Synchronous Machine Slides

Synchronous Machines
OPERATION ON INFINITE
BUS
1
Infinite Bus
Definition: The bus whose voltage and
frequency remains constant even after the
variation in the load is known as the infinite
bus.
The alternators operating in parallel in a power

system is the example of the infinite bus. The
on and off of any of the alternator will not
affect the working of the power system.
• The capacity of a parallel operating
system is enormous. Their voltage and frequency
remain constant even after the disturbance of
the load. The connection and disconnection of
any of the machine will not affect the magnitude
and phase of voltage and frequency of an infinite
bus.
• The synchronous impedance of the bus is low

because of parallel operations of the machine.
Synchronous machine on Infinite Bus
• The performance of the synchronous machine

varies on the infinite bus.
• When the synchronous machine operates
independently, variation in their excitation
causes the changes in their terminal voltage. The
power factor of the synchronous machine
depends only on their load.
• But when the synchronous machines are
operating in parallel, the change in their
excitation changes the power factor of the load.
Obtaining an Infinite Bus
Consider generators G1, G2, G3……Gn connected

to an infinite bus as shown in the figure below.
Proof of Voltage Remaining Constant
• Let, V be the terminal voltage of the bus

• E be the induced emf of each generator
• ZS is the synchronous impedance of each
• generator
• n is the number of generators in parallel
• When n is very large ZSeq → 0 and, therefore, I ZSeq → 0

• Therefore, V = E (constant)
• If the number of alternators operating in parallel is infinite only
then ZS = 0
Proof of Frequency Remaining Constant
• Let, J be the moment of inertia of each alternator

• Total moment of inertia of all n alternators is given as
If the value of n is very large, nJ is also very large.

Therefore, acceleration → 0 and the speed is constant.
The above equation shows that the constant voltage and
frequency of the bus depend on the number of machines
operating parallel.
Expression for power shared by Two alternators
Consider two alternators running in Parallel. The frequency -Load characteristic of the
two machines is shown in fig.
Let
W1 = Full load power rating of machine 1
W2 = Full load power rating of machine 2
P1 = Power shared by machine 1
P2 = Power shared by machine 2
P = Total power supplied by two machines
f01 = No load frequency of machine 1
f02 = No load frequency of machine 2
fl1 = full load frequency of machine 1
fl2 = full load frequency of machine 2
f = common operating frequency when the two machines are running
in Parallel
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You
25
MMF Method of Voltage
by
Dr. Mohd Faisal Jalil
(B.Tech., M. Tech., Ph.D.)
Dept of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
KIET Group of institution, Delhi-NCR,
Ghaziabad 1
Contents
 Introduction.
 Voltage Regulation.
 MMF Method.
 Calculation of VR by MMF Method.
 Phasor Diagram.
2
Voltage Regulation
• The Voltage Regulation of a Synchronous Generator is the rise in voltage at

the terminals when the load is reduced from full load rated value to zero,
speed and field current remaining constant. It depends upon the power
factor of the load.
|Ea| is the magnitude of a generated voltage per phase

|V| is the magnitude of rated terminal voltage per phase
3
Classification of Voltage Regulation
Fig. 1. Classification Voltage Regulation[1].
4
Direct Load Test
• The alternator runs at synchronous speed, and its terminal voltage is

adjusted to its rated value V.
• The load is varied until the Ammeter and Wattmeter indicate the rated
values at the given power factor. The load is removed, and the speed and
the field excitation are kept constant. The value of the open circuit and no
load voltage is recorded.
5
Indirect Methods of Voltage Regulation
• For large alternators, the three indirect methods are used to determine the
voltage regulation they are as follows.
1. Synchronous Impedance Method or EMF method.
2. Ampere-turn method or MMF method of Voltage Regulation.
3. Zero Power Factor method or Potier Method.
6
MMF Method
• MMF Method is also known as Ampere Turn Method. The synchronous

impedance method is based on the concept of replacing the effect of
armature reaction by an imaginary reactance the Magneto motive force
(MMF).
• The MMF method replaces the effect of armature leakage reactance by an
equivalent additional armature reaction MMF so that this MMF may be
combined with the armature reaction MMF.
7
MMF Method
• To calculate the voltage regulation by MMF Method, the following

information is required. They are as follows:
1. The resistance of the stator winding per phase.
2. Open circuit characteristics.
3. Short circuit characteristics.
8
Step to Draw Phasor Diagram of MMF
Method
• The armature terminal voltage per phase (V) is taken as the reference
phasor along OA.
• The armature current phasor I is drawn lagging the phasor voltage for
lagging power factor angle ɸ for which the regulation is to be calculated.
• The armature resistance drop phasor IaRa is drawn in phase with Ia along
the line AC. Join O and C. OC represents the emf E’.
• Considering the Open Current Characteristics shown
above the field current I’ corresponding to the voltage E’
is calculated.
9
Method
• Draw the field current I’ leading the voltage E’ by 90 degrees.
• It is assumed that on short circuit all the excitation is opposed by the MMF
of armature reaction.
• From the Short Circuit Current characteristics (SSC), determine the field
current If2 required to circulate the rated current on short circuit.
•This is the filed current required to overcome the
synchronous reactance drop IaXa .
10
Method
Fig. 2. The phasor diagram at a lagging power factor [2].

11
Method
Fig. 3. OCC and SCC[2].

12
Method
• Draw the field current If2 in phase in opposition to the current armature
current Ia.
• Determine the phasor sum of the field currents I’f and If2. This gives the
resultant field current If which would generate a voltage E under no load
conditions of the alternator.
•The open circuit EMF Eo corresponding to the field
current if is found from the open circuit characteristics.
13
MMF Method
• The regulation of the alternator is found from the relation shown below.
14
References
• https://circuitglobe.com/mmf-method-of-voltage-
regulation.html#:~:text=of%20Voltage%20Regulation-
,MMF%20Method%20of%20Voltage%20Regulation,the%20Magnetomotive%20forc
e%20(MMF).&text=Open%20circuit%20characteristics%20at%20synchronous%20sp
eed.
• https://circuitglobe.com/voltage-regulation-of-a-synchronous-generator.html
15
Thank
You
16
PARALLEL OPERATION OF
ALTERNATOR
Parallel Operation of the Alternators
• Interconnection of AC power systems requires

synchronous generators to operate
in parallel with each other. In generating
stations, two or more generators are
connected in parallel.
• They are connected parallel by means of transformer
and transmission lines. Under normal operating
conditions all the generators and synchronous motors
in an interconnected system operate
in synchronism with each other.
• As the load increases beyond the generated capacity of
the connected units, additional generators are parallel
to carry the load. Similarly, if the load demand
decreases, one or more machines are taken off the line
as per the requirement. It allows the units to operate
at a higher efficiency.
Reasons of Parallel Operation
• Several alternators can supply a bigger load than a single alternator.

• One or more alternators may shut down during the period of light loads.
Thus, the remaining alternator operates at near or full load with greater
efficiency.
• When one machine is taken out of service for its scheduled maintenance
and inspection, the remaining machines maintain the continuity of the
supply.
• If there is a breakdown of the generator, there is no interruption of the
power supply.
• Number of machines can be added with disturbing the initial installation
according to the requirement to fulfill the increasing future demand of the
load.
• Parallel operation of the alternator, reduces the operating cost and the
cost of energy generation.
• It ensures the greater security of supply and enables overall economic
generation.
Necessary Conditions for Parallel
Operation of the Alternator
• The process of connecting one machine in
parallel with another machine or with an
Infinite Busbar system is known
as Synchronizing.
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22
Zero Power Factor Method of

Voltage Regulation
Contents
 Introduction.
 ZPFC Method.
 Calculation of VR.
 Phasor Diagram
Voltage Regulation
• The Voltage Regulation of a Synchronous Generator is

the rise in voltage at the terminals when the load is
reduced from full load rated value to zero, speed and
field current remaining constant. It depends upon the
power factor of the load.

3
4
Direct Load Test

values at the given power factor. The load is removed, and the speed
and the field excitation are kept constant. The value of the open circuit
and no load voltage is recorded.
5
• For large alternators, the three indirect methods are used to

determine the voltage regulation they are as follows.
6
Zero Power Factor method or Potier
Method.
• Zero Power Factor Characteristic (ZPFC) of a
generator is a curve of the armature terminal
voltage and the field current.
• The machine is operated with constantly rated
armature current at synchronous speed and zero
lagging power factor. The Zero Power Factor
Characteristic is also called as Potier
Characteristic.
• For maintaining very low power factor, the
alternator is loaded by means of reactors. The
shape of ZPFC is very much like that of the O.C.C
Assumptions for Potier Triangle
• The following assumptions are made in the

Potier Triangle Method. They are as follows:-
• The armature resistance Ra is neglected.
• The O.C.C taken on no load accurately
represents the relation between MMF and
Voltage on load.
• The leakage reactance voltage Ia XaL is
independent of excitation.
• The armature reaction MMF is constant.
At zero power factor lagging, the armature current Ia lags behind V by 90 degrees.
IaRa is drawn parallel to Ia and IaXaL perpendicular to Ia.
Eg is the generated voltage per phase.
• The field MMF Ff is obtained by subtracting Far from
Fr
• The terminal voltage V, the reactance voltage drop IaXaL and

the generated voltage Eg all are in phase. Therefore, V is
practically equal to the arithmetical difference between
Eg and IaXaL.
• The three MMF phasor Ff, Fr and Far are in phase. Their
magnitudes are related by the equation shown below
• The above two equations, i.e. equations forms the basis for
the Potier triangle.
Potier Triangle
• The Potier triangle determines the voltage
regulation of the machines. This method depends
on the separation of the leakage reactance of
armature and their effects. The graph of the
Potier triangle is shown in the figure below. The
triangle formed by the vertices a, b, c has shown
below in the figure is called Potier Triangle.
Consider a point B on the Zero Power Factor Curve corresponding to rated terminal
voltage V and a field current of OM = If = Ff/Tf. If, for this condition of operation the
armature reaction MMF has a value expressed in equivalent field current will be given
as
Then the equivalent field current of the resultant MMF would be represented as
shown below.
This field current OL would result in a generated voltage Eg = Lc from the no-load
saturation curve. Since for lagging Zero Power Factor operation, the generated
voltage will be
The vertical distance ac must be equal to the leakage reactance voltage DROP
IaXaL where Ia is the rated armature current.
Therefore,
Steps for Construction of Potier
Triangle on ZPFC
• Make a point b on the ZPFC preferably well upon the knee of the
curve.
• Draw bk equal to b’O. (b’ is the point for zero voltage, full load
current). Ob’ is the short circuit excitation Fsc.
• Through k draw, kc parallel to Oc’ to meet O.C.C in c.
• Drop the perpendicular ca on to bk.
• Then, to scale ca is the leakage reactance drop IaXaL and ab is the
armature reaction MMF FaR or the field current Ifar equivalent to
armature reaction MMF at rated current.
• The effect of field leakage flux in combination with the armature
leakage flux gives rise to an equivalent leakage reactance Xp, known
as the Potier Reactance. It is greater than the armature leakage
reactance.
•
Assumptions for Potier Triangle
• The following assumptions are made in the

Potier Triangle Method. They are as follows:-
• The armature resistance Ra is neglected.
• The O.C.C taken on no load accurately
represents the relation between MMF and
Voltage on load.
• The leakage reactance voltage Ia XaL is
independent of excitation.
• The armature reaction MMF is constant.
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18
Voltage and frequency control of alternators
by
Ghaziabad 1
Contents
 Effect of change in excitation of an
alternator operating on infinite busbar.
 Conclusion.
 Effect of change in Steam input of an

alternator operating on infinite busbar.
 Conclusion.
2
Reactive Power Control
• Effect of change in excitation of an alternator operating on infinite
busbar.
• Assume the armature resistance is negligible (ZS=XS).
• Step 1
IF1 is the field current.
E1 is the emf induced.
I1 is the current flowing in armature.
I1XS is the Synchronous reactance drop.
 ɸ1 is the power factor angle of I1.
 Cos ɸ1 is the power factor of I1.
 𝛿1 is the load angle. 3
E1
IW
I1
δ1
ɸ1
5
• Step 2 Let the field current is increased to IF2.
• Such that,
• IF2 = 1.25 IF1 (Means excitation current is increased by 25%)
So, E1 will increase such that E’1 = 1.25 E1.
In this condition,
I’1 is the new current.
I’1XS is the new Synchronous reactance drop.
I’1 > I1
ɸ’1 > ɸ1
Watt full component of I’1(I’W) > IW
6
E’1
E1
I ‘1
IW
I1
δ1
ɸ1
ɸ ‘1
7
 In order to supply this extra power (P2 -P1), the alternator will
extract some kinetic energy from its moving parts.
 This extra kinetic energy is required for extra power (P2 -P1).
 As a result net kinetic energy of the system is reduced and machine
will slow down.
 As kinetic energy is reduced and machine will slow down.
 The phasor E’1 will fall back of its position and finally settle at some
other position E”1.
New emf induced = E”1.
I”1 is the new current.
I”1XS is the new Synchronous reactance drop.
8
I”1 > I1 E’’1
ɸ”1 > ɸ1 E ’1
But, I”1 Cosɸ”1 = I1 Cos ɸ1= IW

New value of load angle = 𝛿”1 E1
1
Power output, P3 = VI”1 Cos ɸ”1 V
P3 = VI1 Cos ɸ1 = P1
δ”1
I ‘1
IW I ‘’1
ɸ”1 I1
δ1
ɸ1
ɸ‘1 9
Conclusion
An increase in excitation current results in following.
 Induced emf (E) increases.
 Armature current (I) increases.
 Load angle (𝛿) decreases.
 Power factor angle (ɸ) increases.
 Power factor (Cos(ɸ)) decreases.
 Active power remains same.
 Reactive power (VISin(ɸ)) increases.
10
Active Power Control
• Effect of change in Steam input of an alternator operating on infinite
busbar.
• Step 1: Let corresponding to same steam input,
E1 is the emf induced.
The armature resistance is negligible (ZS=XS).
 ɸ1 is the power factor angle of I1.
 Cos ɸ1 is the power factor of I1.
 𝛿1 is the load angle.
11
E1
IW
I1
δ1
ɸ1
12
• Step 2: Let the steam input is increased 25 %
• Mechanical power input > Electrical power output.
• Therefore, machine will accelerate.
• The phasor E1 will fall ahead of its previous position.
• IW2XS = 1.25IWXS (IW2 = 1.25IW).
• Draw a new power line corresponding to increase in steam input.
• Take OE1 as radius and draw a circle.
13
New power line after increase in steam input
The point of intersection A’ on A’ A

E1
new power line gives the new E2
1
point of operation OE2, after V
IW1 XS
increase in steam input.
IW2 XS
I2
δ2 ɸ2
IW
I1
δ1
ɸ1
Constant Power Line before increase of14steam input.

• Corresponding to new point of operation A’.
• Induced emf, E2 = E1
• The load angle, 𝛿2 > 𝛿1.
ɸ2 is the power factor angle of I2.
IW2 = Watt full component of I2.
IW2 = 1.25IW1
Power output = P2 = VI2Cos ɸ2 = VIW2=1.25VIW1
15
Conclusion
An increase in steam input results in following.
 Induced emf (E) remains same .
 Armature current (I) increases.
 Load angle (𝛿 ) increases.
 Power factor angle (ɸ) decreases.
 Power factor (Cos(ɸ)) increases.
 Reactive power (VISin(ɸ)) remains same.
 Active power (VICos(ɸ)) increases.
 Power output increases by same amount as
increase in steam input.
16
• Corresponding to new point of operation A’.
• Induced emf, E2 = E1
• The load angle, 𝛿2 > 𝛿1.
ɸ2 is the power factor angle of I2.
IW2 = Watt full component of I2.
IW2 = 1.25IW1
Power output = P2 = VI2Cos ɸ2 = VIW2=1.25VIW1
17
Thank
You
18
Construction
by
Ghaziabad
1
Contents
 Introduction.
 Stator.
 Rotor.
 Cylindrical rotor.
 Salient Pole rotor.
2
Introduction
3
Introduction
• What is Field?
• What is Armature?
• Condition for EMF Induction

 Conductors (Armature)
Flux (Field System)
Relative motion
Introduction
5
Construction
 A synchronous machine has two mechanical parts: a rotor and a stator.
 Stator- Stationary part of the machine or Armature.
 Rotor- Rotating part of the machine carries DC field winding.
 The rotor in case synchronous generator is rotated with the help of

external prime mover.
6
Stator
Fig. 1. Stator of Three Phase Synchronous Machine.

7
Rotor
 There are two types of rotors in synchronous machine
1. Cylindrical Rotor.
2.Salient Pole Rotor.

8
Cylindrical Rotor
Fig. 2. Cylindrical /Non-Salient/High-Speed Rotor of Three

Phase Synchronous Machine.
9
Cylindrical Rotor
 Rotor is laminated structure.
 The laminations are made of Chromium Nickel steel.
The slots are punched of the outer periphery.
The Rotor field winding is essentially a DC field winding which is provided in

slots.
This winding carries current that provides necessary excitation for
 generation of EMF in the machine.
10
Cylindrical Rotor
Fig. 3. Cylindrical Rotor MMF Wave
11
Cylindrical Rotor
 It is observed that MMF produced by field current (DC) is having stepped
wave shape.
 This stepped wave shape flux/MMF is stationary in nature.
 It is rotated mechanically by means of prime mover at synchronous speeds.
 The stator conductors placed in stator slots are linked by this mechanically
rotating MMF.
 An EMF will be induced in stator having a nature of

stepped wave shape.
12
Cylindrical Rotor
 The induced EMF can be considered as fundamental of 50 Hz and higher
order harmonics.
 Stator windings are short chorded to eliminate higher order harmonics.
 After short chording, it assumed that alternator generates purely

sinusoidal.
 The disadvantage of short chording is that it will reduce generated EMF by

4-5%.
13
Salient-Pole Rotor
Fig. 4. Salient Pole Rotor of Three Phase Synchronous Machine.
14
Salient-Pole Rotor
 Salient Pole Rotor construction is used for low speed operation, as no of
poles are 4 or more.
 Salient Pole Rotor construction is used in hydro-electric power plants.
 Components of rotor.
1. Rotor Core or Yoke.
2. Pole Body.
3. Pole Shoe.
4. Field Winding.
15
Salient-Pole Rotor
 For small machines a solid construction made up of highly magnetic cast

steel is used.
 For machines of higher ratings, a laminated Core/Yoke is used.
2. Pole Body – It is made of laminated sheet steel material.
3. Pole Shoe – It distributes the field flux over the whole periphery uniformly.
• Damper bars are also provided on pole shoe made

of copper. The damper bars of all poles are brought
out and short circuited at both ends. 16
Salient-Pole Rotor
4. Field Windings- The copper conductors are used for field windings.
 The prefabricated Coils are placed on the pole body.
 The free ends of the coils are connected to form continuous DC field
winding.
 The length of air gap is not uniform in Salient pole machines.
 The length of air gap is maximum along d-axis and minimum along q-axis.
 This gives variation in reluctance as we move from d-axis

to q-axis.
17
Thank
You
18
Synchronous impedance
method
by
KIET Group of institution, Delhi-NCR, Ghaziabad
1
Contents
 Introduction.
 DC resistance test.
 Open Circuit test.
 Short Circuit test.
 Measurement of Sync Impedance.
2
Voltage Regulation

factor of the load.

3
4
Direct Load Test

values at the given power factor. The load is removed, and the speed and
the field excitation are kept constant. The value of the open circuit and no
load voltage is recorded.
5
• For large alternators, the three indirect methods are used to determine the
voltage regulation they are as follows.
6
Measurement of Synchronous impedance
• The measurement of synchronous impedance is done by the following

methods. They are known as
1. DC resistance test.
2. Open circuit test.
3. Short circuit test.
ZS = Ra + jXS
Where, ZS – Synchronous impedance
Ra – Armature resistance
Xs –Synchronous reactance
7
DC resistance test
• In this test, it is assumed that the alternator is star connected with the DC field
winding open as shown in the circuit diagram below.
Fig.1. Circuit diagram of DC resistance test [1]. 8

Open Circuit test
Fig.2. Circuit diagram of open circuit test [1].

9
Open Circuit test
• Run synchronous machine at synchronous speed by means of prime

mover.
• Keep the stator winding open circuited.
• Connect ammeter in field circuit and voltmeter in stator circuit to
measure field current and open circuit terminal voltage respectively.
• Vary field current and note the corresponding value of terminal voltage.
• Plot the terminal voltage (V) vs Field current (If)

graph called as open circuit characteristics.
10
Open Circuit test
Fig.3. Open circuit characteristics [1].

11
Short Circuit test

mover.
• Apply a Three-Phase symmetrical short circuit.
• Measure the field circuit (If) and short circuit current (ISC)
• Vary field current and note the corresponding value of short circuit
current .
• Plot the short circuit current (ISC) vs Field current

(If) graph called as short circuit characteristics.
12
Short Circuit test
Fig.3. Circuit diagram of short circuit test [1].

13
Short Circuit test

mover.
current .

14
Short Circuit test

15
Short Circuit test
• It is to be noted that SCC is a straight line and characteristics does not
saturates.
• S.C current is essentially flowing in the impedance of stator.
• The stator impedance is ZS = RA + jXS. It is mainly is inductive in nature.
• The effect of armature reaction is so dominant on value of ɸf , that the
resultant flux in air gap is always small due to demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction.
• Therefore, magnetic circuit does not saturates and SCC
is straight line.
16
Calculation of Synchronous Impedance
Steps for calculation of Synchronous Impedance.
• The open circuit characteristics and the short circuit characteristic are
drawn on the same curve.
• Determine the value of short circuit current ISC and gives the rated
alternator voltage per phase.
• The synchronous impedance ZS will then be equal to the open circuit
voltage divided by the short circuit current at that field current which gives
the rated EMF per phase.
17
The synchronous reactance is determined as
18
Voltage Regulation

factor of the load.

19
Reference
1. https://circuitglobe.com/synchronous-impedance-method.html
2. https://www.electricalengineeringinfo.com/2014/11/voltage-regulation-
of-synchronous-generator-alternator-using-synchronous-impedance-
method.html
20
Thank
You
21
Synchronous Motor- Starting
by
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
1
Contents
 Introduction.
 Construction of Synchronous motor.
 Why Synchronous motor is not self starting.
 Starting methods of Synchronous motor .
 Damper winding starting of Synchronous

motor .
2
Construction of Synchronous motor
Fig. 1. Salient Pole rotor of Synchronous Motor [1].

3
Starting of a Synchronous Motor
• The starting of the Synchronous Motor does not take place on its own. This
means that the Synchronous Motor is not Self Starting.
Fig. 2. Starting methods of Synchronous Motor [2]. 4

Why Synchronous Motor is not Self Starting
• Field poles (Rotor) are formed by DC current flowing in the field winding.
• Since, DC current is flowing in the concentrated winding.
• Therefore, only stationary (alternate N-S, N-S,…) poles are formed in air
gap.
• A 3-ɸ balanced current is flowing in the 3-ɸ balanced winding, causes the
production of rotating magnetic field which is electrically rotating at
synchronous speed.
• So, for stator side we will be having rotating (alternate
N-S, N-S,…) poles are formed in air gap.
5
Why Synchronous Motor is not Self Starting
Fig. 3. Force of attraction between stator poles and rotor poles[3]
6
Starting of Synchronous Motor as IM
• Damper winding must be provided to start the motor

1. Switch ON the 3-ɸ supply (DC supply must not be connected)
• Rotor poles are not formed and rotor is stationary.
• The rotating magnetic field links with rotor’s damper winding.
• Since, the rotor is stationary and magnetic field is rotating at Ns. So, an EMF is
induced.
• As, the damper winding bars are short circuited. So, the current will flow in damper
winding which is 3-ɸ winding.
• By, this the rotor will be started just like a squirrel cage IM .
• It is to be noted that the rotor is rotated at a speed slightly less
than Ns
7
Starting of Synchronous Motor as IM
2. Now, Switch ON the DC supply to field winding

• Rotor poles are formed and they rotating mechanically at a speed slightly less than Ns.
• Stator poles are rotating electrically at Ns.
• Now, North of the stator pole urge upon the South of the rotor poles to do the
magnetic interlocking.
• Rotor moves at synchronous speed due to this interlocking.
• As the speed of rotor becomes Ns , then the relative motion vanishes between
damper winding and stator field. So, the operation as IM comes to an end.
8
References
• https://circuitglobe.com/starting-of-synchronous-motor.html
• https://d13mk4zmvuctmz.cloudfront.net/assets/main/study-
material/notes/electrical-engineering_engineering_electrical-machine-
design_design-of-synchronous-machines_notes.pdf
• https://fdocuments.in/document/chapter-6-synchronous-machines-
educypediaeducypediakaradimovinfolibraryeetch6pdfpdf.html
9
Thank
You
10
Two Reaction Theory
by
1
Two Reaction Theory – Salient Pole
Synchronous Machine
• Two Reaction Theory was proposed by Andre Blondel.
• The theory proposes to resolve the given armature current into two
mutually perpendicular components, with one located along the axis of
the rotor of the salient pole. It is known as the direct axis or d axis
component.
• The other component is located perpendicular to the axis of the rotor

salient pole. It is known as the quadrature axis or q axis component.
3
Salient-Pole Rotor
4
Effect of Armature Reaction for Lagging PF (0-90)
5
Effect of Armature Reaction for Lagging PF (0-90)
• Effect of armature reaction = Effect of armature reaction due to Id +

Effect of armature reaction due to Iq
Effect of armature reaction = Complete Demagnetization +

Cross magnetization
6
Effect of Armature Reaction for Leading PF (0-90)
7
Effect of Armature Reaction for Leading PF (0-90)
• Effect of armature reaction = Effect of armature reaction due to Id +

Effect of armature reaction due to Iq
Effect of armature reaction = Complete magnetization +

Cross magnetization
8
Duharti and Nickel modification in Two
Reaction Theory
• Blondel’s two reaction theory was modified by two scientist Duharti and
Nickel.
• They suggested that the effect armature reaction can be determined by
considering two reactances Xad and Xaq.
• Where Xad is fictious reactance considered along d-axis equivalent to the
effect of armature reaction.
• Where Xaq is fictious reactance considered along d-axis equivalent to the
effect of armature reaction.
• Xd = Xad + Xal
• Xq = Xaq + Xal
9
Duharti and Nickel modification in Two
Reaction Theory
• Where Xd is direct axis synchronous reactance. (Slip Test)

• Where Xq is quadrature axis synchronous reactance. (Slip Test)
• For Salient pole machine

• Xd > Xq
• For Non-Salient pole machine
• Xd = Xq = Xs
10
AR on No Load Condition
 The Rotor of synchronous machine consist of DC field winding.
 If Vf , voltage is applied to the field winding than it will causes If

current in the field winding.
 The DC field current If , produces stationary field flux ɸf.
 Now let us assume that sync machine is rotated

mechanically at sync speed in anti clock wise direction
with help of prime mover.
11
 Thus, in air gap of machine ɸf is rotated mechanically at sync
speed.
 This mechanically rotated flux will link the stator windings, cu-
conductors placed in the stator slots.
 An EMF will be induced in the balanced three-phase winding of
stator.
 Since, alternator is running on no-load, therefore Ia, Ib, Ic = 0
 The armature flux ɸa = 0, only available flux in the

air gap is ɸf. Therefore, there is no armature
reaction. 12
AR on Load Conditions
 Now, let us assume that armature is connected with balanced 3-
phase load.
 Therefore, balanced 3-phase current Ia, Ib, Ic will start flowing in
balance 3-phase winding.
 This will produce a rotating magnetic field (ɸa), which is rotated

electrically in the same direction in which ɸf is already rotating.
 In this condition, the effect of armature flux ɸa on

main field flux ɸf is called as armature reaction.
13
 The armature reaction depends upon following two parameters.
1. Nature of the load.
2. Magnitude of the load.
14
AR for purely Resistive, Inductive & Capacitive
load
15
AR for purely Resistive load
• Purely Resistive load- leading half of pole pitch ɸa helps ɸf that is
magnetization
-Trailing half of pole pitch ɸa opposes ɸf that is de-
magnetization
Overall Cross magnetization.
Purely Inductive load- ɸa opposes ɸf that is complete de-magnetization.

Purely Capacitive load- ɸa helps ɸf that is complete magnetization.
16
Thank
You
17
Introduction
18
Construction

19
Stator

20
Rotor

21
Cylindrical Rotor

22
Cylindrical Rotor

slots.
23
Cylindrical Rotor
24
Cylindrical Rotor
wave shape.
rotating MMF.

stepped wave shape.
25
Cylindrical Rotor
order harmonics.

sinusoidal.

4-5%.
26
Salient-Pole Rotor
27
Salient-Pole Rotor
2. Pole Body.
3. Pole Shoe.
4. Field Winding.
28
Salient-Pole Rotor

steel is used.

Salient-Pole Rotor
winding.

to q-axis.
30
Armature Winding and EMF
Equation
by
1
CONTENTS
• Brief Overview of Basics
• Coil Pitch
• Pole Pitch
• Winding Coefficients : Coil Span Factor(KC)
• Distribution Factor(Kd)
• EMF equation
TURN
• A turn consists of two conductors connected to one end by an
end connector.
• Single Turn is the only turn
COIL
• A coil is formed by connecting several turns
in. the series
WINDING
A winding is formed by connecting several coils
in series.
TYPES OF WINDING
• Armature Winding is the windings, in which voltage
is induced.
• The Field Winding is the winding in which the main
field flux is produced when the current through the
winding is passed. A winding in which current is
supplied.
ELECTRICAL &
MECHANICAL DEGREES
• The concept of electrical degree is very important in the study of the
machine.
• For a (P) pole machine, the electrical degree is defined as given
below.
• Where,
• θmd is the mechanical degrees or an angular measure in space.
θ ed is the electrical degrees or an angular
measure in cycles.
1 : Number of poles , P=2
mechanical angle θmd= 180° 2 : Number of poles , P=4 3 : Number of poles , P=6
Putting value in equation1, mechanical angle θmd= 90° mechanical angle θmd= 60°
We get the value of θed= 180° Putting value in equation1, Putting value in equation1,
We get the value of θed= 180° We get the value of θed= 180°
So, we come to the conclusion that irrespective of the

number of poles or the value of mechanical angle,
electrical angle θed would always be equal to 180°
i.e θed = 180°
POLE PITCH & COIL PITCH
• POLE PITCH : The angular distance between the centers of
two adjacent poles on a machine is known as pole
pitch or pole span. But Pole Pitch is always measured in
electrical degrees ,therefore Pole Pitch is always equal to 180°
COIL PITCH : The two sides of a coil are placed in two slots on
the stator surface. The distance between the two sides of a coil is
called the coil-pitch.
If the coil pitch is one pole pitch, it is called the Full Pitch
Coil. If the coil pitch is less than one pole pitch, the coil is
called the Short Pitch or Fractional Pitch coil
WINDING COEFFECIENTS
• Coil Span Factor (Kc)
The Coil Span Factor or Pitch Factor Kc is defined as the ratio of the voltage
generated in the short pitch coil to the voltage generated in the full pitch coil. It is
also known as Chording Factor
• Advantages of Short Pitch Coil or Chording :

• It shortens the ends of the winding and, therefore, there is a saving
in the conductor’s material.
• It Reduces the effects of distorting harmonics and thus the
waveform of the generated voltage is improved and making it a
sine wave.
• In case of a full pitch coil, the distance between the two sides
of the coil is exactly equal to the pole pitch of 180⁰ electrical.
• As a result, the voltage in a full pitch coil is such that the
voltage of each side of the coil is in phase.
• Let EC1 and EC2 be the voltages generated in the coil sides, and
EC is the resultant coil voltage.
Since EC1 and EC2 are in phase,
the resultant coil voltage EC is
equal to their arithmetic sum.
Therefore,
• A stator winding using fractional pitch coil is called a chorded
winding.
• If the span of the coil is reduced by an angle α electrical degrees,
the coil span will be (180 – α) electrical degrees.
• If the coil span of a single coil is less than the pole pitch of 180⁰
electrical, the voltages generated on each coil side are not in
phase. The resultant coil voltage EC is equal to the phasor sum
of EC1 and EC2 •If the coil span is reduced by an angle α electrical
degrees, the coil span is (180 – α) electrical degrees.
The voltage generated EC1 and EC2 in the two coil sides
will be out of phase with respect to each other by an
angle α electrical degrees. The phasor sum of EC1 and
EC2 is EC, which is equal to AC as shown in the phasor
diagram above.
• For full pitch coil, the value of α will be 0⁰, cos
α/2 = 1 and KC = 1.
• For a short pitch coil KC < 1.
Distribution Factor
• The Distribution Factor or the Breadth Factor is

defined as the ratio of the actual voltage obtained to
the possible voltage if all the coils of a polar group
were concentrated in a single slot. It is denoted
by Kd and is given by the equation shown below.
• Concentrated and Distributed Winding
• In a concentrated winding, each phase of a coil is
concentrated in a single slot. The individual coil voltages
induced are in phase with each other. These voltages must
be added arithmetically. In order to determine the induced
voltage per phase, a given coil voltage is multiplied by the
number of series connected coils per phase.
• In actual practice, in each phase, coils are not concentrated
in a single slot. They are distributed in a number of slots in
space to form a polar group under each pole.
• The voltages induced in coil sides are not in phase,

but they differ by an angle β which is known as the
angular displacement of the slots.
Let,
• m = slots per pole per phase
• β = angular displacement between adjacent slots in electrical degrees
• Thus, one phase of the winding consists of coils arranged in m consecutive slots.
Voltages EC1, EC2, EC3….. are the individual coil voltages. Each coil voltage EC will
be out of phase with the next coil voltages by the slot pitch β.
• The figure below shows the voltage polygon of
the induced voltages in the four coils of a
group (m = 4)
• The voltages EC1, EC2, EC3 and EC4 are

represented by the phasors AB, BC, CD and
DF respectively. Each of these phasors is a
chord of a circle with the center O and
subtends an angle β at the point O. The phasor
sum AF, represents the resultant winding
voltage, subtends at an angle mβ at the center.
• The arithmetic sum of the individual coil voltage is given as
• The phasor sum of the individual coil voltages is given as
• Therefore, from the equation (1) shown above, we know that,
The distribution factor Kd for a given number of phases is dependent only

on the number of distributed slots under a given pole. It is independent of
the type of the winding, lap or wave or the number of turns per coil, etc. the
distribution factor decreases as the number of slots per pole increases.
Winding Factor
• Winding Factor is defined as the product of Distribution factor (Kd)
and the coil span factor (Kc).. It is denoted by Kw.
• The winding factor is the method of improving the rms generated
voltage in a three phase AC machines so that the torque and the
output voltage does not consists any harmonics which reduces the
efficiency of the machine.
Speed & Frequency Relation
• The frequency of the generated voltage
depends upon the number of field poles and
on the speed at which the field poles are
rotated.
one complete cycle of voltage is
generated in an armature coil when a
pair of field poles passes over the coil.
P = total number of field poles.
p = pair of field poles
N = speed of the field in r.p.m.
n = speed of field poles in r.p.s.
f = frequency of the generated voltage in Hz.
• Since one cycle is generated in an armature coil when the pair of field poles passes over the
coil, the number of cycles generated in one revolution of the rotor will be equal to the
number of pars of the poles . that is,
Number of cycles per revolution = p

Also number of revolution per second = n
Equation give the relationship between the number of poles, speed and
frequency.
EMF Equation of a Synchronous
Generator
The equation of voltage that we get as output from armature winding is the e.m.f equation.
Let,
P is the number of poles
ϕ is Flux per pole in Webers
n = speed of rotation of rotor in revolution per second (r.p.s.)
N is the speed in revolution per minute (r.p.m)
f is the frequency in Hertz
Zph is the number of conductors connected in series per phase
Tph is the number of turns connected in series per phase
Kc is the coil span factor
Kd is the distribution factor
Flux cut by each conductor during one revolution is given
as Pϕ Weber.
Time taken to complete one revolution is given by 60/N sec
Since the flux per pole is Φ , each stator conductor cuts flux PΦ.
The average value of generated voltage per conductor

= flux cut per revolution in Wb
time taken for one revolution in seconds
Since n revolution are made in one second, one revolution will be made in 1/n second. therefore the time for
one revolution of the armature is 1/n second.
Eav/ conductor = PΦ = nPΦ ................(1).
1/n
We know that
f = PN/120 = Pn/2
Therefore,
Pn = 2f
these value put in equation 1 we get ,
Eav/ conductor = 2fΦ ...................(2).
since there are Zph conductor in series per phase , the average voltage generated per phase is
given by
Eav/ phase = 2fΦ Zph
since one turn or coil has two sides Zph = 2Tph , the expression for the average generated voltage per phase can be
written as
Eav/ phase = 4fΦTph ………(2)

for voltage wave , the form factor is given by
Kf = r.m.s. value/ average value
For a sinusoidal voltage , Kf =1.11 . therefore . the r.m.s. value of generated voltage per phase can
be written as
Er.m.s. / phase = Kf x Eav / phase = 1.11 x 4fΦTph = 4.44fΦTp
the r.m.s. value of generated voltage per phase is given by
Ep = 4.44fΦTph
• If the coil span factor Kc and the distribution factor Kd , are taken into consideration
than the Actual EMF induced per phase is given as
• Equation (1) shown above is the EMF equation of the Synchronous Generator
• As we know, Winding Factor is defined as the product of Distribution factor (Kd)

and the coil span factor (Kc).
References
• https://www.electricalstudynotes.com/
• https://circuitglobe.com/
Thank
You
Armature Reaction (AR)
by
1
Contents
 Definition.
 AR on No-Load.
 AR on Load Conditions.
 Effect of AR for Resistive load.
 Effect of AR for Inductive load.
 Effect of AR for Capacitive load.

2
Definition
• It is defined as the effect of armature flux (ɸa) on the
main field flux (ɸf). The effect of armature can be
understood in two different conditions.
• No-Load Condition.
• Load Condition.
3
 The Rotor of synchronous machine consist of DC field winding.
 If Vf , voltage is applied to the field winding than it will causes If

current in the field winding.
 The DC field current If , produces stationary field flux ɸf.
 Now let us assume that sync machine is rotated

mechanically at sync speed in anti clock wise direction
with help of prime mover.
4
 Thus, in air gap of machine ɸf is rotated mechanically at sync
speed.
 This mechanically rotated flux will link the stator windings, cu-
conductors placed in the stator slots.
 An EMF will be induced in the balanced three-phase winding of
stator.
 Since, alternator is running on no-load, therefore Ia, Ib, Ic = 0
 The armature flux ɸa = 0, only available flux in the

air gap is ɸf. Therefore, there is no armature
reaction. 5
 Now, let us assume that armature is connected with balanced 3-
phase load.
 Therefore, balanced 3-phase current Ia, Ib, Ic will start flowing in
balance 3-phase winding.
 This will produce a rotating magnetic field (ɸa), which is rotated

electrically in the same direction in which ɸf is already rotating.
 In this condition, the effect of armature flux ɸa on

main field flux ɸf is called as armature reaction.
6
 The armature reaction depends upon following two parameters.
1. Nature of the load.
2. Magnitude of the load.
7
AR for purely Resistive, Inductive & Capacitive
load
8
AR for purely Resistive load
• Purely Resistive load- leading half of pole pitch ɸa helps ɸf that is
magnetization
-Trailing half of pole pitch ɸa opposes ɸf that is de-
magnetization
Overall Cross magnetization.
Purely Inductive load- ɸa opposes ɸf that is complete de-magnetization.

Purely Capacitive load- ɸa helps ɸf that is complete magnetization.
9
Thank
You
10
Introduction
11
Construction

12
Stator

13
Rotor

14
Cylindrical Rotor

15
Cylindrical Rotor

slots.
16
Cylindrical Rotor
17
Cylindrical Rotor
wave shape.
rotating MMF.

stepped wave shape.
18
Cylindrical Rotor
order harmonics.

sinusoidal.

4-5%.
19
Salient-Pole Rotor
20
Salient-Pole Rotor
2. Pole Body.
3. Pole Shoe.
4. Field Winding.
21
Salient-Pole Rotor

steel is used.

Salient-Pole Rotor
winding.

to q-axis.
23
Armature (Stator) Winding
(Three phase synchronous Machine)
Important Terms:
• Conductor
• Turn
• Coil, Coil Side
• Pole Pitch,
• Slot per pole per phase
• Slot Angle
Armature Winding
(Three phase synchronous Machine)
• Types of Armature winding

• Single phase and Three Phase
• Concentric and distributed
• Single layer double layer
• Full pitched and Short pitched
Concentric Winding
Slots=12
Poles=2
Slots/Pole=
Slots/Pole/Phase=
Double layer Lap Winding
Slots (Z)=24, Poles (P) =4 Pole Pitch = 24/4=6 SPP (m) =6/3=2
Equivalent Circuit & Phasor
diagram
by
1
Contents
 Introduction.
 Synchronous Impedance.
 Equivalent Circuit.
 Phasor diagram at lagging PF.
 Phasor diagram at leading PF.
 Phasor diagram at unity PF.

2
• The actual generated voltage consists of the summation of two
component voltages.
• One of these component voltages is the voltage that would be
generated if there were no armature reaction.
• It is the voltage that would be generated because of only the field
excitation.
• This component of the generated voltage is called the excitation
voltage, Eexc
3
• The other component of the generated voltage is called the armature
reaction voltage, EAR.
• This is the voltage that must be added to the excitation voltage to take
care of the effect of armature reaction upon the generated voltage.
Ea = Eexc + EAR
• EAR is equivalent to a voltage of inductive reactance.
EAR = -JXARIa
The inductive reactance XAR is a fictitious reactance
which will result in a voltage in the armature circuit to
account for the effect of armature reaction.
4
• Armature reaction voltage can be modelled as an inductor in series with
the generated voltage.
• In addition to the effect of armature reaction, the stator winding also has a
self-inductance and a resistance.
La= self-inductance of stator winding.
Xa=self-inductive reactance of stator winding.
Ra= armature (stator) resistance.
5
The armature reaction effects and the leakage flux effects in the machine
are both represented by inductive reactance.
Therefore, it is customary to combine them into a single reactance, called
the synchronous reactance of the machine, XS.
6
Equivalent Circuit
Fig.1. Equivalent Circuit of Synchronous Generator.
7
DC resistance test
• In this test, it is assumed that the alternator is star connected with the DC field
winding open as shown in the circuit diagram below.
Fig.1. Circuit diagram of DC resistance test [1]. 8

Open Circuit test
Fig.2. Circuit diagram of open circuit test [1].

9
Open Circuit test

mover.
• Keep the stator winding open circuited.
• Connect ammeter in field circuit and voltmeter in stator circuit to
measure field current and open circuit terminal voltage respectively.
• Vary field current and note the corresponding value of terminal voltage.
• Plot the terminal voltage (V) vs Field current (If)

graph called as open circuit characteristics.
10
Open Circuit test
Fig.3. Open circuit characteristics [1].

11
Short Circuit test

mover.
current .

12
Short Circuit test

13
Short Circuit test

mover.
current .

14
Short Circuit test

15
Short Circuit test
• It is to be noted that SCC is a straight line and characteristics does not
saturates.
• S.C current is essentially flowing in the impedance of stator.
• The stator impedance is ZS = RA + jXS. It is mainly is inductive in nature.
• The effect of armature reaction is so dominant on value of ɸf , that the
resultant flux in air gap is always small due to demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction.
• Therefore, magnetic circuit does not saturates and SCC
is straight line.
16
Steps for calculation of Synchronous Impedance.
• The open circuit characteristics and the short circuit characteristic are
drawn on the same curve.
• Determine the value of short circuit current ISC and gives the rated
alternator voltage per phase.
• The synchronous impedance ZS will then be equal to the open circuit
voltage divided by the short circuit current at that field current which gives
the rated EMF per phase.
17
The synchronous reactance is determined as
18
Voltage Regulation

factor of the load.

19
Reference
1. https://circuitglobe.com/synchronous-impedance-method.html
2. https://www.electricalengineeringinfo.com/2014/11/voltage-regulation-
of-synchronous-generator-alternator-using-synchronous-impedance-
method.html
20
Thank
You
21

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Synchronous Machines

The alternators operating in parallel in a power

• The synchronous impedance of the bus is low

• The performance of the synchronous machine

Consider generators G1, G2, G3……Gn connected

• Let, V be the terminal voltage of the bus

• When n is very large ZSeq → 0 and, therefore, I ZSeq → 0

• Let, J be the moment of inertia of each alternator

If the value of n is very large, nJ is also very large.

 Calculation of VR by MMF Method.

• The Voltage Regulation of a Synchronous Generator is the rise in voltage at

|Ea| is the magnitude of a generated voltage per phase

Fig. 1. Classification Voltage Regulation[1].

• The alternator runs at synchronous speed, and its terminal voltage is

• MMF Method is also known as Ampere Turn Method. The synchronous

• To calculate the voltage regulation by MMF Method, the following

Fig. 2. The phasor diagram at a lagging power factor [2].

Fig. 3. OCC and SCC[2].

• Interconnection of AC power systems requires

• Several alternators can supply a bigger load than a single alternator.

Zero Power Factor Method of

• The Voltage Regulation of a Synchronous Generator is

|Ea| is the magnitude of a generated voltage per phase

Fig. 1. Classification Voltage Regulation[1].

• The alternator runs at synchronous speed, and its terminal voltage is

• For large alternators, the three indirect methods are used to

• The following assumptions are made in the

• The terminal voltage V, the reactance voltage drop IaXaL and

• The following assumptions are made in the

 Effect of change in Steam input of an

But, I”1 Cosɸ”1 = I1 Cos ɸ1= IW

Power output, P3 = VI”1 Cos ɸ”1 V

The point of intersection A’ on A’ A

Constant Power Line before increase of14steam input.

 Salient Pole rotor.

• Condition for EMF Induction

 Stator- Stationary part of the machine or Armature.

 Rotor- Rotating part of the machine carries DC field winding.

 The rotor in case synchronous generator is rotated with the help of

Fig. 1. Stator of Three Phase Synchronous Machine.

2.Salient Pole Rotor.

 Rotor- Rotating part of the machine carries DC field winding.

 The rotor in case synchronous generator is rotated with the help of

Fig. 2. Cylindrical /Non-Salient/High-Speed Rotor of Three

 The laminations are made of Chromium Nickel steel.

The slots are punched of the outer periphery.

The Rotor field winding is essentially a DC field winding which is provided in

This winding carries current that provides necessary excitation for

 generation of EMF in the machine.

Fig. 3. Cylindrical Rotor MMF Wave

 This stepped wave shape flux/MMF is stationary in nature.

 It is rotated mechanically by means of prime mover at synchronous speeds.

 An EMF will be induced in stator having a nature of

 Stator windings are short chorded to eliminate higher order harmonics.

 After short chording, it assumed that alternator generates purely

 The disadvantage of short chording is that it will reduce generated EMF by

Fig. 4. Salient Pole Rotor of Three Phase Synchronous Machine.

 Salient Pole Rotor construction is used in hydro-electric power plants.

1. Rotor Core or Yoke.

 For small machines a solid construction made up of highly magnetic cast

 For machines of higher ratings, a laminated Core/Yoke is used.

2. Pole Body – It is made of laminated sheet steel material.