LWT - Food Science and Technology 125 (2020) 109193

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LWT - Food Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lwt

Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) mucilage as a new fat substitute in emulsified meat T
products: Technological, physicochemical, and rheological characterization
Ana Karoline Ferreira Ignácio Câmaraa, Paula Kiyomi Okurob, Rosiane Lopes da Cunhab,
Ana María Herreroc, Claudia Ruiz-Capillasc, Marise Aparecida Rodrigues Pollonioa,∗
a
Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Universitária Zeferino Vaz City, 13083-862, Campinas, São Paulo,
Brazil
b
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Universitária Zeferino Vaz City, 13083-862, Campinas, São Paulo,
Brazil
c
Department of Products, Institute of Food Science, Technology and Nutrition, ICTAN-CSIC, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040, Madrid, Spain

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The objective of the study was to evaluate the rheological properties of chia mucilage (CM) gels as functional
Fat replacement ingredient in emulsified meat model systems. Three different concentrations of chia mucilage gels (CMGs) (15%,
Meat products 20%, and 25%), were applied in two levels (2.5% and 5.0%), aiming to substitute 50% of pork back fat in the
Chia mucilage meat model systems. Two control treatments (FC1 and FC2 containing 20 and 10% fat, respectively) were also
Rheology
tested. The rheological behavior of the mucilage was viscoelastic with a dominant storage modulus (G’ > G”)
forming a structure type gel. The values of tan δ ranged between 0.37 and 0.40, which could indicate a weak
elastic gel-like behavior in the frequency range studied. The mechanical properties of CMGs were preserved after
thermal treatment. The meat emulsion stability was improved with the addition of CMG. All formulations with
5% CM were characterized by significantly increased hardness, and decreased elasticity and cohesiveness values
(P < 0.05) compared to those with FC1. Chia mucilage thus shows potential as a substitute saturated fat (SFA)
in emulsified meat products with improved technological characteristics and additional healthier claims.

1. Introduction approximately 2:1. The mucilage also contains a significant amount of

Chia (Salvia hispanica L.), an annual summer herbaceous plant be-
longing to the Lamiaceae family, and its derived products have been
intensively studied due to their high nutritional value and functional
properties. Chia seeds contain a considerable amount of dietary fiber,
antioxidants (including phenolic compounds) (Reyes-Caudillo, Tecante,
& Valdivia-López, 2008), elevated content proteins with a balanced
proportion of essential amino acids, and are rich in polyunsaturated
fatty acids, especially linolenic acid (Ding et al., 2018). In 2009, the
European Parliament and the European Councilauthorized the placing
of chia seeds on the market as a novel food ingredient under Regulation
Nº 258/97, which provides support for studies as well as the commer-
cial use of these seeds (EC, 2009).
When chia seeds come in contact with water, a clear mucilaginous
gel is exuded and a transparent capsule surrounding the seed is formed
quickly. This mucilage is an anionic heteropolysaccharide consisting of
xylose and glucose as the main sugars, with a xylose-to-glucose ratio of
uronic acid (glucuronic acid and galacturonic acid) and two other
neutral sugars, arabinose and galactose (Lin, Daniel, & Whistler, 1994).
Chia mucilage (CM) acts as a soluble fiber having exceptional water
holding, gel-forming, shear-thinning, and emulsion-stabilizing proper-
ties (García-Salcedo, Torres-Vargas, Real, Contreras-Jiménez, &
Rodriguez-García, 2018) and has become a promising fat substitute in
the food industry in many areas (Fernandes & Salas-Mellado, 2017;
Menga et al., 2017). In meat products, chia by-products have been in-
vestigated as a consistent strategy to promote healthier claims re-
garding reducing saturated fat and improve lipid profile (Ding et al.,
2018; Pintado, Herrero, Jiménez-Colmenero, & Ruiz-Capillas, 2016).
However, the use of mucilage as a fat substitute in meat products has
not yet been studied.
Emulsified meat products are often perceived as unhealthy by
consumers due to their high levels of additives and saturated fats and
lack of fiber content. Emulsified meat products like Bologna sausage
traditionally contain 20–35% fat and 2.2–2.5% salt (Feiner, 2006).

∗
Corresponding author. Meat and Meat Products Laboratory, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas, Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz, C.P. 6121,
13083-862, Campinas, SP, Brazil.
E-mail addresses: pollonio@unicamp.br, marisepollonio@gmail.com (M.A.R. Pollonio).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109193
Received 25 September 2019; Received in revised form 12 February 2020; Accepted 20 February 2020
Available online 21 February 2020
0023-6438/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A.K.F.I. Câmara, et al.
Consumption of processed meat has also been associated with a higher
incidence of chronic cardiometabolic diseases and diabetes mellitus
(Micha, Wallace, & Mozaffarian, 2010). Reformulating meat products
to allow healthier claims therefore represents an opportunity for the
meat industry to improve consumer perception (Grasso, Brunton, Lyng,
Lalor, & Monahan, 2014). Fat content has an essential effect on char-
acteristics such as texture, flavor, and stabilization of meat emulsions,
and therefore, cannot be removed without a suitable substitute
(Jiménez-Colmenero, 2000). Fat substitution is a great challenge and
CM, because of its functional properties reported in other foods, should
be investigated as a potential substitute in meat products.
The viscoelastic behavior and thickening properties of hydrocolloids
such as CM can be influenced by several factors including temperature,
shear rate, and concentration (Capitani et al., 2015). Such factors be-
come very important when using these gels to replace fat and modify
the texture of meat products; therefore, their interactions with the meat
matrix must be evaluated. The objective of the present study was to
characterize chia mucilage and evaluate the rheological properties of
chia mucilage gels (CMGs), including investigating the effects of con-
ditions such as mucilage concentration and temperature. We also in-
vestigated the technological characteristics of a meat model system
after substituting 50% of the fat content with CMGs.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seeds were purchased from Cereal Prime
(São Paulo, Brazil). Sodium tripolyphosphate, sodium erythorbate, and
sodium nitrite were kindly donated by Kerry do Brasil Ltda (Campinas,
Brazil). The reagents used in this study were of analytical grade. Pork
(M. longissimus dorsi; 69.5% moisture, 10% lipids, 18% protein, and
1.5% ash) and pork back fat (13% moisture, 81.3% lipids, 5.21% pro-
tein, 0.49% ash) were obtained from a local market in Campinas, Brazil.
After removing the apparent fat and aponeurosis, the meat and fat were
ground in 5.0 mm disks and frozen at −18 °C for no more than 7 days
until use.
2.2. Extraction of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) mucilage
Chia mucilage (CM) was obtained using procedures previously
published by Coorey, Tjoe, and Jayasena (2014) and Felisberto et al.
(2015) with some modification. Whole chia seeds were soaked in water
(1:25 w/v) for 3 h at 60 °C using an electric cooker with automatic
stirring in order to induce mucilage exudation. The extracted mucilage
was separated from the seeds using a 35/CM-876 finisher pulper with a
stainless-steel wire mesh with 0.26 mm apertures (FMC do Brasil In-
dústria e Comércio Ltda, Araraquara, Brazil). The aqueous suspension
containing the mucilage was dried in an LP 820 freeze-drier (São Paulo,
Brazil) and ground using a food processor (GM 200, Retsch, Germany)
to obtain a fine powder. The CM was packaged in hermetically sealed
metal packaging.
2.3. Physicochemical and rheological characterization of chia mucilage
2.3.1. Chemical composition
The moisture, protein, lipid, total dietary fiber, soluble and in-
soluble dietary fiber, and ash content of the lyophilized chia mucilage
was determined following the Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC
International (AOAC, 2012). The carbohydrate level was obtained by
subtracting the nutritional content of proteins and lipids from the total
composition. All measurements were performed in triplicate.
2.3.2. Fatty acid profile
To determine the fatty acid profile, lipids were extracted as de-
scribed by Bligh and Dyer (1959) and esterification was carried out
2
LWT - Food Science and Technology 125 (2020) 109193
according to protocols published by Hartman and Lago (1973). The
methyl esters of fatty acids were separated according to the Ce-66
method (AOCS, 2009). Samples were analyzed in CGC Agilent 6850
Series GC Capillary Gas Chromatograph equipped with DB-23 AGILENT
(50% cyanopropyl-methylpolysiloxane) capillary column 60 m, Ø int:
0.25 mm, 0.25 μm film. Fatty acid composition was determined by
comparing peak retention times with fatty acid standards. The analysis
was performed in duplicate. The atherogenic index (AI) and thrombo-
genic index (TI) were calculated according to Ulbricht and Southgate
(1991) as a ratio between SFA and unsaturated fatty acids.
2.3.3. Rheological measurements
Dispersions with either 15%, 20%, or 25% w/v CM were prepared
by hydrating dried mucilage in deionized water for 30 min at room
temperature (25 °C) to form chia mucilage gels (CMGs). Dispersions
were then left overnight at 4 °C to ensure complete hydration prior to
the rheological measurements. Viscoelastic behavior of CMGs was in-
vestigated by small amplitude oscillatory measurements using a stress-
controlled rheometer Physica MCR 301 (Anton Paar, Graz, Austria)
equipped with a Peltier system and a water bath (Julabo, Seelbach,
Germany) for temperature control. The experiment was performed
using cone-plate geometry (50 mm, 2° angle, truncation 208 μm). First,
a strain sweep was performed by logarithmically increasing the strain
from 0.01 to 10% at a frequency of 1.0 Hz to identify the linear vis-
coelastic region (LVR) of samples. Frequency sweeps of 0.01–10 Hz
were subsequently performed at 5 °C and a strain value within the LVR.
Sample behavior after either heating and a frequency sweep at 72 °C
or heating followed by cooling (72 °C–5 °C) and a frequency sweep at
5 °C were carried out. Temperatures of 5 °C and 72 °C were selected for
rheological measurements to reproduce common procedures in the
thermal treatment of meat products and to have a better understanding
of the behavior of CM when added as a fat substitute in the products.
Rheological measurements were performed the following protocols: (i)
temperature ramp from 5 °C to 72 °C (5 °C·min−1); (ii) 72 °C for 5 min;
(iii) frequency sweep at 72 °C or (i) temperature ramp from 5 °C until
72 °C (5 °C·min−1); (ii) 72 °C for 5 min; (iii) temperature ramp from
72 °C to 5 °C (5 °C·min−1); (iv) 5 °C for 5 min; (v) frequency sweep at
5 °C. The elastic component (G′), viscous component (G″), and tan delta
(tan δ) were recorded. All measurements were performed in triplicate.
2.3.4. Attenuated total reflectance (ATR)-FTIR spectroscopy analysis
The infrared spectra of the powdered samples were recorded using a
PerkinElmer Spectrum TM 400 spectrometer (PerkinElmer Inc., Madrid,
Spain) in mid-IR mode, equipped with an ATR (attenuated total re-
flectance) sampling device containing a diamond/ZnSe crystal.
Measurements were performed at room temperature (25 °C) using ap-
proximately 25 mg of CM, which was placed on the surface of the ATR
crystal and gently pressed with a flat-tip plunger. The spectra were
scanned in the 4000–650 cm−1 wave range with a scan speed of
0.20 cm/s and 8 accumulations at a resolution of 4 cm−1. Ten mea-
surements were taken and summed to obtain the total spectrum (80
accumulations). A background spectrum was generated using the same
instrument conditions before each measurement.
Spectra were acquired with the Spectrum software version 6.3.2 and
spectral data were processed with the Grams/AI version 9.1 (Thermo
Electron Corporation, Waltham, MA) software.
2.4. Experimental design and preparation of meat model systems
Meat emulsion model systems were evaluated with three different
concentrations of CMG (15%, 20%, or 25%) and two concentrations of
CM (2.5% or 5.0%).
For CM incorporation as a gel (CMG), lyophilized mucilage was
rehydrated in water (ice added to the CMG - see Table 1) and left
overnight before processing at 4 °C. There was an adjustment with ice
on all fat reduction treatments to balance the formulations. Part of the
A.K.F.I. Câmara, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 125 (2020) 109193

Table 1
Description of treatments (%, w/w) of meat model systems with chia mucilage gels (CMGs) in different concentrations.
Ingredients Treatments (%)

FC1 FC2 CMG15–2.5% CMG15-5% CMG20–2.5% CMG20-5% CMG25–2.5% CMG25-5%

Pork 54.66 54.66 54.66 54.66 54.66 54.66 54.66 54.66

Pork back fat 20 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Chia mucilage powder- total (CM) 0 0 2.5 5 2.5 5 2.5 5

Chia mucilage gel (CMG) 0 0 16.7 33 12.5 33 10 20
Ice added to the CMG 0 0 14.2 28.03 10 28.03 7.5 15
Ice added to the batter 23.03 33.03 16.33 0 20.53 0 23.03 13.03
Ice (I total) 23.03 33.03 30.53 28.03 30.53 28.03 30.53 28.03

FC – control formulation. CMG: treatments with fat reduction and lyophilized chia mucilage rehydrated in aqueous solution 24 h before processing at concentrations
of 15% (CMG15), 20% (CMG20) and 25% (CMG25). The following ingredients and/or additives were also used (%) in each treatment: sodium erythorbate, 0.05;
sodium nitrite, 0.015; sodium tripolyphosphate, 0.25 and sodium chloride, 2.00.

formulation ice was used to rehydrate the lyophilized chia mucilage,
and the other part added directly to the meat batter.
Six treatments with 50% fat reduction with CMG were made along
with two control treatments, FC1 and FC2 (20 and 10% fat, respec-
tively), as described in Table 1.
Meat model systems were prepared according to Paglarini et al.
(2019). The ground meat (5.0 mm disk, −0.5 °C), ice, and sodium
chloride were comminuted in a cutter (model MTK 662, Mado,
Dornhan, Germany) at a low speed for the extraction of myofibrillar
proteins (3–4 min). Other additives were added slowly, and pork back
fat or CMG was added at the end, followed by comminution until
complete homogenization. The temperature of the meat batter did not
exceed 12 °C. A fraction of the batter was stored raw, packed in plastic
containers and kept at 4 °C until the emulsion stability analysis (max-
imum period of 5 h). The other portion of the meat batter was em-
bedded into water-impermeable plastic casings of 85–90 mm in dia-
meter (Spel Embalagens, Brazil) with approximately 0.3 kg of product
per unit. The meat model system pieces were cooked in an oven (Ar-
protec®, Brazil), where the temperature was gradually increased until
the internal temperature reached 72 °C. The products were then cooled
in ice and stored at 4 °C until analysis.
2.5. Evaluation of meat model systems containing chia mucilage gels
(CMGs)
2.5.1. Batter analysis before cooking
2.5.1.1. Emulsion stability. Emulsion stability was determined
according to Hugues, Cofrades, and Troy (1997), with some
modification. Approximately 25 g of raw meat batter was placed in a
plastic tube, centrifuged for 1 min (3600 rpm), heated in a water bath at
70 °C for 30 min, then centrifuged again for 3 min (3600 rpm).
Supernatant removed from the samples was measured. Then, the
released liquid was oven dried at 100 °C (14 h) and weighed to
determine the amount of fat released. Five replicates of each treatment
were performed.
2.5.2. Meat model system analysis
2.5.2.1. Chemical composition, pH, and water activity. Moisture, protein,
and ash content was determined according to AOAC (2012) procedures.
Fat content was evaluated according to Bligh and Dyer (1959). Meat
model system pH was evaluated using an MA 130 Mettler pH meter
with a penetration probe at different places in the sample. Water
activity (aw) was measured using an Aqualab water activity meter
(Decagon, Pullman, USA). Each treatment was performed in triplicate.
2.5.2.2. Water holding capacity (WHC). This method was developed in
this study to assess the WHC of sliced Bologna sausages. Samples were
sliced and placed in square plates of expanded polystyrene (12 cm per
side) with 3 overlapping slices of filter paper above and below the
sample, then vacuum packed. The 3 sample slices (PiS), filter papers
(Pifp), and the plastic bag (Pipb) were weighed separately. Samples
were then kept at 5 °C for two days to simulate commercial storage.
After this period, the entire system was weighed again. The volume of
liquid released from the slices was calculated as follows:
Liquid exudation of slices (Les) % = [(weight of the filter paper with
the liquid released – Pifp) + (weight of the plastic bag with the liquid
released – Pipb)]*100/PiS
All determinations were done in triplicate.
2.5.2.3. Texture profile analysis (TPA). Texture profile analysis (TPA)
was carried out using a TA-xT2i Texture Analyzer (Texture
Technologies Corp., Scarsdale, NY) with a load cell of 25 kg. Thirty
cylinders per treatment were used. Samples (2 cm thick and 2 cm in
diameter) were axially compressed into two consecutive cycles of 30%
compression with a 35-mm diameter probe at a constant speed of
1 mm/s. The parameters evaluated were hardness (N) (expressed as
peak force for the first compression), springiness (dimensionless)
(defined as the ability of the sample to recover its original shape after
the deformation force has been removed), cohesiveness (dimensionless;
expressed as the area of work during the second compression divided by
the area of work during the first compression), and chewiness (N)
(defined as the product of hardness × cohesiveness × springiness).
2.5.2.4. Color measurement. Color was measured in a CM-5
spectrophotometer (Konica Minolta, Tokyo, Japan) using D65
illuminant, 10° observer angle, SCE mode (regarding sample
brightness), and CIELab color system to determine parameters L*, a*,
and b* as indicators of lightness, redness, and yellowness, respectively.
Three readings of each sample were recorded at 25 °C. Euclidean
distances (ΔE = [L* - L*0) 2 + (a* - a*0)2 + (b* - b*0)2]0.5) were
calculated (Park, 1994) for comparisons between the treatments and
control formulation.
2.6. Statistical analysis
Results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (S.D.) and all
experiments were conducted in triplicate. Results for all treatments
were analyzed by an analysis of variance method using a completely
randomized design and the general linear model procedure of the
Statsoft Inc version 7 software (TIBCO Software Inc., California, USA),
considering the treatments as fixed effects and the experiment re-
plication as a random term (n = 3). Tukey's test at a 5% significance
level (P ≤ 0.05) was used to determine significant differences between
treatments.

3
A.K.F.I. Câmara, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 125 (2020) 109193

3. Results and discussion

Linolenic C18:3 (n- 3.1. Chemical composition and fatty acid profile of chia mucilage

56.16 Table 2 shows the composition and fatty acid profile of lyophilized
76.8
Digestible carbohydrates

chia mucilage (CM). Lipid and protein content (26.46% and 11.95%,
3)

respectively) may have been influenced by the CM extraction process,

Linoleic C18:2 (n-

since the seeds were subjected to intense pressures to separate the

mucilage, possibly causing the addition of lipids and proteins to the
mucilage. Felisberto et al. (2015) found similar results to our study for
Ʃ PUFA

CM protein and dietary fiber content, demonstrating the influence of

14.05

20.64

extraction on the composition obtained since the authors used a similar

6)

extraction process with a different pulper. Capitani, Ixtaina, Nolasco,

Total dietary fiber

Eicosenoic C20:1

and Tomás (2013) found higher values of ash (10.3% and 8.4%, re-
38.3 ± 0.24

spectively) and lower lipid values (9.5% and 3.1%, respectively) than
this study, which likely arose from inherent differences in the extraction
process.
0.18

The CM composition identified in this study is advantageous for

adding in meat products aiming to replace pork back fat considering its
fatty acid profile (Table 2) which includes significant levels of linolenic
C18:1
Margaroleic C17:1 Oleic

8.22

acid (56.16%) and linoleic acid (20.64%), which could contribute to a

Insoluble dietary fiber

resulting better fatty acid profile of the meat product. Our fatty acid
profiles agree with those reported by Ding et al. (2018).
28.39 ± 0.10

3.2. Rheological properties

0.04
8.54
0.14

Frequency sweeps were performed to investigate time-dependent

deformation of CMGs. Fig. 1 shows the changes in storage modulus (G′)
Thrombogenic index

and loss modulus (G″) as a function of frequency (Hz) (from 0,1–10 Hz)
Palmitoleic C16:1

at 5 °C for 15%, 20%, and 25% w/v CMG. Rheological behavior in

mucilage was viscoelastic with a dominant storage modulus (G’ > G”)
Ʃ MUFA

forming a structure type gel, where the magnitudes of G′ and G″ slightly

Soluble dietary fiber

increased with raising frequency and had limited frequency de-

0.1

pendency. The values of the elastic and viscous moduli were higher at
9.91 ± 0.13

increased CMG concentrations, with the highest elastic and viscous

modulus obtained with 25% CMG. Similar results have been reported
Others
SFA's
0.43

by others (Capitani et al., 2015; García-Salcedo et al., 2018).

Oscillatory rheological measurements allowed the classification of
Arachidic C20:0

samples as strong gels (G”/G’≤ 0.1), weak gels (0.1 < G”/G’ < 1),
5.60 ± 0.30

and viscous sols (G”/G’≥ 1), as G′ and G″ indicate solid-like and liquid-
like behavior, respectively. For gels, the elastic component (G’) dom-
0.49
0.37
Ash

inates over the viscous component (G”) at low oscillation stresses

(Tavernier et al., 2017). For all concentrations of CMG, tan δ slightly
26.46 ± 1.30
Proximate composition and fatty acid profile of lyophilized chia mucilage.

increased with an increase in the frequency (Fig. 1), with values of tan δ
Stearic C18:0

ranging from 0.37 to 0.40. This type of behavior has also been reported
n-6/n-3

by other authors for Plantago lanceolata seed mucilage (Hesarinejad

4.06
Fat

et al., 2018) and basil seed mucilage (Samateh et al., 2018).

*Values represent the average ± standard deviation (n = 3).

The effects of heating to 72 °C on G′ on G″ for different con-

Palmitic C16:0
11.95 ± 0.55

centrations of CMG are shown in Fig. 2. CMG gels had a higher storage
modulus compared to the loss modulus over the entire temperature
Protein

13.92

range evaluated, although both G′, and G″ slightly decreased with in-
8.94

0.11

creasing temperature. This may be related to the greater fluidity of the

gels at higher temperatures. However, all concentrations of CMG were
Atherogenic index
Myristic C14:0

temperature stable with few variations in mechanical properties as re-

3.64 ± 0.35

flected by the consistent G′, and G” values.

Moisture

The frequency sweep performed at 72 °C (Fig. 2b, d, and 2f) shows

Ʃ SFA

that mechanical behavior was essentially frequency independent, with

0.1

plots of G′ and G” vs frequency being almost linear. This result is

Proximate composition (%)

consistent with previous studies on chia seed polysaccharides, as raising

the temperature to 80 °C did not alter the weak gel properties of the
polysaccharide dispersions (Goh et al., 2016). Notably, the concentra-
tions of dispersions evaluated in this study are much higher than most
Fatty acid (%)

studies with CM in order to test the use of CM in meat products;

however, the rheological characteristics remain similar regardless of
Table 2

concentration.
Fig. 3a, c, and e show the temperature sweeps for different CMG

4
A.K.F.I. Câmara, et al.
concentrations, simulating the temperature changes that occur during
the cooking process of a typical emulsified meat product. Fig. 3b, d, and
f show frequency sweeps at 5 °C after temperature variation indicating
that the viscoelastic behavior of the CM dispersions is preserved even
after temperature changes, with values of G′ and G″ remaining con-
sistent (Fig. 1) before and after temperature oscillations. Such results
are essential for further use of CM as an ingredient in processed meat
products.
3.3. ATR-FTIR analysis
The ATR-IR spectrum of the extracted mucilage is presented in
Fig. 4. The band between 3500 and 3100 cm−1, which in mucilage
spectra is centered at 3286 cm−1, represents the hydroxyl-OH
stretching originating from carbohydrate structures (Cerqueira et al.,
2011). Another band was observed at 3012 cm−1 and was attributed to
the stretching vibration of a = C–H group. Two strong bands also ap-
peared at 2924 and 2854 cm−1 (Fig. 4) and were identified as the
asymmetric and symmetric stretching vibrations of acyl CH2 groups,
respectively (Herrero, Carmona, Jiménez-Colmenero, & Ruiz-Capillas,
2006). Similarly, such infrared bands in this spectral region have been
described for chia flour and mucilage (García-Salcedo et al., 2018).
The infrared bands in the 2700-3000 cm−1 region (Fig. 4) are
characteristic of lipid and protein functional groups (Surewicz &
Mantsch, 1996; Herrero et al., 2006) presented in the extracted mu-
cilage (Table 2). A strong band was located at 1743 cm−1 and likely
represents the stretching modes of the carbonyl groups C]O. The
amide I band in the 1700 to 1600 cm−1 region (Fig. 4) is the most
characteristic band for proteins (Surewicz & Mantsch, 1996). The
broader band between 1198 and 938 cm−1 (Fig. 4) likely results from
the stretching vibration of C–O in C–O–H bonds (e.g., glycosidic bonds)
and is related to the carbohydrates of mucilage. Notably, the band at
1155 cm−1 corresponds to the bending vibrational modes of C–O in the
pyranose ring, while the band between 1124 and 938 cm−1 is char-
acteristic of C–O–H bending (Cerqueira et al., 2011). In this spectral
region, the band at 1036 cm−1 can be assigned to C–O–C stretching of
glycosidic bonds and C–O–H bending, considered characteristic of
polysaccharide compounds (Cerqueira et al., 2011). In purified gum
from chia seed, similar infrared bands were identified in this spectral
region (Timilsena, Adhikari, Kasapis, & Adhikari, 2016).
3.4. Emulsion stability of the batters prior to thermal processing
Stability of batters of the different treatments was not affected by fat
5
LWT - Food Science and Technology 125 (2020) 109193
Fig. 1. Frequency sweep evaluating different
chia mucilage concentrations on storage (G′),
loss (G″) moduli and tan δ at constant tem-
perature of 5 °C. Solid symbols are corre-
sponding to G′ and open symbols G". Gel15,
gel20 and gel25 – lyophilized chia mucilage re-
hydrated in aqueous solution 24 h before ana-
lysis at respective concentrations.
reduction or the addition of CMGs (Table 3). Both liquid exudation and
fat exudation values of meat batters containing CMG did not differ
(P > 0.05) from the control (FC1), independent of the concentration of
gel. The higher stability of the samples with added CMG may be at-
tributed to the water holding capacity of the CM. According to Muñoz,
Cobos, Diaz, and Aguilera (2012), CM has a high hydration capacity as
a 100 mg sample of mucilage can absorb 2.7 g of water, or 27 times its
weight.
3.5. Chemical composition, physicochemical, and technological properties
of meat model systems with CMG
The chemical composition of the meat model systems showed some
significant differences between treatments (Table 3). The moisture
content of the control formulation (FC1) was significantly lower
(P < 0.05) than any other treatments. These results are consistent with
the reformulation strategy adopted, since the ice was added to balance
the formulations with reduced fat and was used in the CM dispersions.
The final fat content in all treatments with CMG was approximately
10% (Table 2), which is significant lower (P < 0.05) than the control
formulation (16.52%). Thus, meat products containing CMGs can be
claimed to have a reduced fat content according to the European Reg-
ulation on nutrition claims (EC, 2006), since they have a fat reduction
of approximately 35% when compared to the control treatment (FC1).
Regarding physicochemical properties, pH values in the meat model
systems ranged between 6.71 (FC2) and 6.36 (CMG 20–2.5%) (Table 3).
Lower pH values in CMG treatments were expected as CM dispersions
had pH values around 6.0 (data not shown).
The replacement of pork fat with CMG also influenced the water
retention capacity of the sliced samples based on measurements of li-
quid exuded from slices, denoted Les (Table 3), predicting a frequent
problem at the commercialization point of sliced sausages. Lower va-
lues of Les were obtained for treatments CMG 15-5%, CMG 20–2.5%,
and CMG 25-5%, which differed (P < 0.05) from the control sample
(FC1). Due to its thickening and CRA properties (Capitani et al., 2015;
Muñoz et al., 2012), CM appears to be an effective agent for water
retention in meat model systems.
3.5.1. Textural parameters
Texture profiles showed that reducing fat content and adding CMG
affected the texture properties of meat model systems (Table 4). The
lowest (P < 0.05) hardness and chewiness values were found in FC2,
which has reduced fat and no CMG. Fat plays an essential role in the
texture and water-binding capacity of meat products, stabilizing the
A.K.F.I. Câmara, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 125 (2020) 109193

Fig. 2. Temperature sweeps (heating stage) are shown for systems prepared with different concentration of chia mucilage (a, c and e), and frequency sweep at 72 °C
for corresponding suspensions after increase of temperature (b, d and f). Solid symbols are corresponding to G′ and open symbols G". Gel15, gel20 and gel25 -
lyophilized chia mucilage rehydrated in aqueous solution 24 h before analysis at respective concentrations.

solubilized protein gel network in emulsified meat products (Jiménez-
Colmenero, 2000).
For reformulated products, the impact of CMG addition on the
hardness and chewiness were similar, with higher values of both
parameters in CMG 20–2.5%, CMG 20-5%, CMG 25–2.5% and CMG 25-
5% formulations compared to controls (FC1 and FC2). These char-
acteristics can be attributed to the properties and composition of CM,
such as its thickening properties, high-water retention capacity and
high fiber content, which have been shown to increase the hardness and
chewiness of meat products (Han & Bertram, 2017; Pintado et al.,
2016).
Concentrations of 5% CM increased hardness and decreased elasti-
city and cohesiveness of the meat model systems, providing evidence
that they interfere in some way with the molecular linkage of the
emulsified meat matrix. All formulations with 5% CM, regardless of
CMG concentration, showed decreased elasticity and cohesiveness

6
A.K.F.I. Câmara, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 125 (2020) 109193

Fig. 3. Temperature sweeps (heating and cooling stages) are shown for systems prepared with different concentration of chia mucilage (a, c and e), and frequency
sweep at 5 °C for corresponding suspensions after temperature changes (b, d and f). Gel15, gel20 and gel25 - lyophilized chia mucilage rehydrated in aqueous solution
24 h before analysis at respective concentrations.

values compared to the FC1 and FC2 controls (P < 0.05). One po-
tential explanation is that the dietary fiber from CM interferes with the
aggregation of myosin globular heads, which is the first step in the
protein gelation process that occurs at high temperatures. The gelation
of myosin provides greater elasticity to meat systems due to the hy-
drophobic and disulfide-sulfhydryl interactions between the proteins
(Savadkoohi, Shamsi, Hoogenkamp, Javadi, & Farahnaky, 2013).
The control (FC1), CMG 15–2.5%, and CMG15-5% showed similar
values for the parameters of hardness and chewiness. These con-
centrations produced more fluid gels which, when incorporated into the
meat batter, provided texture properties that did not differ from the
control (P > 0.05) for these parameters.
3.5.2. Color parameters
Color is one of the most relevant quality attributes of a meat product
because it has a direct impact on consumer acceptance. Table 4 shows

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A.K.F.I. Câmara, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 125 (2020) 109193

13.32 ± 0.15a,b
10.55 ± 0.14b

17.95 ± 0.23b
0.976 ± 0.00a
70.98 ± 0.01e

6.57 ± 0.04b

0.47 ± 0.27b
0.03 ± 0.01b
2.81 ± 0.01c
CMG25-5%

0.972 ± 0.00b,c,d,e

19.02 ± 0.65a,b
73.63 ± 0.03b
12.99 ± 0.36b

2.61 ± 0.02d

0.61 ± 0.14b
0.04 ± 0.01b
9.55 ± 0.47c

6.46 ± 0.04c
CMG25–2.5%

19.35 ± 0.11a,b
0.971 ± 0.00d,e

0.71 ± 0.19a,b
13.01 ± 0.28b
10.73 ± 0.06b
70.78 ± 0.03f

6.37 ± 0.02d

0.05 ± 0.01b
3.11 ± 0.03a
CMG20-5%
Fig. 4. Typical spectrum of extracted chia mucilage (powder) in the 3700-
650 cm−1 region.

0.84 ± 0.15a,b
12.96 ± 0.42b

18.14 ± 0.33b
0.970 ± 0.00e
72.95 ± 0.02c

6.36 ± 0.03d
2.99 ± 0.01b

0.05 ± 0.00b
9.25 ± 0.14c
CMG20–2.5%
the values for lightness (L*), redness (a*), and yellowness (b*). All color
parameters evaluated differed (P < 0.05) among the different treat-
ments with CMG. Meat model systems containing CMG had reduced

Chemical composition and physicochemical properties of meat model systems with chia mucilage gels (CMGs) in different concentrations.
lightness (L*) (P < 0.05), when the concentration of this component
increased. Meat model systems with CMG also had lower values of a*

13.19 ± 0.11a,b

0.976 ± 0.00a,b
71.20 ± 0.01d

10.49 ± 0.16b

18.28 ± 0.93b
6.41 ± 0.02d

0.26 ± 0.10b
0.02 ± 0.01b
3.08 ± 0.02a
and higher values of b*, which differed significantly (P < 0.05) from
the control samples (FC1 and FC2). These results are directly related to CMG15-5%
the brownish color of CM (instrumental color values were
52.19 ± 0.79 for L*; 5.26 ± 0.14 for a*, and 20.01 ± 0.52 for b*,
data not shown), illustrated in Fig. 5. Similar results were reported by
Pintado et al. (2016), who observed a reduction in L* and a* and an

b,c,d
increase in b* in Frankfurters with the addition of chia flour.
13.13 ± 0.27a,b

19.05 ± 0.17a,b
0.974 ± 0.00a,
73.65 ± 0.02b

2.96 ± 0.01b

0.47 ± 0.21b
0.04 ± 0.01b
9.59 ± 0.04c

6.47 ± 0.02c
CMG15–2.5%

4. Conclusions

The mucilage concentration in CMGs influences rheological prop-

Means in the same row with the same letters did not differ significantly at P > 0.05.
erties, and the values of the elastic and viscous moduli were higher with
0.975 ± 0.00a,b,c

increased CMG concentrations. The values of tan δ suggest that CM can

19.09 ± 0.52a,b
12.86 ± 0.42b
76.03 ± 0.03a

8.99 ± 0.09d

6.71 ± 0.03a

1.36 ± 0.49a
0.11 ± 0.02a
2.83 ± 0.04c

form weak elastic gels for the frequency range tested. The rheological
behavior of the CMGs demonstrates that their mechanical properties are
resistant to thermal treatment.
FC2

The different concentrations of CMGs evaluated in the meat model

systems did not significantly influence (P > 0.05) their technological
properties, being more critical level of mucilage (2.5% or 5%) in the
0.972 ± 0.00c,d,e
67.89 ± 0.10g
13.60 ± 0.14a
16.52 ± 0.34a

20.33 ± 1.14a

products. There were significant improvements in the stability of meat

2.94 ± 0.02b

0.47 ± 0.26b
0.04 ± 0.02b
6.69 ± 0.04a

emulsions and decreased water exudation in sliced products with the

addition of CMGs, which are relevant quality parameters for meat
FC1

products.
The significant increase in hardness can be overcome with adjust-
* Values represent the average ± standard deviation.

ments in the formulations of the meat products. Further optimal se-

Liquid exudation of slices (Les) after 2 days (5 °C) (%)

lection of gel concentrations with ideal incorporation into the meat

batter could allow textural properties to be similar to that of the con-
For treatments denominations, see Table 1.

trol. Additionally, color was negatively impacted and could be con-

sidered a technological barrier to overcome. Chia mucilage may un-
dergo further purification processes which could diminish its brownish
appearance in future research. Despite this, the reformulation with chia
mucilage in meat products is a promising strategy. Future studies aimed
at evaluating shelf life and sensory properties of meat products with CM
Physicochemical properties
Chemical composition (%)

are essential to complement this work.

Emulsion stability (%)
Liquid exudation

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Fat exudation
Moisture

a,b,c,d,e,f,g

Ana Karoline Ferreira Ignácio Câmara: Conceptualization,

Protein
Table 3

Ash

Investigation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Visualization, Data cura-

Aw
Fat

pH

tion, Validation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing.

1

8
A.K.F.I. Câmara, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 125 (2020) 109193

Table 4
Texture and color parameters of meat model systems with chia mucilage gels (CMGs) in different concentrations.
FC1a FC2 CMG15–2.5% CMG15-5% CMG20–2.5% CMG20-5% CMG25–2.5% CMG25-5%

Textural parameters
Hardness (N) 7.67 ± 0.72e 5.59 ± 0.62f 8.97 ± 0.80c,d 8.31 ± 0.95d,e 10.42 ± 0.79a 10.63 ± 0.98a 9.57 ± 0.85b,c 10.01 ± 0.94a,b
Springiness 0.921 ± 0.02a 0.922 ± 0.01a 0.918 ± 0.01a 0.887 ± 0.02b 0.908 ± 0.02a 0.893 ± 0.02b 0.909 ± 0.02a 0.883 ± 0.02b
Cohesiveness 0.82 ± 0.01a 0.81 ± 0.02a 0.796 ± 0.01b 0.756 ± 0.02e 0.772 ± 0.01d 0.762 ± 0.02d,e 0.785 ± 0.01c 0.757 ± 0.01e
Chewiness (N) 5.78 ± 0.52c 4.20 ± 0.47d 6.55 ± 0.58b 5.58 ± 0.70c 7.31 ± 0.52a 7.23 ± 0.80a 6.83 ± 0.62a,b 6.70 ± 0.66b

Color parameters
L* 67.39 ± 0.54a 65.64 ± 0.37b 63.59 ± 0.38d 60.33 ± 0.51g 62.84 ± 0.41e 61.33 ± 0.28f 64.66 ± 0.51c 61.7 ± 0.15f
a* 14.54 ± 0.36b 15.19 ± 0.22a 10.58 ± 0.13c 9.55 ± 0.35d 10.91 ± 0.09c 9.25 ± 0.19d 10.58 ± 0.11c 9.17 ± 0.38d
b* 6.51 ± 0.18e 5.34 ± 0.11f 11.28 ± 0.22c 14.45 ± 0.35a 10.92 ± 0.15d 14.10 ± 0.35b 11.10 ± 0.12c,d 14.23 ± 0.23a,b
ΔE __ 2.22 ± 0.27e 7.28 ± 0.23c 11.75 ± 0.42a 7.31 ± 0.28c 11.07 ± 0.17b 6.67 ± 0.19d 10.99 ± 0.23b

*Values represent the average ± standard deviation.

a,b,c,d,e,f,g
Means in the same row with the same letters did not differ significantly at P > 0.05.
a
For treatments denominations, see Table 1.

Fig. 5. Appearance of chia seeds, chia mucilage (CM) and chia mucilage gel (CMG) in different concentrations.

Paula Kiyomi Okuro: Methodology, Data curation, Visualization, References

Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing - original draft, Writing - review
& editing. Rosiane Lopes da Cunha: Resources, Supervision, Writing -
original draft, Writing - review & editing. Ana María Herrero:
Resources, Supervision, Writing - original draft, Writing - review &
editing. Claudia Ruiz-Capillas: Resources, Supervision, Writing - ori-
ginal draft, Writing - review & editing. Marise Aparecida Rodrigues
Pollonio: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Resources,
Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing, Project adminis-
tration, Supervision.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Council for Scientific and
Technological Development (CNPq) [grant number 140854/2016-9]
and the Foundation for Research Support of the State of São Paulo
(FAPESP) [grant number 2016/19967-7]. The authors would also like
to thank Sílvia Moura, adjunct technical director of FRUTHOTEC, the
Fruit and Vegetable Technology Center of the Food Technology
Institute (ITAL) for having allowed the use of the pulper for mucilage
extraction. We would like to thank Editage (www.editage.com) for
English language editing.
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