � × 100
Margins may typically be acceptable for arresters with inherently low Upl and Ups, and also the
fact that most equipment at present has high LIWV and SIWV. However, depending on the
electrical distance between the arrester and the protected equipment, the margin for lightning
impulses can become reduced, and thus arresters fail to protect equipment that is not in close
vicinity (i.e. within their protection zone). The flexible erection alternatives for polymer arresters
may be of benefit in reducing the distance effect. Additional line-entrance arresters may also
help.
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
It is recommended that the protection margins
BIL % (after taking into account the ”distance effect”)
should be in the order of 15 - 20% or more to
account for uncertainties and possible reduction
in the withstand values of the protected
equipment with age. In case the selected
arrester type does not give the desired protection
margins, the selection should be changed to an
arrester of a higher duty classification, which
should automatically lead to a lower protection
level.
Note! It is not recommended to use a lower than

selected rated voltage (Ur) to improve the
margins, as this may lead to an unacceptably low
TOV capability.
Years
Fig. 38
Insulation withstand with time for paper and oil insulated power transformers.
Ageing reduces insulation withstand of equipment and thus the protection margin.
8.1.6 Consideration of distance effect

One may well wonder why it should be necessary to have a protection margin at all, when it would
seem sufficient that the protection level of the arrester was equal to the insulation withstand of
the equipment (after consideration of possible ageing effects on the insulation). The reason is that
the calculated protection levels and margins are only valid across the arrester itself, i.e. if the
arrester is mounted directly on the protected object. When there are connection leads and a
distance between arrester and object, then the protected object will be subjected to a higher
overvoltage. This is illustrated in Figure 39.
v L
a Upl U
h Surge arrester
Fig. 39 Voltage increase due to distance effect (simplified method)
Fast-fronted overvoltages spread out along a line in the form of travelling waves. When a
travelling wave reaches a point where the surge impedance changes, reflections and refractions
take place. If the surge impedance is considered infinite – for example a transformer winding or
an open circuit breaker – then a total reflection will occur. The positive instantaneous sum of the
resultant oscillations cause the voltage at the remote end to increase step-wise to as much as
double the value of the initial incoming voltage.
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
When surge arresters are connected in front of the protected object, complex interactions and
oscillations will take place between the two with their different surge impedances. Via the
travelling wave process, the value of the voltage seen by the protected object can be considerably
higher than at the arrester itself. How much higher depends to a large extent on the electrical
distance between the arrester and the protected object and the front-steepness of the incoming
wave.
The generally used formula to estimate the voltage increase due to distance effect is:
(2 × 𝑆𝑆 × 𝐿𝐿)
𝑈𝑈 = 𝑈𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 +
𝑣𝑣
where
U voltage at the protected object (kV)
Upl lightning impulse protection level of the arrester (kV)
S steepness of the incoming voltage wave (kV/µs)
L electrical distance between arrester and protected object
including connection leads (a + b) and arrester height (h)
v velocity of wave propagation (m/µs); approximately equal to the velocity
of light 300 m/µs, except for cables for which 150 m/µs may be used
Note! The distance effect reduction does not apply to the Ups margin since the front-time
of a switching surge impulse is longer.
The protection margin will therefore dramatically reduce with increased separation distances, as
well as with increased steepness of the incoming wave. The latter is a function of how close to
the substation the lightning strikes the transmission line and risk for backflash or shielding
penetration.
Steepnesses of 1200 kV/µs and 2000 kV/µs have been well established in Standards and practical
insulation co-ordination studies for HV sub-stations, and are often used as reference surge
steepnesses. Nevertheless, the determined strike rate leads to the choice of actual steepness for
a given application.
This simplified method must be used with caution as it is only an approximation. It does not take
into account any capacitance of the protected object, nor inductance effects nor the initial voltage
at the instant of surge. This simple method may not be sufficient in the case of small margins
between the arrester protection level and the object’s LIWV; whereby more complex computer
modeling may then be necessary. In all cases, the importance of short distances and connection
lead lengths cannot be over-emphasized.
8.1.7 Neutral-ground arresters

In those cases where efforts are made to reduce the local earth-fault currents by not earthing the
neutral of the transformer, each such neutral brought out through a bushing should be protected
against lightning and switching overvoltages by an arrester.
For neutral-ground arresters protecting fully insulated transformer neutrals, the recommended
rated voltage is approximately the maximum system voltage (Us) divided by √3, assuming a
relatively long fault duration. Short or very long fault durations may warrant selection of a different
rated voltage, after taking into account the specific TOV requirements. In addition, special
considerations must be taken for resonant-earthed systems with long radial lines, as a higher
rated voltage may be necessary. Alternative selection criteria may also apply in cases with
unusually low insulation withstand or for neutrals of transformers with non-uniform insulation.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


The neutral-ground arresters should preferably be of the same energy classification as the phase-
ground arresters on the same transformer. The electrical characteristics are then usually identical
to standard catalogue arresters with the corresponding rated voltage. However, for arresters
connected neutral-ground, Uc is usually zero, as they are not subjected to any continuous voltage
stress during normal service conditions. Consequently, demands for creepage distance and
voltage grading do not normally apply to these arresters.
For neutral-ground arresters specifically, it is a further advantage that the insulation withstand of
the arrester is approximately equal (or even below) that of the transformer neutral so that, in the
unlikely event of a flashover, it should occur in preference at the arrester. Consequently, these
arresters would typically be assembled in the shortest housing possible.
8.1.8 Special cases

In special applications – e.g. transformers in arc furnace installations – switching overvoltages
can occur which are not sufficiently limited by arresters between phase-ground. For these
cases, three arresters connected phase-phase are used in addition to three arresters phase-
ground. For the arresters connected phase-phase, Uc > Us.
Protection of special electrical equipment such as motors, generators, capacitor banks, etc,
typically require more detailed evaluation than afforded by the simplified approach, and are
therefore beyond the scope of this Guide.
8.2 Matching the mechanical and environmental characteristics

The simplified process for selection of the mechanical characteristics is depicted in the following
flowchart (Figure 40).
Fig. 40 Flowchart for simplified mechanical selection of surge arresters
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
8.2.1 Selection of external creepage distance
IEC 60815 defines four levels of pollution (from light to very heavy) and stipulates the required
minimum creepage for porcelain housings as indicated in the following Table 15.
Pollution level Specific creepage distance

(mm/kV Us )
Light (L) 16
Medium (M) 20
Heavy (H) 25
Very Heavy (V) 31
Table 15. Pollution levels according to IEC 60815 (1986)
Note. IEC 60815 subsequently has been split into three parts to cover definitions (-1), porcelain-housings
(-2) and polymer-housings (-3). IEC 60815-1 then introduced the term “unified specific creepage distance”
(USCD) defined as the creepage distance of an insulator divided by the r.m.s. value of the highest operating
voltage across the insulator. This definition differs from that of specific creepage distance (SCD) where the
line-to-line value of the highest voltage for the equipment is used (for a.c. systems usually Us/√3). For line-
to-earth insulation, this definition will result in a value that is √3 times that given by the definition of specific
creepage distance in IEC/TR 60815 (1986). There is thus no physical difference, but the basis for the
specification must be understood and given to avoid misinterpretation.
For porcelain-housed arresters, select the housing to give the desired creepage - generally the
same as for the other equipment in the same location. If the specific creepage demand exceeds
31 mm/kV, a special design may be required. Silicone-housed arresters, being highly
hydrophobic, are better suited for extremely polluted areas than porcelain- or EPDM-housed
arresters. Based on the experience from long-term testing of silicone apparatus insulators, it is
considered possible to reduce the creepage requirements for silicone housings by at least one
step lower specific creepage, i.e. 20 - 30% less than for porcelain/EPDM. The background to this
conclusion is presented in the Cigré document A3-104 “Optimized use of HV composite apparatus
insulators: field experience from coastal and inland test stations”.
IEC 60815-3 furthermore accepts that reduction of creepage distance is possible and permissible
from a pollution withstand or flashover point of view on specific polymeric insulators based on
field trials, test stations or historic data with the same design, materials and electric stress. Hence,
for example, if a specific creepage distance of 31mm/kV (Us) is deemed necessary at a site based
on porcelain-criteria, then 25mm/kV is considered adequate with the silicone used in conjunction
with the ABB’s PEXLIM design. With such reasoning, 31mm/kV SCD would only be necessary
on PEXLIM arresters in the case that the site conditions dictate higher than 31mm/kV for
porcelain.
8.2.2 Selection of mechanical strength

The cantilever strength (bending moment) of the arrester must be sufficient to withstand specified
mechanical loads. These loads will cause a bending moment, which typically has its maximum at
the base of the arrester - except perhaps in the case of a multi-unit arrester utilizing different
strength housings for individual units; in which case the bending moment at the bottom of each
unit should be considered separately.
Mechanical loads on surge arresters can be divided into either static or dynamic loads. Static
loads are those which are applied continuously (e.g. weight of line conductors, normal wind, etc),
whereas dynamic loads are often higher in magnitude, but need only be withstood for short
periods (e.g. short-circuit current forces, gust winds, earthquake, etc.). Consideration should also
be given to the fact that some loads may act alone or in combination.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


Since a surge arrester is an active protective device, permanent mechanical loads should always
be minimized. Static loads are therefore kept relatively low. Dynamic loads by definition are only
short term, and should therefore not be treated as permanent loads for the sake of dimensioning
the mechanical strength of the arrester. Further, a higher degree of risk may be accepted if the
chances are low that all loads could occur at the same time and orientation. Recognition of the
difference in load types should always be accounted for in the selection of required mechanical
strength for surge arresters.
The maximum permissible horizontal load for individual forces is calculated as the maximum
moment which the arrester can withstand, divided by the distance between the base of the
arrester and point of the applied force. Loads at the line terminal connections can be considered
to act at the centre of the terminal, whilst wind loads are assumed to act generally about the
arrester’s centre of gravity. For areas with high seismic risk, different specifications and
verification methods exist, and the manufacturer should be consulted to verify the arrester’s
withstand capability. Notably, mechanical strength requirements are different for seismic loads
and it may be permissible to exceed SSL.
In the case of multiple loads acting in combination, the horizontal loads from individual forces
should be used to calculate the vector sum of the bending moments acting about the base, to
determine if the arrester housing can withstand them when applied simultaneously. Importantly,
this calculation should consider realistic combinations of loads (as would be applied in service)
against appropriate safety margins to the arrester’s static and dynamic mechanical strength, and
not simply as a sum of the maximum cantilever load applied at the top terminal.
This is illustrated in Figure 41, which shows that the arrester in question can withstand the
specified loads (safety factor > 1.0) when like loads are correctly considered to act about
appropriate moment arms.
Loads resulting from tensile and compression forces are not usually of concern, as these are
normally limited for standard applications and arrester housings are also typically strong in these
directions. Torsional loading on the arrester is also considered an abnormal service condition,
but may need closer consideration should it exist.
For connecting arresters to the line, a common solution is to use the same conductor as for
current-carrying equipment connected to the same line. However, this is often unnecessarily
large and over-dimensioned for the purpose - the continuous total current through an arrester is
of the order of only a few milli-Amps. The result is undue mechanical loading on the arrester.
Connecting the arresters to the line instead by light, vertical and slack tee-offs, can considerably
reduce the demand for mechanical strength, without requiring significant deviation from common
practice. See Figure 42.
Due to their flexible construction, there may be a visible deflection at the line-end of polymer
arresters under mechanical load. This may ultimately determine the limit of loading which is able
to be applied. However, since polymer arresters are light compared to equivalent porcelain-
housed arresters, they permit innovative erection alternatives which could reduce the loading; for
example suspended or under-hung erection or special bracing.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


ESTIMATED LOADING TABLE
ITEM
ARRESTER DATA
Type designation PEXLIM P360-XH420
Mass m kg 130
Height H mm 3274
Height to center of gravity h=H/2 mm 1637
Average diameter of insulator d mm 148,5
Specified long-term load SLL Nm 2500
Specified short-term load SSL Nm 4000
Seismic strength §) Md Nm 5000
MAXIMUM WIND LOAD

Max. dynamic wind velocity v km/h 100,0
Coeff. of drag for cylindrical parts a 0,8
2
Area A=H*d m 0,49
Air density r kg/m3 1,29
Dynamic pressure of wind P=(r/2)*v2 N/m2 498
Wind force on insulator Fi=P*a*A N 194
Estimated wind force on grading ring (if any) Fgr=0.2*Fi or Fgr=0 N 39
Max. wind moment Mw=(Fi+Fgr)*h Nm 380
TERMINAL LOAD
Static terminal load Fts N 250
Max. dynamic terminal load Ftd N 500
Short circuit force at terminal Fsc= 0.2*Ik 2*(L/r) N 845
Static terminal moment Mts=Fts*H Nm 818
Dynamic terminal load Mtd=Ftd*H Nm 1637
Short circuit load Msc= Fsc*H Nm 2766
Short circuit current Ik kA 65
Conductor clearance r m 3,1
Conductor length L m 3,1
SEISMIC LOAD
Maximum ground acceleration a g 0,3
Damping % 2
Torsion of the insulator C Nm/rad 93000
Moment of inertia (around base) I=(m*H2)/3 kgm2 464
Natural frequency (eigenfrequency) f=(C/I)0,5/2π Hz 2,3
Arrester acc. at cog. (from IEC RRS) aas g 0,81
Arrester acc. at cog. (from peak of RRS) as g 0,85 Fig. 41 Example of
Static analysis factor
Structure factor
k1
k
1,5
1,0
Estimated Loading Table
Max. seismic load Fs =m*as*g*k1*k N 1626
Moment due to seismic loads Ms =Fs *h Nm 2661
COMBINED ARRESTER LOADS (from IEC 62155)
TERMINAL + STATIC WIND #) Mts+Mw*0,32 Nm 853

Static Safety factor > 1,0 to SLL Standard load case 2,93
DYNAMIC TERMINAL + MAX. WIND Mtd+Mw Nm 2017

Dynamic Safety factor > 1,0 to SSL Exceptional load case 1 1,98
50% TERMINAL + SHORT CIRCUIT + MAX WIND 0,5*Mts+Msc+Mw Nm 3555

Dynamic Safety factor > 1,0 to SSL Exceptional load case 2 1,13
70% TERMINAL + SEISMIC + STATIC WIND ##) 0,7*Mts +Ms +Mw*0,12 Nm 3238
Dynamic Safety factor > 1,0 to Md Exceptional load case 3 1,54
DYNAMIC TERMINAL + SEISMIC Mtd+Ms Nm 4298

Dynamic Safety factor > 1,0 to Md Exceptional load case 4 1,16
§)
For seismic load, higher than SSL may be considered
#)
At 30% of max.dynamic
##)
At 10% of max.dynamic
8.2.3 Selection of short circuit capability

An arrester’s short-circuit (pressure relief) capability is chosen on the basis of the prospective
symmetrical short circuit in the system at the arrester location or calculated from the formula:
𝑆𝑆𝑘𝑘
𝐼𝐼 =
�√3 × 𝑈𝑈𝑠𝑠 �
where
I prospective symmetrical short–circuit current (kA)
Sk 3-phase short-circuit power in MVA
at the point where the arrester is to be installed
Us maximum system voltage (kV)
If Sk is not known, the breaking capacity of the associated circuit breaker can be used as a guide
for the short-circuit current.
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
8.2.4 Specification of high ambient temperature
Customer specifications occasionally state tough requirements for maximum ambient
temperature under which surge arresters are to operate. Whilst at the same time it is generally
understood that the average temperature over a 24 hour period will be less (see also 5.1.2).
8.2.5 Altitude correction

It is well known that the dielectric withstand of insulation in air decreases with altitude. The design
altitude according to IEC 60099-4 is 1000m above sea level. Arresters which are also designed
according to IEEE criteria are then likely suitable for use up to an altitude of 1800m above sea
level. However, since the arrester’s own insulation (internal and external) is well protected by its
inherent protective characteristic, many standard designs of MO arresters are suitable for use at
much higher altitudes without requiring an additionally extended flashover distance. Naturally,
every case must be considered separately to ensure satisfactory performance.
Noteworthy is that some users define altitude correction in terms of increased creepage distance.
For surge arresters – and specifically silicone-housed designs – this is not as critical and instead
the required physical clearance in air across the arrester with consideration to its protective
performance is deemed the defining criteria (see also 5.2.4).
8.3 Guide to Selection of ABB Surge Arresters

The ABB factory in Ludvika, Sweden has a long history as a pioneer in overvoltage protection,
dating back to 1938. MO technology was first introduced in 1979. ABB’s current family of
porcelain-housed gapless MO HV surge arresters is called EXLIM (EXcellent voltage LIMiters)
while the family of silicone-housed arresters is correspondingly called PEXLIM (solid type) and
TEXLIM (composite tube type). Within each family, different housing designs and mounting
arrangements are available to meet various mechanical, physical and environmental demands.
Each family utilizes ABB’s own MO resistors that fulfil or exceed the demands for respective IEC
station class. These are in turn given a letter designation based on block type which forms part of
the arrester type.
Designation Block type ABB type

Porcelain housing Silicone housing
SL R EXLIM R PEXLIM R
PEXLIM Q
SM Q EXLIM Q
TEXLIM Q
PEXLIM P
SH P EXLIM P
TEXLIM P Table 16.
PEXLIM T Overview of ABB surge arrester types
SH T EXLIM T
TEXLIM T
For ABB surge arresters, the type designation furthermore gives detailed information of the rating
and its application, as indicated below.
Suffix letters:
E Non-standard electrical data
M Non-standard mechanical data
P Parallel columns
H Underhung mounting
L Line arrester
Specific applications may dictate the need for a certain type outside of the common choice.
The respective arresters are nevertheless normally able to be tailored to cater for virtually any
rating or application.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


With reference to the considerations discussed in Chapter 8, the following rated voltages (Ur)
are typically recommended for most common 3-phase systems with Us = 52 – 550kV.
Housing Porcelain Silicone Porcelain Silicone
Mechanical load Low - Medium Low - Medium Medium - High Medium - High
Designation SL SM SL SM SH SM SH SH
ABB arrester style EXLIM EXLIM PEXLIM PEXLIM PEXLIM EXLIM EXLIM PEXLIM
R Q-E R Q P-X Q-D P P-Y
TEXLIM TEXLIM T TEXLIM
Q-B P-B P-A
T-B T-A
System earthing Directly earthed

Fault clearance time Max 1 second
Us (kVrms) Common choice Rated voltage, Ur (kVrms)
52 48
72.5 60
100 84
123 102
145 120
170 144
245 198
300 240
362 288
420 336
550 444
System earthing Resonant earthed or isolated neutral

Fault clearance time Max 10 seconds
52 51
72.5 72
100 96
123 120
145 144
170 168
System earthing Resonant earthed or isolated neutral

Fault clearance time Max 1 hour
52 66
72.5 90
100 126
123 154
145 180
170 210
Table 17. Common choice guide to surge arrester rated voltage.

Note that not all arrester styles may be best suited for all system voltage levels.
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
9. INSTALLATION GUIDELINES
Upon arrival to site, the contents of all packages should be checked against the respective
packing lists and any shortages identified. During unpacking, a visual inspection should be made
for any obvious signs of transport damage.
Reference shall be made to the assembly and special instructions provided for details of correct
installation and these shall always be followed and take precedence.
Since ABB undertakes such extensive routine, batch and sample tests on the MO resistors, surge
arresters and counters/monitors (in excess of the requirements of the applicable standards),
additional testing or commissioning checks are not considered warranted or necessary at
installation or before taking ABB arresters and counters into service.
9.1 Conductor dimensioning

Under normal operating voltages the arrester represents a high impedance and hence only
milliamps of current are typically flowing constantly through the connecting conductors. Even
under surge conditions, although the current can be significant (10's of thousands of Amps) it is
only present for a very short time (microseconds). Such currents will have a negligible heating
effect on the conductor. Consequently, the question of conductor size and cross-sectional area
is perhaps not as important for surge arresters as it is for other high voltage apparatus.
The true criteria comes when the arrester has

overloaded and the system short-circuit current is
thereafter flowing through the arrester and its
conductors. If the cross-section is thermally
insufficient for this condition, the connection may be
destroyed, i.e. melt before the protection has
operated to clear the fault. However, this may be able
to be accepted, since the arrester has to be replaced
anyway. If this is not acceptable, the cross-sectional
area for the conductors must be based on the system
short-circuit current and duration.
For the line conductors, the simple practical solution

is often to use the same conductor as for high-current
carrying equipment connected to the same line, e.g.
dropper to current transformer. However, as noted
above, this is typically unnecessarily large and may
result in undue mechanical loading on the arrester.
Lighter droppers, connected as slack vertical tee-offs,
may be preferable, and even recommended, for this
reason.
Surge arresters shall be connected to the same

Fig. 42
common earth grid as for the other HV apparatus in Example of mounting and connection arrangement
the substation. The earth conductor cross section
shall be overridingly chosen in accordance with local
regulations and earth fault current requirements.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


Connections to surge arresters in distribution systems are sometimes made via 600/1000 V PVC
insulated copper cables. The temperature rating for this type of cable is generally V75,
i.e. 75 oC. Two important factors should be considered before using this type of cable; especially
in HV applications:
• Above 200 oC, copper anneals and loses about 70 percent of its strength, thus
compromising its ability to withstand short circuit forces. This increases the risk of
breakage from whipping.
• Above 90 oC, standard PVC softens. With an ambient temperature of 40 oC, this permits
only 50 oC temperature rise. PVC begins to melt at 80 oC temperature rise, at which point
the risk of catching fire is very high.
a) Connection between arrester earth terminal and surge counter

When a surge counter is mounted on an earthed pedestal structure, it is necessary to insulate the
cable/busbar connecting the arrester to the counter, both to avoid parallel current paths and the
risk for flashover during surges. Otherwise the counter will not register as it should.
The required insulation level for this connector is based on foreseen lightning levels. The voltage
drop due to the internal resistance and inductance in the cable itself will be negligible in the case
of lighting impulses and what dominates is the circuit inductance. In the general case, the
lightning surge current generates a magnetic flux in the circuit comprising the insulated base, the
support pedestal and the insulated conductor. The voltage induced is proportional to the magnetic
flux in the closed loop and is little affected by the size of the conductor. For this reason the same
insulation level is usually required for all earth connectors, regardless of their cross sectional area.
The following general guidelines are recommended:
• The earth conductor between the arrester and counter should be insulated for at least
5 x L kV (LIWV), where L is the conductor length in metres between the arrester earth
terminal and the surge counter terminal. Note that the maximum permissible length L of
the earth conductor between arrester and surge counter is determined by the LIWV of the
insulated base which the arrester is mounted on as well as the counter itself
• The LIWV of the insulating base and the counter must also withstand this induced voltage;
otherwise it will flashover and the impulse will be earthed through the structure without
passing through the counter.
• Even if the LIWV of the insulated cable is sufficient, this lead must in any case be kept as
short as practicable since its inductance-drop adds to the protection level of the arrester.
b) Connection between surge counter and earth

The conductor between the counter and earth should be the same as for other earthing
conductors in the station and connected to the common HV earth grid. The selection of cross-
sectional area is generally based on the system short-circuit current and duration or as per local
regulations. This conductor should also be kept as short as possible, however whether or not it
is insulated has no relevance with regards to the registration of surges by the counter.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


9.2 Mounting angle
The vast majority of standard installations for surge arresters require vertical mounting on a
ground-mounted pedestal support (see Figure 42). However, on occasion, angled mounting may
be advantageous or even necessary. In these cases, mounting angles anywhere between
“vertical” (0o) to “upside-down” (180o) are to be considered.
Single-unit porcelain arresters have been mounted horizontally for some years (commonly as
cable terminations) without any obvious distress having been reported. Issues may arise during
actual installation - mainly relating to the logistics of placing a heavy porcelain on a pole - but as
long as care is taken, it seems to have been able to be done successfully. Nevertheless, it is not
generally recommended to mount arresters utilizing hollow insulators (porcelain or composite)
horizontally, since the internal stack of MO blocks is typically held under spring-compression and
there is then the risk that they may become displaced if not kept vertical. Also, inclining the
arrester makes its own weight work against the inherent mechanical strength, since the cantilever
loading capability is reduced by an amount equivalent to the arrester mass times gravity applied
about the centre of gravity. This can significantly reduce the permissible load when heavy and
long porcelain housings are involved.
Further, full horizontal mounting may affect the

performance under short circuit conditions as the external
arc may not meet as quickly as when the arrester is
vertical; making for a longer fault clearing time. As a
consequence of the arrester's placement, if the porcelain
is weakened during such an event, there is a greater risk
for it to fall down. There is also the issue of the uneven
washing of the sheds, as the protected creepage distance
becomes 50% of the total when hung horizontally. In
addition, there is then zero protected creepage on the top
side, which runs the risk for flashover under heavy Fig. 43
pollution, rain, fog, etc. The less the angle, the less the Example of angle-mounted PEXLIM
effect of all of the above concerns; but nevertheless there
is still a degree of risk. Angling at 45 degrees is considered a compromise and limits the risk of
the adverse effects (cantilever loading, displacement of blocks, uneven washing of the sheds,
etc). Multi-unit hollow-insulator arresters will just compound the issues and so angled-mounting
is not to be recommended for these longer arresters.
In contrast, direct-moulded silicone-housed arresters (e.g. PEXLIM) by design are not affected in
the same way as for hollow-insulator arresters. Therefore, these designs of arresters may be
mounted at any angle, regardless of length and number of units. Normal consideration of
mechanical loading nevertheless continues to apply. In particular, since the "self-weight" of the
arrester will apply a permanent moment this needs to be deducted from the permissible loading
(both SLL and SSL). Furthermore, with significant ”self-weight", a polymer arrester may also have
considerable deflection. Even if loads are kept within acceptable limits, it can look banana-shaped
which will likely cause concern for the user; a factor which may restrict its practical use. Hanging
lightweight polymer arresters from the line is another option, which then removes concerns
regarding cantilever loading.
When the arrester is to be installed completely upside down (inverted mounting) on an overhead
structure, this is possible provided the design is arranged during production to ensure, amongst
other matters, that the sheds are "right way up" in order to assist with water runoff. It is therefore
not usually possible to mount a standard arrester upside down. As a rule, standard arresters may
be used for mounting angles from 0 – 90o. For angles between >90 –180o, arresters specially
designed for inverted mounting are to be used.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


9.3 Busbar support option
Surge arresters are an active protective device, which means that they are not inherently intended
to be permanently mechanically loaded in service; they are not designed to be a station post
insulator. Nonetheless, there is an unfortunate tendency to consider the use of surge arresters
in place of separate post insulators as a busbar support to save cost and space in the substation.
Individual designs may be more secure than others; but on the whole, users now have a high
degree of security that the risk is low of a modern arrester failing as a result of an inherent design
breakdown. But this is only part of the story - notwithstanding improvements in design, arresters
do still actually sacrifice themselves on occasion. These “failures” (in actual fact a justifiable
overload) are typically due to an unforeseen event in the system which is beyond the design
parameters used to make the initial selection of a suitable arrester. Breaker failure, stolen or
forgotten earths, mismatch in line switching co-ordination, inappropriate relay setting, etc., can all
place undue stresses on the arrester and lead to its overload. Naturally the arrester will “fail”
short-circuit, and it is expected to do so safely.
With the arrester used to prop up a heavy busbar, one of two

scenarios may occur as a result of the overload and passage of
system fault current:
i) The arrester remains intact.

There is now a bolted-earthfault on the busbar. Since the arrester
is also providing the mechanical support, the bus cannot be re-
energized again until the arrester is completely removed. The
outage and downtime is no longer in terms of minutes or just a
few hours, but instead could potentially run into many hours, days
or even longer. Whatever perceived savings were had by not Fig. 44
purchasing an additional set of post insulators would be quickly Surge arresters (porcelain or
polymer) are not inherently
lost.
designed to be used as a bus
support.
ii) The arrester mechanically breaks down.
Standardized short-circuit testing involves testing only the longest single unit housing, and
connections are made using a conductor which is vertical and flexible, i.e. as per the
recommended installation method. No testing is required with a firmly fixed horizontal busbar
which applies a mechanical load to the top of the arrester; potentially in compression, cantilever
and torsion simultaneously. Likewise, there is no specified testing to consider the consequences
of an extended fault-clearing time or multiple-reclosures onto an already overloaded arrester.
What effect this may have on the pressure relief performance of the housing is uncertain. At
worst it could result in the housing cracking or breaking apart, leading to a complete loss of any
claimed remnant strength and both mechanical and electrical integrity would be lost in a
composite tube construction equally as for a hollow porcelain.
The risks are real when using an arrester as a mechanical support – prolonged outages,
subsequent damage, high consequential costs, system instability and unacceptable danger to
public safety. Users need to understand they are accepting such risks by relying on mechanical
strength measured after just one successful short circuit test; especially if it is not representative
of the actual installation.
Taking the bus support option may be seen as an easy fix or even the only way with a retro-fit.
Such a solution should nevertheless be the exception, not the rule and then only after all other
feasible alternatives have been seriously evaluated. For example, if clearance space is the issue,
suspending a lightweight solid design polymer arrester from the bus has been used as a viable
and effective solution; electrically, mechanically and cost-wise.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


10. MAINTENANCE AND MONITORING
A surge arrester does not contain any moving parts or items that can wear out. Consequently
there is nothing to maintain, adjust, correct or repair, which is why there is normally no need to
perform any form of periodical checking or monitoring. In general, a correctly chosen and installed
arrester is regarded as maintenance free during its entire lifetime. A correctly chosen arrester in
this context means that its electrical and mechanical characteristics are matched to actual service
conditions.
10.1 Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) and Mean Time To Repair (MTTR)
The question of MTBF and MTTR is often asked for substation equipment. However, such an
analysis has no meaning or direct relevance for surge arresters. The design-life of a modern
gapless MO arrester can reasonably be expected to be at least as long as the equipment it is
protecting (nominally accepted to be 30+ years). However, this does not mean that it will
necessarily last as long as the primary plant. It must be remembered that a surge arrester is, in
principle, a sacrificial protective device, designed to operate to protect other electrical equipment.
During the normal course of events, it may need to sacrifice itself at any time to protect the primary
plant. It is therefore often very difficult to distinguish between a failure and a correct operation
as, depending on the nature of the electrical surge, an arrester could "fail" internally during correct
operation. But this should not be considered as a "failure" if it occurs for genuine reasons; rather
it is the function of a surge arrester.
Finally, an arrester which has “failed” must be taken out of service and disposed of according to
local regulations. It cannot be repaired or reworked.
10.2 Cleaning
Periodical cleaning of porcelain-housed arresters is usually only necessary after periods of heavy
marine or industrial pollution. Surge arresters may be washed under voltage (live-washing),
following the same safety regulations as for any other high voltage equipment, plus with the
following additional precautions:
• surge arresters normally employ shorter flashover distance compared to other insulators,
leading to an increased risk for external flashover during the washing
• surge arresters with series connected units must have all units washed simultaneously to
avoid overheating of any unit
Arresters with silicone housing should, in general, not need to be washed at all. Nevertheless, it
is acknowledged that silicone insulators exposed to heavy pollution for long periods may become
discoloured and appear dirty over time. This is as a result of low molecular-weight silicone oils
diffusing to the surface, ultimately encapsulating the pollution layer and making the housing
appear dirty and difficult to clean. This function permits the housing to ultimately recover its
hydrophobicity, even after a temporary loss; a unique feature amongst insulators. Of importance
is that, unlike other types of insulators, this discolouration does not necessarily mean that a
silicone insulator's in-service pollution performance is affected. In fact, cleaning of a silicone
insulator can actually have the disadvantage of washing away the silicone oils deposited on the
surface, thereby reducing its hydrophobicity for a period.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


Should washing be undertaken on a silicone-insulator in any case – to remove large amounts of
solid layer deposits, for example - then only plain water at low to moderate pressure should be used
to prevent damage to the soft housing. If a cleaner housing than can be achieved by live-washing
is desired, then hand-washing with plain water and a soft cloth may be necessary. No form of
detergents, cleaning agents, abrasive cloth or hard brush should be used, unless approved by the
arrester manufacturer. WARNING! The arrester must be de-energized and out of service before
any work requiring handling is undertaken.
Regardless of how dirty the insulator appears, what is of interest is whether or not the surface of
the housing is hydrophobic or not. A class scale exists for measuring the degree of
hydrophobicity, and tests can be undertaken for determining the extent to which the surface of
the arrester has become hydrophilic. Seven wettability (hydrophobicity) classes (WC) have been
defined with a value between 1 and 7. WC 1 corresponds to a completely hydrophobic (water-
repellent) surface and WC 7 is a completely hydrophilic (totally wetted filmed) surface. By
definition, a composite insulator can be considered hydrophobic in the range WC 1 - 4. Silicone-
housings typically exhibit WC 1 – 2 when new. In contrast, a porcelain insulator exhibits WC > 5
when clean and new and WC 7 after a time in service, i.e. completely hydrophilic, without the
ability to recover. If desired, this class scale provides a coarse value of the wetting status and is
particularly suitable for a fast and easy check of insulators in the field. Refer IEC TS 62073 for
further details.
In areas with extreme pollution, a silicone insulator’s

hydrophobicity may become temporarily reduced from
its original level. However, even under such extreme
pollution conditions, the hydrophobicity transfer
mechanism of the silicone results in the silicone
housing performing better than porcelain-housings
with equivalent creepage distance and shed profile.
Unlike a porcelain insulator, a silicone-housed insulator
is not necessarily at risk for flashover just because the
surface is covered with pollution. Of importance is the
extent to which the hydrophobicity recovers via
transfer of low molecular weight silicone oils through
the pollution layer to the surface. This is denoted as
Hydrophobicity Transfer (HT) and is the relationship
between the ESDD (equivalent salt deposit density,
being the total amount of salts on the surface) and
ASDD (apparent salt deposit density; being the portion
of the pollution not covered by the low molecular
weight silicone oils). The difference between the
values of ESDD and ASDD represents the part of the
pollution layer that does not conduct any current.
Note! This is not a simple test to perform in the field. Fig. 45 Wettability class
However, it can be undertaken on an individual (source IEC TS 62073)
insulator removed from service as a means to
evaluate the pollution performance of silicone
insulators under specific site conditions.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


10.3 Condition monitoring
Despite being “maintenance free”, external factors can place stress on surge arresters (as with
all HV apparatus), leading to a risk for their deterioration over time and potential failure. As
businesses strive to remain competitive, unplanned outages are increasingly unacceptable, and
it can therefore be of advantage to regularly check and/or monitor the condition of HV surge
arresters connected to the network, so that they can be taken out of service before the situation
becomes acute.
Periodical external visual inspection can be undertaken to detect obvious

evidence of deterioration which could affect the arrester’s in-service
performance, e.g. physical damage, connections, flashover, tracking,
erosion, puncture, etc. However, since arresters are delivered as sealed
units from the factory, they cannot be disassembled for any internal
inspection or tests, as doing so would be the same as destroying the
arrester.
For system voltages above approximately 100 kV, surge counters are often
installed in series with the arresters. The main reason for the use of surge
counters is to check if a particular transmission line or phase suffers from
an exceptionally high number of overvoltages leading to arrester operation
- lightning faults on a line, for example. If this is the case, some preventative
counter-measures may be necessary to limit the number of surges.
If a surge counter is used, the surge arrester must be equipped with an

insulating base; thus ensuring that the discharge current is passing
exclusively through the surge counter and not discharged directly to earth.
However, surge counters tell only part of the story, as they simply register
the number of surges according to their operating characteristic. The user
therefore has no way of telling the magnitude of the surge and if it was
Fig. 46
significant, nor when it occurred and if it was coincident with a system Surge counter mounted
event. on support stand
A complete check of an arrester can only be made by

measurements under laboratory conditions. There is no simple
way to check an arrester during service, and normally there is
no such need either. If, however, it is decided to perform a check
on an arrester, it is desirable that the measurements can be
made without disturbing the normal service, i.e. without
disconnecting the arrester from the phase conductor.
Many measuring methods have been employed over the years

for gapless MO arresters, with the simplest method utilised
being the connection of a standard mA-meter in series with the
arrester to measure leakage current. Fig. 47
Principle diagram for a gapless MO
The AC leakage current through the arrester can be divided arrester, where U is the voltage
into a capacitive and a resistive part. At continuous operating across the arrester, It is total
voltage (Uc), a MO surge arrester acts as a capacitor, leading leakage current and Ic and Ir are the
to a predominantly capacitive component of current and a capacitive and resistive components,
significantly smaller resistive part. respectively, of the leakage current
__________________________________________________________________________________________


The specific capacitance of a MO resistor results in typical values of the capacitive current ranging
from 0.5 to 3mApeak, depending on the MO resistor diameter. For a complete surge arrester, the
capacitive current is further dependent on stray capacitances, pollution currents on the insulator
surface, number of MO resistor columns in parallel and the actual operating voltage. Meanwhile,
the resistive component of the leakage current of a MO resistor is at the same time in the range
50 to 250µApeak, and is temperature and voltage dependant.
Since the capacitive component of the current dominates so greatly, the total leakage current
measured on a simple mA-meter will be very sensitive to the installation; making interpretation of
the readings difficult. Further, there is no evidence that the capacitive current would change
significantly due to deterioration of the voltage-current characteristic of the surge arrester.
Consequently, measurement of capacitive current cannot reliably indicate the condition of MO
arresters. Although increasing values may be of some use in indicating that cleaning of the
insulators is necessary.
Instead, it is generally recognised (IEC 60099-5) that the only reliable indicator for the condition
of a gapless arrester which can be assessed during normal service is to measure the resistive
component of the leakage current (or estimate it from the 3rd harmonic), and compare it with the
maximum allowable resistive current, as given by the manufacturer, under prevailing service
conditions i.e. temperature and applied voltage. Ageing of the MO resistors will generally cause a
gradual increase of the resistive leakage current with time.
Because of the order of magnitude difference (µA vs. mA), a significant change in the resistive
current would be required before it could be noticed on a milliamp meter. Therefore, special
measuring apparatus is necessary to separate out the two components, and give a reliable
detection method for the analysis of the leakage current through gapless MO surge arresters.
Such devices are ABB Surge Arrester Monitor EXCOUNT-II or EXCOUNT-III and Doble Leakage
Current Monitor LCM.
Fig. 48 EXCOUNT-II surge arrester monitor
__________________________________________________________________________________________


11. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The earliest overvoltage protection devices were introduced during the last decade of the
19th Century and consisted of a simple air gap for which the sparkover voltage changed with weather
conditions, i.e. temperature, air pressure and humidity. One major disadvantage with this device
was that its operation led to a power arc and consequent interruption of power supply on systems
having earthed neutral points.
The next significant step in the development was the so called conventional arrester, or gapped
arrester, developed during the 1930’s. The arrester comprised of voltage dependent silicon carbide
(SiC) resistor blocks in series with spark gaps, mounted together in a porcelain housing.
The gapped arrester was improved through several generations during

the subsequent decades. The voltage across the series connected
spark gaps was controlled with grading components comprising non-
linear resistors and capacitors and the protection characteristics were
improved by introduction of current limiting (active) gaps around 1960.
Better protection was achieved through the active gaps permitting the
use of SiC resistors with a lower residual voltage.
The conventional spark-gap assembly consisted of stacked brass

electrodes with steatite spacers and grading resistors (if present)
between them. Between each electrode was a device for pre-
ionization of the ignition point. This ensured that the ignition was
distinct and as free as possible from variations resulting from different
surge steepnesses.
Active gaps were formed between electrodes riveted to discs of arc-

Fig. 49
resistant material, with several assembled to form a stack. The stack Conventional
also comprised a blow-out coil with a parallel-connected voltage- spark-gap
dependent resistor. Active gap arresters had better extinguishing assembly
capacity, a lower discharge level and a greater discharging capacity
for switching surges than conventional gapped arresters.
The most advanced gapped SiC arresters in the middle of the 1970’s gave good protection against
overvoltages, but the technique had reached its limits. It was difficult, for example, to design
arresters with several parallel columns to cope with the very high energy requirements needed for
HVDC transmissions. The statistical scatter of the sparkover voltage was also a limiting factor with
respect to the accuracy of the protection levels.
The metal-oxide (also called MO, zinc-oxide or ZnO) surge arrester was introduced in the mid to
late 1970’s and proved to be a solution to the problems which could not be solved with the old
technology. The protection level of a surge arrester was no longer a statistical parameter, but could
be accurately given. The protective function was no longer dependant on the installation or vicinity
to other apparatus - as compared to SiC arresters, whose sparkover voltage could be affected by
surrounding electrical fields. The MO arrester could be designed to meet virtually any energy
requirements by connecting MO resistors in parallel (even though the technique to ensure a
sufficiently good current sharing, and thus energy sharing, between the columns is sophisticated).
The possibility to design protective equipment which could handle extremely high energy stresses
also opened up new application areas; protection of series capacitors, for example.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


Some of the first arresters with MO resistors utilised spark gaps in series with the MO resistors or
in parallel with sections of the block column (shunt gaps). These designs reflected, to some extent,
a concern for the long-term stability of the MO material. Using spark gaps in series or parallel
consequently decreased the voltage stress on the blocks. These designs are not found on the
market any longer for HV applications. With experience, the elimination of gaps permitted the
building of very compact, reliable, low profile arresters compared to what was possible with the old
technology.
The MO technology was developed further
Ures during the 1980’s and 1990’s through to
E (kJ/kV) present day, towards improved protection
Ur
levels, higher permissible voltage stresses
3.0 15
on the material, greater specific energy
absorption capabilities and better current
2.0 10 withstand strengths.
1.0 5 Active spark-gaps ZnO New polymeric materials, superseding the

traditional porcelain housings, started to be
Passive spark-gaps
used in the mid 1980’s for distribution
arresters. By the end of the 1980’s,
1930 40 50 60 70 80 90 2000
Vintage polymer-housed arresters were available
Polymer housings up to 145 kV system voltages, and today
Fig. 50 Surge arrester development polymer-housed arresters have been
accepted even for 1200 kV systems.
Many of the early polymeric designs utilized EPDM rubber as an insulator material, but during the
1990’s more and more manufacturers changed to silicone, which is less affected by environmental
conditions, including UV radiation and pollution.
11.1 Operation of gapped and gapless surge arresters

A non-linear resistor type gapped arrester, commonly known as a silicon carbide (SiC) arrester,
comprises SiC valve resistor blocks in series with either passive or active (current limiting) spark
gaps. The purpose of the gaps is to protect the valve elements, give an exact sparkover voltage,
carry the arc during the discharge without being damaged and to deionize the arc sufficiently at the
short time at zero passage to avoid a reignition of the gap. The active gap has the additional function
to create an arc voltage drop resulting in a counter voltage, and thus a current limitation, during the
follow current and extinction interval. In series with the active gaps, a coil is connected electrically
in parallel with a non-linear resistor valve block. See Figure 51.
The operating principle for SiC arresters with passive (non current limiting) gaps and active (current
limiting) gaps differs. For the passive gaps, the overvoltage wave creates an increasing voltage
across the gaps until sparkover occurs and, during a short period of time, an impulse current rushes
through the arrester. Thereafter, the normal power frequency voltage will force a follow current
through the arrester of several hundreds of amperes. Due to the non-linearity of the resistor blocks,
the current is reduced much faster than the voltage, and when the voltage approaches zero, the
current is choked and the arc extinguishes.
Practically the entire voltage is across the blocks, with only some small percentage being across
the gaps as an arc voltage drop. When the current has been reduced to below about 1 ampere,
occurring some electrical degrees before zero, the arc voltage drop is suddenly increased since the
low current cannot support any plasma. The arc is transformed to a corona discharge and is
extinguished some hundred microseconds before the zero crossing.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


The function of an arrester with active gaps is somewhat different. A lightning overvoltage, which
has a high steepness, causes a sparkover of the gaps and the impulse current passes through the
non-linear resistor blocks in parallel with the coils, since the impedance of the coil for the steep
wave is much higher than that for the non-linear resistor. The follow current is, however, much
lower, both in steepness and magnitude, and the current is forced into the coil and a magnetic field
is built up.
A. Stack of spark-gaps
B. Coil
C. Shunt resistor
D. Valve resistor
E. Grading resistor
Fig. 51
Section of an active-gap
arrester
The magnetic field results in an electromagnetic force acting on the arc, which is forced from the
initial ignition point out into a narrow chamber where the arc is lengthened 50 - 100 times. The arc
is cooled against the walls and starts to take up voltage. The resulting voltage reduces the follow
current and, as soon as the momentary value of the power frequency voltage falls below the arc
voltage, the follow current ceases. This is in contrast to a passive gap, which must wait until the
voltage is almost zero before it can interrupt the current.
Voltage distribution for steeper waves is determined by the capacitance of the arrester. The
function of the grading resistors in gapped arresters is to distribute the voltage evenly across the
gaps in the event of relatively slow voltage variations. The sparkover voltage at power frequency
and for switching surges is then determined by these grading resistors. There are two kinds of
grading resistors, those with linear resistance and those with non-linear resistance. Generally,
the sparkover voltages for this frequency range needs to be fairly high to prevent false operations
for normal service voltage variations.
Service under polluted conditions has always been a problem for gapped arresters. The formation
of so called “dry bands” on the porcelain surface under such conditions leads to a disturbed
voltage gradient, which affects the internal gaps by means of coupling capacitance between gaps
and porcelains. As a result, some arresters may then even sparkover at service voltage during
periods of heavy pollution. Repeated sparkover may result in overheating when the gaps fail to
reseal, leading to complete failure of the arrester. Improved reliability under conditions of high
contamination requires a strong grading, which can be achieved with highly non-linear grading
resistors.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


Should a SiC resistor be placed on high service voltage without series gaps, it would draw a
continuous current of some hundreds of amperes and thus quickly destroy itself. A “gapless SiC
arrester” is therefore not a possibility.
Metal-oxide (MO) resistors, in contrast, represent a high impedance at normal service voltage and
draw only a small leakage current (predominantly capacitive), with the resistive component of the
current in the order of only 50 to 250µApeak (depending on the MO resistor diameter). Such a low
“leakage” is neither dangerous to the MO resistor nor uneconomic for the system. Therefore MO
resistors can be placed directly on voltage, and it is possible to remove the series gaps entirely
from the arrester.
MO resistors have an extremely non-linear, but well defined, volt-amp operating characteristic. The
working principle of a gapless MO arrester is therefore very simple: When an impulse occurs, the
arrester’s impedance reduces via its operating characteristic and subsequently changes over from
conducting a small, predominantly capacitive current to a large resistive current. Due to the
passage of the impulse current, a voltage is consequently built up across the arrester (residual
voltage), the magnitude of which is determined by the volt-amp operating characteristic of the
arrester for the applied impulse current and waveshape. Once the impulse has been dissipated,
the arrester thereafter immediately returns back along its operating characteristic to its non-
conducting state.
Even though a lightning overvoltage causes an impulse current through a gapless MO arrester as
for the gapped arrester, the normal power frequency voltage after the discharge is not high enough
to force a follow current through the arrester. Hence, a MO arrester is only subjected to the energy
from the lightning, in contrast to the SiC arrester, where a large energy contribution is obtained from
the follow current. See Figure 52.
Protection levels for gapless MO arresters depend only on the residual voltages determined by the
operating characteristic for the respective waveshapes and currents and thus are better defined
and more stable compared with gapped types. In general, the protection levels are lower (i.e. better)
than for gapped SiC arresters of equal rated voltage. This improvement is particularly marked when
steep-fronted impulses and switching surges are considered.
Gapless type Gapped type

No sparkover, current flows as per U-I characteristic Sparkover, afterwards power frequency follow current
Small scatter band for residual voltages, typically ± 3% Usual scatter band for spark-gaps (up to 15% scatter;
even higher for poorly graded arresters)
Excellent steep-front wave characteristics Strong rise (>25%) in sparkover voltage due to steep-
(only approx. 10%) front overvoltages
Temporary power frequency load above Uc possible Continuous voltage at power frequency, always lower
than rated voltage
Energy absorption capability can be increased Restricted energy absorption capacity, parallel
(arresters in parallel) connection has no effect
Simple active part with few components Complex structure for active part
Practically no ageing effect Ageing of spark-gaps due to arc erosion
Table 18. Summary of the major differences between gapless MO and gapped SiC arresters
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
Function of a silicon carbide Function of a metal oxide
(SiC) arrester (MO) arrester
with passive gaps without series gaps
Fig. 52 Comparison in operation of a silicon carbide (SiC) arrester with passive gaps
and a gapless metal-oxide (MO) arrester without series gaps
Fig. 53 Comparison of non-linear characteristics between MO resistors and SiC resistors
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
11.2 Replacement of gapped surge arresters
Since the statistical chance of a malfunction is greater for very old arresters, these should be
identified and removed from service as soon as possible as the first step in any replacement
program. In general, aged insulation has a lower withstand level from its original capability. This
means that the margin of protection is reduced and the possibility of equipment failure increases
with age. Hence, a replacement program should also identify older equipment, and replace the
arresters protecting the most valuable equipment first.
Further, when systems expand, there may be a need to upgrade the arresters connected to them;
a fact that is often overlooked. The result is heavier than designed operating duty and increased
failure risk. Arresters manufactured even as late as 1960 to 1970 may not be provided with any
suitable pressure-relief mechanism for safe operation during internal short circuit. Even where
such mechanism exists, it may not function satisfactorily if the short-circuit capacity of the line has
been increased after the original installation and is now higher than the arrester capability. Such
arresters almost certainly would not fulfil today’s tough requirements for short circuit safety and
would fail violently in the event of their malfunction; causing damage to equipment nearby as well
as posing a serious risk of injury to any personnel in the vicinity.
As there are still many gapped silicon-carbide (SiC) surge arresters in service worldwide, it is
worthwhile mentioning what can be done to assess their condition, since aged gapped arresters
can malfunction due to a number of reasons, including:
• sealing failures
• arc erosion
• grading component failures
Monitoring may be undertaken on-line as a first step by scanning the arrester with an infrared
camera to reveal any unusual hot spots.
After the arrester is disconnected from the supply source, additional information can be gained
off-line by the following tests:
• Physically examine the arrester units externally to see if the gaskets have deteriorated or
there is any sign of moisture ingress.
• Megger each unit separately to detect any shorted units. However, when grading
components are present, the readings should not tend to infinity, otherwise a discontinuity
may be suspected in the unit.
• If the grading current of an arrester is known at the time of its manufacture or installation,
this figure can be used to compare with the value after it has been in service for some
time. Considerable deviations from the original recording should motivate further
investigation or replacement of the arrester.
• Perform a spark-over test at power frequency (50 or 60 Hz) and compare the results with
the values obtained during routine tests. If the results are more than +10% from that given
in the data sheet, the unit should be replaced. The sparkover voltage for an arrester must
be measured in a high voltage laboratory to obtain the necessary sensitivity and control,
and thus this test cannot be performed on site.
With consideration to the age and residual life of most gapped arresters, versus the time and cost
to remove them from site, install replacements, perform tests in a HV lab, interpret the results and
then possibly reinstate them in service, many users decide it is better to simply undertake a
replacement program of all installed gapped arresters of a certain age without further analysis.
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
12. SPECIAL APPLICATIONS
With increased focus on system reliability, together with ongoing developments occurring in the
field of overvoltage protection, new and innovative applications are continuing to be found for the
use of surge arresters.
Many of these are, however, quite specialised and require more in depth discussion than is
considered possible within the scope of this Guide. Nevertheless, this section briefly discusses
a number of these topics, and refers the reader to other ABB technical information for further
reading should they be of interest. See References.
12.1 Reduced clearance distances

In order to reduce the risk of insulation failure to an economically and operationally acceptable
level, the insulation withstand of substation equipment is selected with regard to expected
overvoltages, taking into account the protective characteristics of the surge arresters.
The insulation withstand of the surge arrester itself has to be co-ordinated with its own protective
characteristics. The arrester has to be positioned with respect to grounded objects and surge
arresters in adjacent phases, without increasing the total risk for insulation failure. The insulation
withstand properties of surge arresters in a substation can be divided into:
• insulation withstand of the surge arrester itself, including the insulation between flanges
and grading rings, etc.
• insulation withstand between the surge arrester and grounded objects
• insulation withstand between the surge arrester and other equipment connected to the
same phase, e.g. bushings
• insulation withstand between surge arresters in adjacent phases
The insulation withstand should be the only constraint when selecting suitable clearances for
properly dimensioned surge arresters. Any effects which various phase-to-ground and phase-to-
phase clearances may have on the voltage distribution along the MO block column should have
already been accounted for in a well-made design.
The insulation withstand of the surge arrester itself should also have been thoroughly considered
at the design stage. Spacing between metal flanges, as well as spacing between flanges and
grading rings, should be designed to be sufficiently large to withstand overvoltages appearing
during current discharges; at least up to the design altitude (and perhaps more).
a) Phase-to-ground clearance
The phase-to-ground clearance in substations is usually based on the selected standard rated
lightning and switching impulse withstand voltages. International Standard IEC 60071-2, for
example, recommends minimum clearances.
In general, the clearance between a grounded object and a surge arrester should be the same as
the phase-to-ground clearance selected for other high voltage equipment in a substation. If it is
not possible to use the normal phase-to-ground clearance in special applications, a smaller
clearance may be chosen, considering the protective characteristics of the arrester, and after
correction for altitude. However, this is generally only possible if there is a fairly big margin
between the standard rated withstand voltage for a substation and the protective level of the
arresters.
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
b) Other equipment in the same phase
The clearance between a surge arrester and other high-voltage equipment connected to the same
phase, e.g. bushings or post insulators, is usually not of importance during normal operating
conditions. In polluted conditions, however, the transient voltage distribution on the insulator
surfaces may become extremely uneven. This creates high voltage stresses between the surge
arrester housing and any high-voltage insulator positioned nearby. It is recommended therefore
to choose half the phase-to-ground clearance as the minimum metal-to-metal clearance between
the upper (energized) end of the surge arrester and the top (energized) end of other high-voltage
equipment. Furthermore it is recommended to use the phase-to-ground clearance also for the
spacing between the lower (grounded) end of the surge arrester and the bottom (grounded) end
of other high-voltage equipment. For the case with a vertically mounted bushing and if a silicone-
housed arrester is used, the suggested required distance at the lower end may be omitted.
c) Phase-to-phase clearance
The phase-to-phase clearance for high-voltage equipment in a substation is normally based on
the selected standard rated lightning and switching impulse phase-to-phase withstand voltages.
IEC 60071-2, for example, recommends minimum phase-to-phase clearances. Note that the
normal selection of surge arrester protective levels does not directly protect the phase-to-phase
insulation.
In general, the clearance between surge arresters in adjacent phases should be the same as the
phase-to-phase clearance selected for other high-voltage equipment in the substation. If it is not
possible to use the normal phase-to-phase clearance in a special application of surge arresters,
the minimum clearance with regard to lightning overvoltages can be derived, and should include
altitude correction.
Similarly, the minimum phase-to-phase clearance for arresters with respect to switching
overvoltages should also, if possible, always be based on the selected standard rated switching
impulse phase-to-phase withstand voltage for the substation. If a special application requires a
minimized phase spacing, a favourable electrode configuration established by the grading rings
may permit a reduction of the phase-to-phase clearance in certain cases.
More information on the selection of surge arresters for this application is available in the ABB
Technical Information document “Insulation withstand and clearances with EXLIM and
PEXLIM surge arresters”.
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
12.2 Station protection
When lightning surges enter a station, reflections occur and oscillations are set up due to the
capacitance of the station apparatus and inductance of busbars and connection leads. For steep
incoming surges, the difference in voltage shape and amplitude at different locations in the station
will be significant. A station should be designed for a low probability of failure, and thus the
protection against lightning surges is not only a question of which arrester to choose, but even
more important, is to determine the number and location of arresters needed in order to obtain an
adequate protection.
Two examples of this application include:
a) Line entrance arrester

If, due to any reason, it is impossible to install an arrester in a sub-station as close to important
equipment as ideally necessary, the protective distance of the station arrester may be improved
by installing an additional arrester at the entrance into the station of the incoming line. This
arrester also fulfils a second function as protection for an open line breaker.
b) Protection of open breaker

In over half the ground flash cases, the first lightning stroke will statistically be followed by one or
more successive strokes. The first stroke may lead to a single-phase or multi-phase ground fault
on a line, causing the relay protection to operate and to open the line breakers. If a rapidly
following successive stroke hits the line, the lightning surge may reach the breaker in open
position before the breaker has fully recovered its dielectric strength across the contacts.
A restrike and possible breaker damage may occur.
The normal arresters in the station cannot protect the breaker against this event, and instead a
separate set of arresters on the line side of the breaker are required. Such additional breaker
arresters give the additional benefit of improving the overall overvoltage protection of the station.
For a full treatment of the problem of station

protection, many parameters must be considered
concerning probability-distribution of lightning
currents, station layout, power frequency voltage,
grounding, shield wires, protection levels and
connection leads of surge arrester, insulation levels,
etc. In view of the complexity of the problem, practical
engineering has long been based mainly on “rules of
thumb” or on simplified formulas, which often
disregard many of the important parameters.
The final choice is always left to the system engineer

to decide upon an acceptable level of risk; taking into
account additional parameters such as the importance
of the station and the cost of a failure compared with
the cost of improved protection.
More information on the selection of surge arresters

for this application is available in the ABB Technical
Fig. 54 Arrester placement Information document “Application guidelines for
station protection”.
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
12.3 Lightning protection of transmission lines
Transmission lines in the lower system voltage range, 72 kV - 245 kV, are often sensitive to
lightning overvoltages for the simple reason that one or more of the following situations exist:
• the insulation withstand is relatively low
• the transmission line often lacks shielding wires
• the footing impedance of the towers is high
• the transmission line lacks a continuous counterpoise (shield earth wire)
Despite this, meshed networks with rapid re-connection of faulted lines for the most part give
satisfactory operational continuity. Short-time disturbances (around 0.5 seconds) must be
tolerated in radial networks, as well as the voltage drop during the fault time (around 0.1 second)
occurring in the meshed networks.
There are, however, some types of loads where even brief disturbances can have a severe impact
for the on-going process - e.g. steel mills, paper mills, refineries, etc. The cost for such an
interruption, both in terms of value of lost production and the costs to re-start the production, are
unacceptable. In today’s deregulated energy market, such costs will be more visible to the
network operator than before, since the buyer can set high demands on delivery security.
The traditional methods to reduce the number of faults caused by lightning have been:
• installation of shield wires
• improvement of the earthing impedance of the towers
• increasing the insulation level
Unfortunately, implementing these methods gives only marginal improvements of the delivery
security, especially if the earthing conditions are difficult due to a high earth resistivity.
A better alternative to reduce the number of line faults caused by lightning is to install MO arresters
with polymeric insulators in parallel with the line insulators. These line surge arresters (LSA)
normally consist of standard polymer-housed arresters together with a disconnecting device and
fastening equipment for installation on the line itself or on the tower.
LSA’s give complete protection against lightning flashovers

for the actual line insulator. Insulators in adjacent phases and
in other towers, however, are not protected; which is why
LSA’s are mainly installed on all phases on the towers that
are intended to be protected. In reality, LSA’s are seldom
installed throughout an entire line length, but instead only in
areas where lightning gives most problems due to exposed
position, bad earthing conditions etc. Modern localisation
systems for lightning-storms in combination with traditional
fault statistics are excellent tools to identify towers where
LSA’s should be installed to be of most effective use. Fig. 55 LSA on HV line
The dimensioning of a LSA generally follows the same criteria as for an arrester in a substation.
However, it is of particular importance that the LSA is designed correctly with respect to energy
and TOV capability, since the stresses on the arrester at lightning are highly dependent on the
earthing conditions, presence of shield wires, etc. Similarly, the complete solution must be
physically and mechanically robust, since it is fully exposed to the elements and typically
inaccessible for close inspection or maintenance.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


Line Surge Arresters (LSA) of a gapless design offer a robust, efficient and cost-effective
alternative to those with series gap; External Gap Lightning Arrester (EGLA).
EGLA have the following inherent disadvantages in their functional operation:

• Needs tailor-made design for each situation; making installation difficult and prone to error
• Insulation co-ordination is difficult; since the gap characteristic is prone to change
• Unpredictable energy sharing; increasing the risk for arrester failure
• No switching impulsive overvoltage control; meaning outage rate remains high
• Pollution effects unpredictable; increasing the risk for arrester failure
• Signalling device needed to indicate failed arrester; but is rarely provided
• Failed SA is ”weak point” for repeated ”short-circuits”
The final point is perhaps one of the most commonly overlooked. It is promoted that the series
gap will hold against power frequency voltage in the event of an arrester overload; which may be
true. However, the gap cannot be dimensioned to withstand lightning impulses. Hence, a
subsequent lightning strike to the line nearby the failed arrester will cause the gap to fire and a
permanent earthfault will occur, with consequential line outage. Without some kind of signalling
device (rarely provided) this failed arrester will be practically impossible to locate and repeated
flashovers and line trips will occur. The problem will be multiplied in the case that several arresters
along the line have failed.
In comparison. LSA have the following unique advantages:

• Easy insulation co-ordination for both lightning and switching overvoltages
• Flexibility in application; may be mounted in a way that best suits the tower configuration
• User-friendly installation; simply connected without individual adjustment
• Predictable energy sharing; predictable estimate of risk for overload
• Self-disconnection means no permanent fault / weak-point
• No signalling device needed
In contrast to EGLA, an LSA can be suspended from the line or mounted on the tower in a way
that best suits the overall configuration. By so doing, the arrangement can be made to ensure
that, in the event of an arrester overload, adequate clearance is assured to withstand not only
PFWL but also LIWL and SIWL. This is achieved through the clever use and placement of the
self-disconnecting device.
Manufacturers of EGLA’s sometimes promote the disconnecting device on LSA’s as a “weak

point”; prone to damage and premature disconnection. On some designs this may be the case.
However, ABB’s LSA design is different since it uses common line hardware as well as specially
designed fittings to ensure the robustness of the solution as a whole. Furthermore, in contrast
to some solutions, ABB uses station class PEXLIM arresters for its LSA, meaning that the same
high quality and secure performance expected in substations is also achieved out on the
transmission lines. This is exemplified in the high values achieved during the lightning Impulse
discharge capability test according to Annex N of IEC 60099-4 (since Ed 2.1, 2006-07).
brochure “PEXLINK: Transmission-line protection for disturbance-free system operation”.
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
12.4 Switching surge control in EHV systems
In any complex electromagnetic system, a sudden change in state gives rise to transient
oscillations which, in turn, can cause high overvoltages unless suitably damped. For EHV systems
it has been common practice for many years to equip circuit breakers with closing resistors, as a
means of controlling such system transient interactions during closing or
re-closing operations. The closing resistors are inserted in series with the load circuit being
switched for a short period of time before closing the main contacts of the breaker – thereby
damping the transient overvoltages. Without any form of control, switching overvoltages during
reclosing of a fault-cleared line could, under certain circumstances, rise as high as 3 – 4 p.u of
the phase-ground peak voltage. Pre-insertion resistors typically function to limit this overvoltage
to in the order of 1.5 – 2.0 p.u.
Optimum overvoltage control requires correct choice of the resistor value in relation to the source
impedance level, the line length and the line parameters. Although a well-proven technology,
pre-insertion resistors can lead to a number of problems in mechanical design and operation; with
adverse impact on overall system reliability. As robust and efficient alternatives, used either alone
or in combination, the microprocessor-based ABB point-on-wave controller type SwitchsyncTM and
PEXLINK Line Arresters could be substituted instead.
The "intelligent" Switchsync controller makes Fig. 56

it possible to connect the load to the network Modern Switchsync in conjunction with PEXLINK
at a predetermined instant, which gives
optimum transient suppression.
PEXLIM silicone-housed surge arresters

(forming part of the PEXLINK concept),
located at line ends and along the line at
selected points, function to limit switching
surge overvoltages and thus line insulation
requirements. To locate arresters along the
line has previously not been a practical
solution due to the fact that only porcelain-
housed arresters with high discharge energy
capability have been available. Now with
lightweight polymer-housed arresters
available for use even on EHV systems, a
very efficient overvoltage control along long
transmission lines is possible.
Different line and switching configurations

lend themselves to one or more standalone
solution, or a combination. Switchsync
and/or PEXLINK will, in most cases, provide
a cost effective, more reliable and efficient
method of controlling line-switching
transients than pre-insertion resistors.
Technical Information document “Application guidelines for transmission line switching
overvoltage control” and ABB brochure “PEXLINK: Transmission-line protection for
disturbance-free system operation”.
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
12.5 Shunt capacitor banks
Shunt capacitor banks are used to an increasing extent at all voltage levels. Three-phase
capacitor bank sizes vary from a few tenths of MVAr to several hundreds of MVAr, with both
ungrounded wye and grounded wye banks in use.
It is common practice today to use ”restrike-free” breakers. However, since many banks are
switched on a daily basis, the probability of obtaining high transients associated with capacitor
switching increases. Furthermore, the standardized procedure to verify that the breaker is
restrike-free includes only a limited number of tests. The use of arresters in this application not
only gives protection if a restrike does occur, but also decreases the probability of multiple
restrikes since the trapped charge on the capacitors is reduced.
Generally speaking, capacitor protection by surge arresters has been a difficult task before MO
arresters became available. The high discharge currents and possible energies associated with
an arrester operation at a capacitor bank heavily stressed the spark gaps in a SiC gapped
arrester. The possible high energies could also result in overstressed SiC blocks. Once a
sparkover occurred, the arrester which sparked-over had to discharge the whole energy stored in
the capacitor bank and also carry a power-frequency follow current before a resealing at the next
voltage zero was possible.
With the introduction of MO surge arresters, it is possible to meet any energy demand by simply
paralleling the necessary number of blocks, even if the procedure to ensure current sharing is
quite sophisticated.
Many capacitor banks are operated without surge arresters. However, there are a variety of
beneficial reasons to install arresters:
• To prevent capacitor failures at a breaker restrike or failure

• To limit the risk of repeated breaker restrikes
• To prolong the service life of the capacitors by limiting high overvoltages
• To serve as an ”insurance” against unforeseen resonance conditions which otherwise
would lead to capacitor failures
• For overall limitation of transients related to capacitor bank switching which can be
transferred further in the system and cause disturbances in sensitive equipment
• For upgrading of capacitors by preventing high overvoltages and/or for increasing the
service voltage
• To serve as protection against lightning for capacitor banks and filters connected to lines
Technical Information document “Guidelines for selection of surge arresters for shunt
capacitor banks”.
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
12.6 Series Compensation (SC) and Static Var Compensation (SVC)
Series capacitors have been applied for more than 50 years on EHV transmission lines in order
to increase the possible power transfer and improve the transient and steady state stability of the
power transmission system. The ever-growing need for electrical power, high costs and difficulties
to obtain ”right-of-way” for new lines, together with the availability of MO resistors as highly
effective overvoltage protection, have resulted in a boom for series compensation in recent
decades.
In addition to the old, but still valid, arguments for series compensation, the possibilities to use
adjustable capacitors for load-flow control and balanced loading between parallel lines make
series compensation even more interesting for the future.
An extremely vital component for the series compensation scheme is its overvoltage protection.
Historically, it comprised a single spark gap (for moderate demands on capacitor reinsertion
speed) or a dual spark gap protective scheme (for faster reinsertion or other tougher
requirements). With the availability of MO resistors, the protective schemes have been further
improved by using the varistors in parallel with the spark gaps, and ultimately even without the
spark gaps. This has led to simple and robust protection with ultra-fast re-insertion speeds, low
re-insertion transients and low protection levels.
Modern all-film capacitors have low losses, but their overvoltage withstand capability is less than
that for the old type of paper-film capacitors. This leads to requirements of low protection levels
to obtain an economical capacitor design. Low protection levels, however, may be difficult to
achieve with spark gaps alone, since reinsertion transients can give unwanted gap operations.
With MO resistors, this problem is easily solved and, in addition, the reinsertion of the capacitor
will be instantaneous as soon as the voltage across the capacitor decreases below the conduction
”knee-point” of the MO resistor. The spark gap is used as overload protection for the varistor and
is also usually used to quickly by-pass the capacitor/varistor for internal faults in order to limit the
necessary design energy capability for the varistor. For higher protection levels, it may be
necessary to use two gaps in series. With further improvements in varistor energy capability and
faster by-pass breakers, it is possible in most cases to dispense completely with the spark gaps.
Technical Information document “Overvoltage protection of series capacitors”.
Static Var Compensation (SVC) schemes often require arresters with energy capability exceeding
that provided by a single MO block column. However, they are much smaller than those for SC
schemes. Standard surge arresters are normally easily adapted to cope with these requirements
after due consideration to ensure adequate current and energy sharing.
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
12.7 HVDC arresters
Surge arresters are applied in many different locations within a HVDC scheme,
where the normal service voltage waveforms differ widely - from pure power
frequency and DC voltages to mixed wave-shapes with commutation
overshoots.
The introduction of MO technology had a great impact on the insulation

coordination for HVDC-converter stations. With gapless MO arresters, it has
been possible to reduce drastically the protective levels, especially as the
coordinating cases originate from internal faults and/or switching events.
These result in rather low discharge currents (some kA) compared to the
usually considered lightning currents (tens of kA) for general AC applications.
ABB pioneered the world’s first gapless MO DC arrester, with a DC-line

arrester installed in the Skagerrak HVDC transmission between Norway and
Denmark, and has subsequently built on this success to gain extensive unique
experience in this extremely specialized field.
More information on the selection of surge arresters for this application is

available in the ABB Technical Information document “Overvoltage
protection of HVDC-Converter stations”. Fig. 57
UHVDC arrester
12.8 Current sharing considerations

To meet very high energy requirements, parallel columns of MO resistors have to be used in
surge arresters, and/or several arresters in parallel, so as to share the current and thus the
energy. Typical high energy applications are protection of series capacitors and arresters used in
HVDC schemes, with as many as 400 parallel columns of high energy varistors having been
commissioned. However, even more traditional applications sometimes warrant the use of
parallel columns, where the energy demands are beyond the capability of a single column
arrester.
With MO arresters, the energy capability can be increased to meet

any possible energy requirements by simply adding sufficiently many
parallel columns; provided that no series or parallel spark gaps are
used. To make full use of this benefit of MO arresters, however, it is
necessary to ensure a good current, and thereby energy, sharing
between the parallel columns. The columns can be mounted all in the
same housing or in separate housings, depending on the necessary
number of block columns. For special cases it can also be necessary
to ensure that several different arresters share the energy in order to
avoid overloading of the arresters. Such matched arresters have to
be specially requested, since standard arresters may not necessarily
achieve full current sharing. Whenever multi-columns are supplied,
additional routine testing is required to verify adequate current and
energy sharing between each column. Fig. 58
Multi-column, high
More information on the selection of surge arresters for this application energy application
is available in the ABB Technical Information document “Current
sharing considerations”.
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
13. REFERENCES
[1] International Standards and Guides
IEC 60060-1 High-voltage test techniques. Part 1: General definitions and test requirements
IEC 60068-2-11 Environmental testing - Part 2: Tests. Test Ka: Salt mist
IEC 60068-2-14 Environmental testing - Part 2: Tests. Test N: Change of temperature
IEC 60068-2-42 Environmental testing - Part 2: Tests. Test Kc: Sulphur dioxide test for contacts
and connections
IEC 60071-1 Insulation co-ordination - Part 1: Definitions, principles and rules
IEC 60071-2 Insulation co-ordination - Part 2: Application guide
IEC 60099-1 Surge arresters - Part 1: Non-linear resistor type gapped surge arresters for a.c. systems
IEC 60099-4 Surge arresters - Part 4: Metal-oxide surge arresters without gaps for a.c. systems
IEC 60099-5 Surge arresters - Part 5: Selection and application recommendations
IEC 60507 Artificial pollution tests on high-voltage insulators to be used on a.c. systems
IEC 60815 -1,2,3 Selection & dimensioning of high-voltage insulators intended for use in polluted conditions
IEC 61166 High-voltage alternating current circuit-breakers - Guide for seismic qualification
of high-voltage alternating current circuit-breakers
IEC 61462 Composite insulators - Hollow insulators for use in outdoor and indoor electrical
equipment - Definitions, test methods, acceptance criteria and design
recommendationsIEC TS 62073 Guidance on the measurement of wettability of insulator surfaces
[2] American National Standards
IEEE C62.11 IEEE Standard for Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters for AC Power Circuits (>1 kV)
IEEE C62.22 IEEE Guide for the Application of Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters for
Alternating-Current Systems
IEEE 693 Recommended Practices for Seismic Design of Substations
[3] Cigré Technical Brochures and Guides
Cigré Technical Brochure 57 “The paper oil insulated measurement transformer”, 1990
Cigré Technical Brochure 60 “Metal Oxide Surge Arresters in AC Systems”, 1991
Cigré Technical Brochure 63 “Guide to Procedures for Estimating the Lightning Performance of
Transmission Lines”, 1991
Cigré WG33.11 Task Force 6 Application Procedures for Station and Overhead Line Insulation
Coordination, “Flashovers of open circuit breakers caused by lightning
strokes”, 1997
Cigré Technical Brochure 544 “MO surge arresters: Stresses and Test Procedures”, 2013
[4] ABB Technical Information and brochures
2200en High Voltage Surge Arresters Buyer’s Guide

2300E Selection Guide for ABB HV Surge Arresters
2310E Application guidelines for station protection
2311E Application Guidelines for Transmission Line Switching Overvoltage Control
2312E Guidelines for selection of surge arresters for shunt capacitor banks
2350en Physical properties of zinc oxide varistors
2353en Voltage grading of EXLIM and PEXLIM surge arresters
2364E Current sharing considerations
2380E Overvoltage protection of HVDC-Converter stations
2381E Overvoltage protection of series capacitors
9100en Silicone rubber in outdoor insulators
1HSA 954312-10en PEXLINK: Transmission-line protection for disturbance-free system operation
1HSM 954313-05en Surge arrester MO resistor testing
1HSM 9543 16-01en Insulation withstand and clearances with EXLIM and PEXLIM surge arresters
1HSAT2014-15-001 New revision of the IEC standard 60099-4 (Edition 3.0): Guidelines for comparing Line
Discharge Class with Repetitive Charge Transfer and Thermal Energy ratings for HVAC
AIS Station Class arresters
__________________________________________________________________________________________


[5] J. Lundquist, L. Stenström, A. Schei, B. Hansen, ”New method for measurement of the resistive leakage
currents of metal-oxide surge arresters in service”, presented at IEEE SM, Long Beach, California, July 9-14,
1989
[6] S. Vitet, L. Stenström, J. Lundquist. ”Thermal Stress on ZnO Surge Arresters in Polluted Conditions – Part I:
Laboratory test methods”, presented IEEE, PES 1991 T&D Conference and Exposition, Dallas, Texas
September 22-27, 1991
[7] S. Vitet, A. Schei, L. Stenström, J. Lundquist. ”Thermal Behaviour of ZnO Surge Arresters in Polluted
Conditions – Part II: Field test results”, presented IEEE, PES 1991 T&D Conference and Exposition, Dallas,
Texas September 22-27, 1991
[8] S. Vitet, M. Louis, A. Schei, L. Stenström, J. Lundquist. ”Thermal Behaviour of ZnO Surge Arresters in
Polluted Conditions”. Cigré 1994 Session August 30 to September 5, Technical Paper 33-208
[9] L. Stenström, J. Lundquist. ”New Polymer-housed ZnO Arrester for High Energy Applications”. Cigré 1994
Session August 28 to September 3, Technical Paper 33-202
[10] L. Stenström, J. Lundquist, ”Selection, Dimensioning and Testing of Line Surge Arresters”, presented at the
Cigré International Workshop on Line Surge Arresters and Lightning, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, April 24 -26, 1996
[11] L. Stenström, J. Lundquist, ”Energy Stress on Transmission Line Arresters Considering the Total Lightning
Charge Distribution”, presented at the IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition,
Los Angeles, September 15-20, 1996
[12] C. Neumann, V. Aschendorff, G. Balzer, H. Gartmair, E. Kynast, V. Rees, “Performance of the switched gap of
SF6-HV circuit-breakers stressed by lightning overvoltages”, Cigré 1996 Session, Technical Paper 13-102.
[13] M. Mobedjina, L. Stenström, “Limitation of Switching Overvoltages by use of Transmission Line Surge
Arresters”, Cigré SC-33 International Conference, Zagreb, 1998, Technical Paper P.30
[14] M. Mobedjina, B. Johnnerfelt, L. Stenström, “Design and Testing of Polymer-housed Surge Arresters”,
presented at GCC Cigré 9th Symposium Abu Dhabi, October 28-29, 1998
[15] A.R. Hileman, Insulation Coordination for Power Systems, Marcel Dekker, Inc. 1999
[16] M. Mobedjina, L. Stenström, “Improved Transmission Line Performance using Polymer-housed Surge
Arresters”, presented at CEPSI Seminar, Manila, October 23-27, 2000
[17] L. Gutman, L. Stenström, D. Gustavsson, D. Windmar, W.L. Vosloo. ”Optimized use of HV composite
apparatus insulators: field experience from coastal and inland test stations”. Cigré 2004 Session, Technical
Paper A3-104
[18] R.P.P. Smeets, H. Barts, W.A.Van Der Linden, L.Stenström. ”Modern ZnO surge arresters under short-circuit
current stresses: Test experiences and critical review of the IEC Standard”. Cigré 2004 Session, Technical
Paper A3-105
[19] S. Narita, A. Sawada, H. Watanabe, B. Johnnerfelt, L. Strenström, “Design and testing of polymer-housed
surge arresters with special emphasis on seismic stresses and selection of specific creepage in coastal
areas”, Cigré Tokyo, 2005, Technical Paper A3-108.
[20] J. Taylor, ABB Power Products, Ludvika, Sweden, “Short circuit behaviour – Surge arresters and counters”,
presented at INMR world congress and exhibition, Brazil, May 13 -16, 2007.
[21] L. Stenström, J. Taylor, F. Persson, N.T. Osiptsov, “Installation of LSA on a 400kV double-circuit line in
Russia”, presented at Cigré colloquium “Application of Line Surge Arresters in Power Distribution and
Transmission Systems”, Cavtat 2008
[22] ABB AB, High Voltage Products, Ludvika, Sweden, “Mechanical testing and demands on HV surge arresters”,
June 2008
[23] D. Wu, M. Li, M. Kvarngren, “Uncertainties in the application of atmospheric and altitude corrections as
recommended in IEC standards”, 2009 International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering.
__________________________________________________________________________________________


[24] J. Taylor, H. Westerlund, “Smart monitoring of surge arresters on the grid”, presented at INMR World
Congress, Korea, 2011.
[25] M. Martin, J. Taylor, M. Popic, “Optimisation of air-insulated substations by consideration of surge arrester
protective characteristic”, presented at International council on large electric systems – Cigré Croatian
National committee, Cavtat 2013
__________________________________________________________________________________________


Product Guide 2015 edition
Publication SWG/AK 97-50en

ABB
High Voltage Products
Surge Arresters
SE-771 80 LUDVIKA, Sweden

Tel. +46 (0)240 78 20 00
Fax. +46 (0)240 179 83
E-mail: arresters.div@se.abb.com
Internet: http://www.abb.com/arrestersonline
__________________________________________________________________________________________



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Product Guide

High Voltage Gapless Metal-oxide Surge Arresters

4. Features of MO Arrester Design 17

5. Design Requirements for MO Surge Arresters 31

6. Arrester Classification as per Standards 46

7. Standards and Testing 47

10. Maintenance and Monitoring 89

11. Historical Background 93

12. Special Applications 99

13. References 108

ABB HV Surge Arrester Product Guide

ABB HV Surge Arrester Product Guide

• IEC 60099-4, Ed. 3.0 (2014-06)

• IEEE C62.11, 2012

distribution class arrester

station class arrester

Continuous current (Ic)

ABB HV Surge Arrester Product Guide

Duty-cycle voltage rating (IEEE)

Solidly earthed system

Impedance earthed system

Resonant earthed system

Isolated neutral system

Earth-fault factor (ke)

Repetitive charge transfer rating, Qrs

ABB HV Surge Arrester Product Guide

Thermal energy rating, Wth

Seven wettability (hydrophobicity) classes (WC) have

Fig. 1 Wettability class

Impulse (of current or voltage)

Impulse Waveshape (T1/T2)

Other special impulses are rectangular impulses of 2 – 4 ms virtual total duration

ABB HV Surge Arrester Product Guide

Withstand level Voltage waveshape

Lightning classifying current (IEEE)

Maximum system voltage (Us)

Mean breaking load, MBL

Nominal discharge current (In according to IEC)

Non-gapped line arrester, NGLA

Normal service conditions

Ambient temperature -40 °C to +40 °C

ABB HV Surge Arrester Product Guide

Lightning impulse protection level (LIPL or Upl) of the arrester is the

Fig. 2 Protective function of a surge arrester

Note! IEEE standards refer to LIWV as BIL and SIWV as BSL.

ABB HV Surge Arrester Product Guide

Rated voltage (Ur)

Reference current (Iref)

Reference voltage (Uref)

Residual voltage/ Discharge voltage

Short circuit (pressure relief) capability

Specified long-term load, SLL

Specified short-term load, SSL

ABB HV Surge Arrester Product Guide

A simplified method is to approximate the transient phenomenon by considering that a lightning

From which the equations can be derived: L = Z / v and C = 1 / (Zv)

Temporary overvoltages (TOV)

Temporary overvoltage withstand strength factor (Tr or Tc)