Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Review

Renewable and sustainable biobased materials: An assessment on

biofibers, biofilms, biopolymers and biocomposites
A. Vinod, M.R. Sanjay*, Siengchin Suchart**, Parameswaranpillai Jyotishkumar
Natural Composite Research Group Lab, Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, The Sirindhorn International Thai-German Graduate School of
Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The current global scenario has a great impact on the development of new bio-based materials due to its
Received 11 December 2019 vital advantages that are helpful in replacing synthetic and hazardous materials. This perspective review
Received in revised form presents the advancement in the processing techniques, characterizations, future scope and methods to
29 February 2020
overcome the limitations in biofibers, biopolymers, biofilms, and bio composites. This provides vital
Accepted 6 March 2020
Available online 9 March 2020
information on advanced bio-based materials and its composites for their potential usage in biomedical,
commercial and engineering sectors to the researchers and scientists. The usage of bio-based materials
Handling editor: Prof. Jiri Jaromir Kleme
s that are renewable in the field of constructions and engineering will improve the sustainability by
reducing wastages, landfills and toxic emissions leading to greener and cleaner environment.
Keywords: © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Biofibers
Biopolymers
Biofilms
Bio composite

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Biofibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1. Biofibers from plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2. Biofibers from animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3. Processing techniques of bio fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4. Characterization of biofibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4.1. Chemical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4.2. Physical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4.3. X-ray diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4.4. Thermogravimetric analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4.5. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4.6. Morphological techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5. Properties of biofibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.6. Advantages of biofibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.7. Limitations of biofibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.8. Recent advances in biofibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.9. Application of biofibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.10. Future scope of biofibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3. Biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1. Classification of biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mcemrs@gmail.com, mavinkere.r.s@kmutnb.ac.th
(M.R. Sanjay), suchart.s.pe@tggs-bangkok.org (S. Suchart).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120978
0959-6526/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978

3.2. Processing of biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.3. Properties of biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.4. Applications of biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.5. Advantages and limitations of biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.6. Future scope of biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4. Biofilms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.1. Processing techniques of biofilms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2. Characterization techniques for biofilms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.3. Properties of biofilms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.4. Advantages and disadvantages of biofilms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.5. Recent advances and application of biofilms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.6. Future scope of biofilms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5. Biocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.1. Biofiber reinforced biocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.2. Properties of composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.2.1. Mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.2.2. Dynamical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.2.3. Thermal analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.2.4. Tribological properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2.5. Flame retardancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2.6. Morphological properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2.7. Advantage and limitations of biocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2.8. Recent advances and applications of biocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.2.9. Future scope of biocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Declaration of competing interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1. Introduction prominent works were carried by Boeing in recycling used bio-

materials after the end life of the aircraft (Arockiam et al., 2018).
Currently apart from energy, environmental issues are vital There are many versatile applications of bio-based materials such
problem faced by humans and living organisms. Over years, many as furniture, upholstery, interior panels of railway coaches,
synthetic products and materials were made to fulfill human needs. gardening products, packaging goods, constructions and sports
These synthetic materials had potential impact on the environment instruments (Abu Bakar et al., 2019; RR. Kumar et al., 2019a;
and life causing hazardous effects over land, water, and air (Geyer Nagalakshmaiah et al., 2019; Sharma et al., 2019). Due to some
et al., 2017; Stafford and Jones, 2019). To overcome these life- limitations of bio-based composites namely compatibility, hydro-
threatening issues, potential new strategies have to be developed philic nature, considerable mechanical strength, these materials are
and adapted to conserve the environment. Over the past few de- used in light weight-bearing applications and lightweight struc-
cades, more interest was generated to protect the environment tures. Increased research and usage of bio-based materials have
which made researchers to show a keen interest in bio-based ma- created a wide demand for bio-based raw materials. This demand
terials comprising biofibers, biopolymers and bio-composites, thus made many scientists to identify new sources of bio-renewable
playing a vital role in replacing synthetic materials (W. Liu et al., materials to prevent the over use of this commodity. It improved
2019b; Mohan and Kanny, 2019a). the productivity of raw materials by agriculture (cultivating plants),
Natural fibers are classified as plant, animal and mineral fibers rearing animals and microorganisms. This has various potential
depending upon the source of extraction. These natural fibers are positive impact by creating employment opportunities, reducing
used as reinforcement based upon the application in polymer global warming and greenhouse gasses. The current work provides
matrices to form bio-based composites and polymer composites a clear review on the recent developments and advances in bio-
(Mazzanti et al., 2019; Sari et al., 2019). Natural fibers have gained fibers, biofilms, biopolymers and biocomposites which help the
the interest of researchers due to their remarkable properties like industry and engineering sector to develop advanced bio-based
low density, low cost, easy availability, biodegradability and easy composites for potential applications (Murawski et al., 2019;
processing. This also possess considerable mechanical, thermal and Payal, 2019; Sanjay et al., 2018).
good acoustic properties with high fracture resistance. Many studies
have reported the usage of natural fibers in polymer composites and
bio-based composites as a replacement for synthetic materials. 2. Biofibers
Hence, many industries have stepped forward to revolutionize the
usage of bio-based materials (Antunes et al., 2019; Battegazzore Natural fibers are obtained from various natural sources such as
et al., 2019; Fombuena et al., 2019; F. Mohammad et al., 2019a). plants, animals and minerals. The properties of these fibers are
Over recent years, there was a noticeable increase in the usage of influenced by various factors such as its geographical location,
natural fibers, biopolymers, biofilms and bio-based composites in origin, mode of extraction and processing. These fibers are used as
various versatile applications such as aerospace, automotive and reinforcements in polymer matrices and various structural appli-
household products. Some of the explored aerospace applications cations. Biofibers obtained from biological origin and are classified
are wing boxes, pilot control panel, cabin panels, interior structures, into plant fibers and animal fibers. A detailed review of bio fibers is
food packages, thermal and acoustic insulators, etc., Many given in the forthcoming sections (Chen et al., 2019; Kluge et al.,
2008).
 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
Fig. 1. Types of plant fibers.
2.1. Biofibers from plants
Fibers extracted from plants and trees mainly consist of cellu-
lose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, wax etc., The physical, morpho-
logical, chemical and mechanical properties of the plant fibers are
governed by various factors such as geography, part of the plant or
trees from which the fibers are extracted and the mode of extrac-
tion. Fibers obtained from the plants are known as ligino-cellulose
fibers and are in the form of hair like kapok, cotton, etc., thick fibers
like coir and some are in form of bast fibers obtained from jute,
kenaf, kudzu, linden, etc. Plant fibers are divided into primary and
secondary utility fibers depending upon the utility of the plant or
tree. The primary utility plant fibers include sisal, jute, hemp, cot-
ton, kenaf, etc., which are been grown for the fiber. Secondary
utility fibers belong to the byproduct of plants such as banana,
pineapple, coir, oil palm, etc. (Chen et al., 2019; Faruk et al., 2012).
Plant fibers are further classified based on the source and their
physiological properties. Fibers obtained from the stem are called
bast fibers (flax, hemp, kenaf, jute, isora, etc.), leaf fibers (sisal,
abaca, curaua, palm, etc.,), seed fibers (cotton, soya, kapok, calo-
tropis procera, etc.,), fruit fibers (coir, luffa, etc.,), grass fibers
(bamboo, wheat straw, baggase etc.,) and wood fibers such as
hardwood and softwood (teak wood, rosewood) (Adebayo et al.,
2019; Chee et al., 2019; Navaneethakrishnan et al., 2019; Teixeira
et al., 2019). The different types of plant fibers are shown in Fig. 1.
In 2019, many new plant fibers such as Cardiospermum Hal-
icababum, Impomea Pescaprae, Catharanthus Roseus, Parthenium
Hysterophorus, Saccharum Bengalense grass, Tridax Procumbens,
Ficus Racemosa, Carica Papaya bark, Cereus Hildmannianus, Morus
alba L. stem, Coccinia grandis stem were identified as a potential
reinforcement for polymer matrices (Jebadurai et al., 2019; Kumaar
et al., 2019; Manimaran et al., 2019a; Subramanian et al., 2019; R
Vijay et al., 2019; R. Vijay et al., 2019a, 2019b, 2019c; Vinod et al.,
2019b, 2019a). The use of plant fibers must not be limited to
existing identified species. It may cause extinction of species and
may lead to ecological imbalance due to cultivation of similar trend
of crops. Hence, it is crucial to identify new ligino-cellulose fibers to
meet the demand for raw materials. This would support the re-
searchers and scientists to develop a wide range of bio-based
commercial products.
3
2.2. Biofibers from animals
Based on origin animal fibers are mainly classified into two
types, hair and secretions. Animal fibers can be potentially used as
reinforcement in the polymer matrices due to their remarkable
physical, chemical and mechanical properties (Bharath et al., 2019;
Shera et al., 2019). Animal fibers are obtained from various types of
animal species, i.e., wool is a hair, obtained from alpaca, bison,
sheep, angora, etc., similarly silk is obtained from various sources of
insects, mostly from the larvae of butterfly (approx. 14000 species)
and also from spiders (approx. 4000 species). In general, silk and
wool are mostly used in textile industries. The recent researches in
wool includes electronic applications in which wool knitted fabrics
are coated with silver nano particles and are used as touch capac-
itor to light up LED. Further explorations in this system can be
employed in bio-medical devices to detect movements in muscles
and bone-joints (Gurarslan et al., 2019). Silks are used in biomedical
applications such as surgical implants and tissue engineering. Re-
searches on spider silk proved to be more promising than other silk
proteins due to its durability and mechanical performance. In near
future, developments in synthetic spider silk reinforced polymer
composite can be used as biological implants and for developing
sustainable high strength composites (Nader et al., 2019). Chicken
feathers are the bi-product waste from slaughterhouses and has the
main constituent of keratin. Due to the absorbance nature of ker-
atin, it is used to make absorbent sponges for purification purposes
and also in microbial corrosion-resistant applications. In a recent
research, keratin sponges are developed which is more prone to oil
absorption. Further research in keratin based materials will paw
way for the development of composite sponges in large scale that
can be used to clean lenses, highly polished surfaces and precision
engineering sectors (Sadeghi et al., 2019).
Wool is commonly used as a textile fiber. The physicochemical
property of wool differs based on the origin. For instance, the
diameter of alpaca, angora, qiviut wool fiber ranges between 12 and
29 mm, 12e16 mm and 15e20 mm respectively (Ramamoorthy et al.,
2015). This wool fibers, animal hairs and chicken feathers are
mainly made up of an animal protein called keratin. Apart from
textile application as a sustainable waste management, wool
keratin-graphene oxide based composite fibers were developed
from the discarded wool that yields a tensile strength of 157 MPa.
This composite fiber is a potential substitute for natural fibers like
coir, banana etc., in polymer composites (Y.-B. K. Li et al., 2019b).
The schematic structure of the keratin is shown in Fig. 2.
Silk formed by insect secretion is widely used in textile in-
dustries and in biomedical applications. Silk consists of a highly
structured protein called chitin which is responsible for good me-
chanical strength and high chemical resistance. The structure of
protein varies depending on the species. Dragline silk (Nephila) is a
silk protein produced by a spider in its life span. Among the nephlia
species, it is the strongest silk possessing a tensile strength of
1.1 GPa that is comparable to high tensile steel (1.5 GPa) (Yazawa
et al., 2019). Mulberry silk, the most commonly used silk, consists
of two main components fibroin and sericin. Fibroin consists of 262
light chain and 5263 heavy chain amino acids. It is highly stable
under high temperature (250
C) but used under 170
C. Its tensile
strength is around 600 MPa that is comparatively higher than most
of the plant fibers defined in Table 1. Hence, it is used to develop
medical scaffolds, tissue engineering and can be potentially used as
reinforcements in Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE), High Density
Poly Ethylene (HDPE) etc,. (Ramamoorthy et al., 2015). A Schematic
image of a silk cocoon is shown in Fig. 3.
Chicken feathers are another source of animal fiber. It comprises
91% keratin, 1% lipid and 8% water (Cheung et al., 2009). Many
studies reported that the chicken feathers reinforced composite
4 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978

Fig. 2. Structure of keratin (Human Hair) (Reproduced with permission from Elsevier, License Number: 4715370384616) (Costa et al., 2018).

Table 1
Comparison of chemical and thermal properties of recently identified plant fibers with commercially available plant fibers.

S. Natural Cellulose Chemical Properties Crystalline Properties Thermal Properties Reference

No Fibers
a-Cellulose Hemi Lignin Moisture Crystalline Crystal Thermal Maximum degradation
(wt %) cellulose (wt (wt %) (wt %) Index (%) size nm stabilityC temperatureC
%)

1 Coccinia grandis . L. 62.35 13.42 15.61 5.6 52.17 13.38 213.4 351.6 Senthamaraikannan and
Kathiresan (2018)
2 Leucas Aspera 50.7 13.2 9.7 11.31 20.23 6.7 203 325 Vijay et al. (2020)
3 Dracaena reflexa 70.32 11.02 11.35 5.19 57.32 19.01 232.32 348.78 Manimaran et al. (2019b)
4 Cereus 58.40 17.14 10.36 8.86 40.19 28.27 285.9 356.7 Subramanian et al. (2019)
Hildmannianus
5 Parthenium 51.5 9.7 14.3 8.6 40.68 e 255 368 R. Vijay et al. (2019c)
hysterophorus
6 Thespesia Populnea 70.27 12.64 16.34 10.83 48.17 e 320 390 M Kathirselvam et al. (2019)
a,b
7 Catharanthus roseus 47.3 9.1 15.1 8.3 25.9 e 203 296 Vinod et al. (2019b)
8 Tridax Procumbens 32 6.8 3 11.2 34.46 25.04 270 340 R. Vijay et al. (2019a)
9 Banyan tree aerial 67.32 13.46 15.62 10.21 72.47 6.28 230 358 Ganapathy et al. (2019)
root
10 Hibiscus sabdariffa 62.5 16.5 12.8 7.5 41.66 e 187 350 Karakoti et al. (2018)
var. altissima
11 Phaseolus vulgaris 62.17 7.04 9.13 6.1 43.01 4.0 250 328 Gurukarthik Babu et al.
(2019)
12 Furcraea foetida 68.35 11.46 12.32 5.43 52.6 28.36 e 320.5 Manimaran et al. (2018)
13 Hemp 70.2 17.9 3.7 10.8 87.87 4.5 225 e Shahzad (2012)
14 Juncus effusus L e e e e 33.4 3.6 200 300 Maache et al. (2017)
15 Cissus 77.17 11.02 10.45 7.3 47.15 3.91 270 342.1 Indran and Raj (2015)
Quadrangularis stem
16 Saharan aloe vera 67.4 8.2 13.7 5.8 56.5 5.72 225 350 Balaji and Nagarajan (2017)
17 Jute 61 13.6 12 12.6 71.39 29.25 240 260 Ray et al. (2002)
18 Coir 43 0.3 45 10 57 e e e Chandrasekar et al. (2017)
19 Flax 71 19 2 e 71.7 5.4 e e Chandrasekar et al. (2017)
20 Bamboo 26 30 21 8 45.33 e 246 255 Dorez et al. (2014)
21 Cotton linters 90 1 3 e e e e e Dorez et al. (2014)
22 Prosopis juliflora bark 61.65 16.14 17.11 9.48 46 15 217 331.1 Saravanakumar et al. (2014)
23 Sansevieria 80 11.25 7.8 10.55 52.77 e 223.85 333.02 Ramanaiah et al. (2011)
ehrengergii

have good acoustic, thermal and mechanical properties due to its
low density, chemical composition, and morphological structure.
HDPE/PP with 40% chicken feather fibers showed higher sound
damping above 2.3 KHz which is 125% higher than jute. The sound
damping can also be increased with increase in thickness of the
composite. The pores and the channels present in chicken feathers
contributes better for higher sound damping co-efficient (Huda and
Yang, 2009; Reddy and Yang, 2007). A schematic diagram of a
chicken feather is shown in Fig. 4.
2.3. Processing techniques of bio fibers
Appropriate fiber extraction process is a major problem in
processing biofibers. The mode of extraction of fibers is influenced
by two factors namely the type of fiber and its application. Various
extraction and processing methods of bio fibers are discussed in the
forthcoming sections.
Animal fibers are extracted in different ways. For example, silk
from cocoons is separated by gently boiling it in mild soap solution
 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978 5

Fig. 3. (a) Silk cocoon (b) Silk fiber structure (Reproduced with permission from
Elsevier, License Number: 4715350423872) (Cheung et al., 2009).

(Valentina et al., 2019). Spider fibers are extracted by sedating the

spider and then turn them upside down to expose the spinnerets.
The fibers are then removed by using a brush and later separated
using a microscope. As it is a time consuming and commercially
unavailable better extraction techniques need be identified. Wool
fibers are extracted manually and was washed with water to
remove impurities (Ramamoorthy et al., 2015; Stevens, 2010).
Various strategies of silk cocoon stifling process have been re-
ported. The process includes sun exposure, water vapor exposure
and dry hear exposure respectively (Aznar-Cervantes et al., 2019).
Sun exposure: Silk cocoons are exposed to a thin layer of sunlight
for 5 days. Average exposure radiation is maintained at 26.2 MJ/m2
and temperature is maintained between 24
C to 38
C. Due to the
fluctuating temperature and uncontrollable radiation from the sun
additional care should be taken to avoid damages to the silk. Water
vapor exposure: The cocoons are suspended in metal nets and
exposed to steam; the temperature of steam is maintained at 85
C.
The cocoons are later dried at room temperature. This is a tradi-
tional method that is employed widely. Dry heat exposure: The
process is carried out using a mechanical convection oven; the
temperature maintained is 55
C,70
C or 85
C for a duration of 7 h
(Aznar-Cervantes et al., 2019). Another study reports silk cocoon
stifling using a butane gas mechanical drier. The cocoons are dried Fig. 4. Structure of a chicken feather (Reproduced with permission from Elsevier, Li-
in hot air at temperatures of 60
C, 65
C, 70
C and 75
C with air cense Number: 4715350423872) (Cheung et al., 2009).

velocities 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 m/s. The treatments are carried out at
different time ranges of 20, 25, 30 and 35 min (Hendaw, 2017). A
Westhuizen, 2019). Since it is a long process and to reduce time,
novel method for the extraction of silk nano-fibers has been re-
various other methods like mechanical, microbial, chemical and
ported where nano-fibers are obtained by a mechanical homoge-
enzymatic are employed (Brindha et al., 2019; van der Westhuizen,
nizer and ultrasonic irradiation and is considered to be an non-toxic
2019).
process (Vojoudi et al., 2019). Another novel method is employed in
In the water retting process, water penetrates the central part of
the preparation of silk from Nephila clavipes spiders. The tubuliform
the stem and bursts the outer layer of the plants. This process is
silk glands of the spider are separated and immersed in a mild acid
carried out in ponds, lakes and small streams which enable bac-
solution and left for subsequent stretching (Ruiz et al., 2019). A
terial degradation. The bacteria present in the stem of the plants
study reports a direct extraction method of silk nanofibrils. The
break down the large cellular tissue and also the sticky substance
process is carried out via low-intensity ultrasonic-assisted sulfuric
(gum) around the fibers. This method is widely employed in the
acid hydrolysis (Hu et al., 2019). Though, there are various methods
production of bast fibers. However, it is not recommended for other
ranging from traditional to novel techniques in cocoon stifling and
fibers, as water retting process produces low-quality fibers. Most
silk extraction process, there exist some limitations like time con-
industries do not prefer the water retting process as it is time-
sumption, requirement of complex equipment, commercialization
consuming and causes water contamination (K.J. Nagarajan et al.,
and toxic chemicals. Emerging of new technologies must be
2019a; Rao and Rao, 2007).
required to produce artificial silk proteins in an ecofriendly way and
The mechanical retting process generates high-quality fibers
better silk extraction techniques to reduce time consumption and
with a shorter retting time. The mechanical decorticator consists of
maintain silk quality.
rollers and beaters through which the plant stem is fed. Unwanted
Similarly, preparation and extraction of plant fibers involves
skin, gum and the squishy part of the plant stem are eliminated by
various strategies. The water retting process and dew retting pro-
repeated feeding through the rollers. The retted fibers are later
cess are the most widely used. When such methods are employed,
washed and dried in sunlight (Sadrmanesh et al., 2019). Another
the part of the plant takes approximately 14e28 days for degrading
mode of fiber retting is enzyme retting in which the fibers are
into fibers. In the dew retting and water retting processes, the
pretreated with an aqueous solution of 0.85% Triton X-100, and
evaluation time must be monitored to prevent over retting, which
then treated with an aqueous solution of 1% pectinase at 50
C for
leads to lower fiber quality and poor fiber strength (van der
24 h. Enzymatic retting results in the reduction of diameter of the
6 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
fiber (Jung et al., 2019; Sadrmanesh et al., 2019).
The hydrophilicity of natural fibers and the hydrophobicity of
the matrix are the major problems faced when natural fibers are
used as reinforcements in polymer composites. The hydrophilic
nature of natural fibers can be reduced by means of chemical
treatment and surface modification techniques. Some of the pro-
cess and effects of chemical treatment are discussed in the forth-
coming sections.
 Acetic acid treatment involves soaking the fiber in 10% acetic
acid with 1 ml of concentrated H2SO4 solution. Later, an acetic
anhydride solution is added depending upon the required
concentration. It improves the tensile strength and initial ther-
mal degradation of the fibers (Kommula et al., 2016; Taimur-Al-
Mobarak et al., 2018).
 Benzoyl peroxide treatment is carried out by pretreating the
fibers with NaOH solution and then treating it with the desired
concentration of Benzoyl peroxide in the presence of acetone.
This treatment improves the interfacial interaction between the
fibers and matrix by breaking down the hydroxyl bond. A similar
result was observed in Phoenix pusilla leaves (Madhu et al.,
2019).
 Bleaching of natural fibers involves soaking natural fibers in a
bleaching solution such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). An in-
crease in tensile strength and thermal stability was observed in
coconut fibers (Basu et al., 2019; Fonseca et al., 2019).
 Corona treatment is carried in a corona discharge reactor, which
improves mechanical strength by altering the acidity and ba-
sicity of the fiber surface (Oudrhiri Hassani et al., 2019).
 Graft copolymerization technique enhances the thermal stabil-
ity and chemical constituents of the fiber and a similar trend was
observed in pineapple leaf fibers (Kakati et al., 2019).
 Isocyanate treatment reduces the hydrophilic nature and im-
proves the mechanical property of fibers (Ferreira et al., 2019).
 Laser treatment removes the lignin content in the plant fiber
and improves its structural and tensile strength (Sanjay et al.,
2019).
 NaOH treatment or alkali treatment dissolves the amorphous
constituents by removing the hydroxyl bond and improves
surface roughness, creating a strong interfacial bonding be-
tween the fibers and matrix (Sanjay et al., 2019).
 Ozone treatment of natural fibers helps to sustain its mechanical
properties over a period of time (Lemeune et al., 2004).
 Plasma treatment enhances the surface roughness of fibers by
means of surface etching, improving interfacial bonding by
forming interlocks with the matrix (Fazeli et al., 2019).
 Polymer coating over the natural fibers improves the compati-
bility between the fiber and the matrix (Masood et al., 2019).
 Potassium permanganate treatment of the natural fibers im-
proves its physicochemical properties by removing the wax and
other impurities from the natural fibers (Labidi et al., 2019).
 Seawater treatment is used to break the fibers into small mi-
crofibrils by removing the hemicellulose and increasing the
ratio of pectin (Amatosa et al., 2019).
 Silane treatment enhances the physiochemical properties of fi-
bers and improves its tribological performance (Y. Liu et al.,
2019c).
 Stearic acid treatment removes hemicellulose, lignin and wax,
improving their physical, chemical and mechanical properties
(Labidi et al., 2019).
 Vacuum ultraviolet irradiation treatment improves tribological
properties, wettability, insulation and biocompatibility with the
matrix (Kato et al., 1999).
 g-Ray treatment enhances the mechanical strength and im-
proves the inter crosslinking with nearby cellulose molecules
(Burrola-Nún~ ez et al., 2019).
There are no standard surface tailoring methods for a specific
type of fiber. The chemical treatment induces changes in their
physical, chemical, thermal and mechanical properties in the nat-
ural fibers, that are governed by various factors like type of tech-
nique, time, temperature and chemical concentration. Each
combination of above said factors influences a particular effect on
the properties of plant fibers. It is essential to study more about the
effect of chemically modified fiber in reinforced composites for
developing a better performing material in all aspects of mechan-
ical, physico-thermal and tribological performance.
2.4. Characterization of biofibers
2.4.1. Chemical analysis
Natural fibers obtained from plants comprises of cellulose,
hemicellulose, lignin, and wax. The weight % of these constituents
are estimated by chemical analysis. There are various methods to
analyze the chemical constituents. Ash content is determined ac-
cording to ASTM E1755-01 and expressed in the percentage of mass
residue remaining after dry oxidation. Moisture content is deter-
mined using an electronic moisture analyzer (SHIMADZU, model
MOC120H). Conrad method with Soxhlet extraction is used to find
the percentage of wax (Arthanarieswaran et al., 2015). TAPPI
standards are used to determine different chemical components
such as T 203 cm99 for a-cellulose and T 222 cm06 for lignin
(Kommula et al., 2013). The calorific method apparatus (Sartorius,
model MA45) can be used to determine the cellulose content (Kabir
et al., 2012). There are other methods such as delignification and
mercerization, where the holocellulose is estimated according to
ASTM D1104-56. a-Cellulose and lignin are estimated according to
ASTM D110360 and ASTM D1106-96 standard respectively (Ilyas
et al., 2019). These chemical constituents play a vital role in
determining the strength of fiber and composite. As discussed
earlier, chemical treatments have a crucial role in altering the
percentage of chemical constituents. Researches state reduction in
amorphous constituents and increase in cellulose content improves
the mechanical strength, crystalline index and modifies crystal size
of the fibers. It is observed composites performs better when these
chemically modified fibers are reinforced in them. A schematic
representation of the structure of cellulose, hemicellulose and
lignin is shown in Fig. 5. A comparative study of the chemical
constituents of recently identified plant fibers is shown in Table 1
which would be helpful for scientists and engineers to develop
any ecofriendly product depending on their structural, chemical
and mechanical properties.
2.4.2. Physical analysis
The diameter of the fibers and filaments is measured using
optical microscopes such as Zeiss, Olympus BX43, etc (Manimaran
et al., 2018). In textile industries the diameter of the fibers, yarns
and filaments are measured according to SN/T 2672e2010 standard
(Textile Materials Fineness Test). The diameters are also measured
using SEM images. The roughness of the specimens can be
measured using SEM (Scanning electron microscope) and AFM
(Atomic force microscope). Surface roughness can be measure
through vertical scanning methods such as coherence scanning
interferometry, confocal microscopy and confocal chromatic aber-
ration. There are horizontal scanning methods such as scanning
laser microscope and structured light scanning. Non-scanning
methods include digital holography microscopy (W. W. Wang
et al., 2019a). Surface roughness and diameter of the fiber plays a
 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
Fig. 5. (a) Cellulose (b) Hemicellulose (c) Lignin (Reproduced with permission from
Elsevier, License Number: 4715350830689) (Kabir et al., 2012).
major role in altering mechanical strength of composite and
wettability nature of the fiber with matrix respectively.
Pycnometer experimentation (toluene) is used to measure the
density of the fiber. Density is measured using an equation rf ¼
 
m1 m2
ðm3 m1 Þðm4 m2 Þ rt . Where, m1 mass of the dry pycnometer, m2
mass of the pycnometer filled with natural fiber, m3 mass of the
pycnometer filled with toluene, m4 mass of the pycnometer filled
with toluene and natural fiber and Рt density of toluene
(Рt ¼ 0.87 g/ml) (Senthamaraikannan and Kathiresan, 2018).
Real density analyzer (helium pycnometer), Quantachrome In-
struments (Ultra Foam 1200e model) is another tool used to mea-
sure the density of the specimens. Density is determined according
to ASTM D3800 M based on the Archimedes method, using non-
polar solvent hexane (Coelho de Carvalho Benini et al., 2017). The
density estimated using the equation r ¼ wfrhexane wfair
Where, rhexane
air wfhexane
density of hexane (0.6690 g/cm3), wfair weight of fiber in air, and
wfhexane weight of fiber in hexane. The physical properties of natural
fibers are presented in Table 2.
2.4.3. X-ray diffraction
The X-ray diffraction method is used to find the crystallographic
structure, crystalline index and crystal size of natural fibers. In plant
fibers, two distinctive peaks of diffractograms are observed. The
first peak is found around at 2q ¼ 18
, corresponding to 101 plane
representing the presence of amorphous constituents like hemi-
cellulose, pectin lignin, wax, etc. The second peak is found along the
0 0 2 lattice plane, where 2q is observed around 22
corresponds to
Cellulose e I. The crystallinity index (CI) of the plant fiber is
calculated according to the empirical method developed by Segal
et al. (1959). CI is estimated according to the equation CI ¼
I002 Iam
I002  100: Where I002 is the maximum intensity of diffraction
peak at (002) lattice plane, Iam is the intensity scattered by the
amorphous fraction of the sample corresponding to 2q ¼ 18
.
Crystal size (CS) of plant fiber is calculated according to Scherrer’s
equation CS ¼ b cos K l , where “K” the Scherrer’s constant (0.89), “l”
q
the wavelength of the radiation, “b” the full-width at half-
maximum of the peak and “q” the corresponding Bragg’s angle. CI
and the CS of plant fibers can be tailored by means of chemical
7
treatment techniques. The crystalline index and crystal sizes of
various natural fibers are given in Table 1.
In the case of animal fibers, crystallinity index is calculated
based on certain proteins present. For instant, silk fibers show
diffraction patterns at 2q ¼ 21
, 24
, 27
and 35
respectively
depending on the species from which the silk was collected cor-
responds to the presence of b-sheet crystals of silk fibroin (Cheng
et al., 2019; Tuan et al., 2019). The crystallinity of silk fiber ranges
from 22 to 55% (Koh et al., 2015).
The crystallinity index and crystal size play an important role to
improve mechanical properties of the composite. The crystallinity
index can be modified using chemical treatment and surface
modification techniques. It also alters crystal size in the fibers.
Higher crystal size influences the fiber to behave more hydrophobic
when compared to lower crystal size, thus having effect on the
composite. The crystalline index and the crystal size of various
plant fibers are presented in the Table 1.
2.4.4. Thermogravimetric analysis
Thermal performance of the bio fibers is measured and the
chemical composition can be predicted using the thermogravi-
metric analyzer. The analysis is carried out according to the rate of
change of mass with respect to the temperature in a controlled
environment of nitrogen flow at a flow rate of 60 ml/min (Vinod
et al., 2019b). Initially, the fiber is crushed to powder. The
crushed fiber powder is placed in an aluminum crucible in the
furnace. The temperature in the furnace is increased at a rate of
10
C/min from room temperature to 800
C (M. Kathirselvam et al.,
2019a,b). A model TGA and DTG curve of Thespesia populnea bark
fiber are given in Fig. 6a and b. It is observed that the degradation
temperature increases with respect to increase in diameter and
maturity of the fiber. It is also observed from Fig. 6 c that there is an
increase in the thermal stability of natural fibers when they are
subjected to chemical modification. Generally, the initial degrada-
tion temperature of natural fibers is observed around 50
C and the
main degradation temperature around 300
C (Ganapathy et al.,
2019). The thermogravimetric analysis over natural fibers gives
out the thermal stability. Further, it also provides the weight loss %
of the biofiber with respect to temperature. In general, plant fibers
are good thermal insulators and it is very useful for engineers to
know about the thermal performance that helps to select the
appropriate material for developing products that can be used in
thermal applications.
2.4.5. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is used to iden-
tify the chemical composition and the functional groups present in
natural fiber. There are two methods in FTIR spectroscopy namely
the absorbance and transmittance methods. The FTIR trans-
mittance method is commonly used to analyze natural fibers.
Spectrograms are observed as specific peaks in wave number vs
transmittance graph which depending on the vibration, stretching
and bending of the functional groups present in the fiber
(Manimaran et al., 2019b). The crushed fibers are mixed with po-
tassium bromide and made into pellets for IR analysis. Spectrums
are observed from 4000 cm1 to 400 cm1. The spectrum is
captured at a rate of 32 scans/minute. The FTIR spectra give infor-
mation about the functional groups present in the fiber and the
corresponding peak positions (M. Kathirselvam et al., 2019a,b; R.
Vijay et al., 2019b). A model FTIR spectrum and the corresponding
fiber component of Dracaena reflexa fiber is given in Fig. 7 and
Table 3. The effect of alkali treatment is presented in Fig. 7(b) which
shows the effect of the removal of excess amorphous constituents.
It is observed, the infrared spectrums were able to penetrate more
in alkali treated fiber when compared to untreated fiber that results
8 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978

Table 2
Physical and mechanical property of recently identified plant fibers.

S. No Fiber Density (g/cm3) Diameter (mm) Tensile Reference

Strength (MPa)

1 Cereus Hildmannianus 1.364 30.04 2013.98 Subramanian et al. (2019)

2 Leucas Aspera 1.118 335.01 e Vijay et al. (2020)
3 Parthenium hysterophorus 1.251 381.67 24 R. Vijay et al. (2019c)
4 Thespesia Populnea 1.412 256 557.82 M Kathirselvam et al. (2019)a,b
5 Catharanthus roseus 1.343 290.02 27.02 Vinod et al. (2019b)
6 Tridax Procumbens 1.16 233.1 25.75 R. Vijay et al. (2019a)
7 Banyan tree aerial root 1.234 0.14 19.37 Ganapathy et al. (2019)
8 Phaseolus vulgaris 0.852 53.56 e Gurukarthik Babu et al. (2019)
9 Furcraea foetida 0.778 12.8 623.52 Manimaran et al. (2018)
10 Coccinia grandis . L. 1.243 27.33 273.74 Senthamaraikannan and Kathiresan (2018)
11 Juncus effusus L 1.139 280 113 Maache et al. (2017)
12 Cissus Quadrangularis stem 1.22 770 2300 Indran and Raj (2015)
13 Saharan aloe vera 1.325 91.15 621.8 Balaji and Nagarajan (2017)
14 Prosopis juliflora bark e 0.58 e Saravanakumar et al. (2014)
15 Sansevieria ehrengergii 1.410 e 345.17 Ramanaiah et al. (2011)
16 Pineapple fiber 1.44 58.93 e Kengkhetkit and Amornsakchai (2012)

Fig. 6. Model TGA & DTG (Thespesia populnea) (a) TGA Curves (b) DTG curves (Reproduced with permission from Elsevier, License Number: 4715351084694) (M. Kathirselvam et al.,
2019a,b) (c) TGA curve of alkali treated and untreated Tridax Procumbens (Reproduced with permission from Elsevier, License Number: 4760191184497).

Fig. 7. (a) Model FTIR Spectrograms (Dracaena reflexa fiber) (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2018.12.015) (Manimaran et al., 2019b) (b) FTIR spectrum of treated and untreated Tridax
Procumbens (Reproduced with permission from Elsevier, License Number: 4760191184497).
 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
Table 3
FTIR spectrum bands with corresponding fiber chemical component (Dracaena
reflexa fiber) (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2018.12.015) (Manimaran et al., 2019b).
Wavenumber (cm1) Functional group Corresponding chemical component
3296 OH Stretching Alpha cellulose
2914 CH Stretching Alpha cellulose
2796 CH Stretching Hemicellulose
2357 C¼C Stretching Wax
1737 C¼O Stretching Hemicellulose
1642 C¼O Stretching Lignin
1346 C¼O Stretching Hemicellulose
1028 CeOH Stretching lignin
in increase of crystalline index and improves the mechanical
strength.
2.4.6. Morphological techniques
The morphological characteristics such as surface roughness,
diameter, cell wall structure, fiber morphology can be studied easily
using SEM, and atomic force microscopy (AFM). SEM provides a
detailed high-resolution image of the fiber or the composite when
scanned by the electron beam, as it is focused across the required
surface by detecting the secondary and backscattered electronic
signal (Coelho de Carvalho Benini et al., 2017; Gurukarthik Babu
et al., 2019; R. Vijay et al., 2019b). A model SEM image of a date
palm fiber on the effect of chemical treatment are shown in Fig. 8. It
reveals the removal rate of impurities and increase in surface
roughness with respect to increase in concentration of the chemical
treatment. These morphological changes like surface roughness
and fracture morphology due to various surface modification
techniques can be studied using SEM and measured using AFM.
AFM is an excellent technique to measure the surface roughness
of the fiber. It provides increased resolution up to nanoscale. This
micro-nano surface analysis can be performed by a variety of in-
struments such as Nanoscope digital IIIa (Veeco Co. Ltd), AFM with
machine model XE-70, Park system-Korea, etc. The experiment is
usually carried out at room temperature. The system consists of a
vertical engage J-piezoelectric scanner possessing a tip radius
curvature of 10e20 nm. Scanning is performed with a data scale of
1.733 V and at a rate of 1.0 Hz. A laser beam and a photodiode
detector monitor the cantilever tip as it scans over the fiber. Surface
roughness parameters such as average surface roughness (Ra), root
mean square roughness (Rrms), and maximum peak to valley height
(Rt), etc., can be measured using the AFM (M. Kathirselvam et al.,
2019a,b; Kumaar et al., 2019; Manimaran et al., 2019a).
Fig. 8. SEM images for raw and treated date palm fiber, (a) Raw fiber, (b) Fiber treated by 1 wt% NaOH solution, (c) Fiber treated by 6 wt% NaOH solution. (Reproduced with
permission from Elsevier, License Number: 4760770446136).
9
2.5. Properties of biofibers
The properties of biofibers are more attractive than that of
synthetic fibers in spite of their low strength and stiffness. This is
because biofiber from agro-waste, plants and trees have remark-
able properties with low cost, low density, considerable strength,
availability and biodegradability. The properties of biofiber differs
based on the chemical composition, geographical location, age of
the plant/tree, process of fiber extraction and part of the plant/tree
from where it was extracted (Ganapathy et al., 2019; Sanjay et al.,
2019). As mentioned earlier, plant fibers are hydrophilic and
mainly constitute cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, lignin and wax.
These chemical constituents play a potential role in governing both
mechanical and thermal performance of the composite. Animal
fibers include hair, fur, and feathers. The main constituents of the
fibers are proteins such as keratin and chitosan, which governs the
strength of the biofibers (Gurarslan et al., 2019; Reddy and Yang,
2007; Shera et al., 2019). Natural fibers do not shrink, soften or
extend upon heating or become brittle on cooling. Both plant and
animal fibers are susceptible to bacterial degradation. (Chatha et al.,
2019).
2.6. Advantages of biofibers
There are many advantages of biofibers over synthetic fibers due
to their remarkable properties and availability as renewable
resource (Maache et al., 2017). The usage of biofiber can promote
employment opportunities for people. The cultivation of plants
reduces greenhouse gasses and protects the earth from global
warming. It is very easy to process biofibers as cost of processing is
low compared to synthetic fibers. The wear and tear of machine
parts are low during the processing of biofibers. They are easily bio-
degradable after being disposed. They do not pollute by filling the
landmass, as in recent years the usage of synthetic fibers and
synthetic materials are polluting the landmass and water bodies
causing major health hazards (Cheung et al., 2009; Manimaran
et al., 2019a; F. Mohammad et al., 2019a; Nader et al., 2019).
2.7. Limitations of biofibers
Biofibers are hydrophilic, as they easily swell due to the
adsorption of moisture and leads to damage in the matrix when
made as a composite by causing water swell. Biocompatibility is
another major drawback faced by the biofibers due to improper
wetting and improper bonding to the composite that leads to poor
10 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
performance. These issues can be resolved by means of specific
fiber modification techniques as previously discussed. Cellulose
fibers decompose quickly in presence of humidity and in the
absence of light, whereas animal fibers such as wool and silk are
subjected to damage by pests and insects. Bio fibers can be devel-
oped with anti-microbial and anti pest coupling agents that pre-
vents bacterial degradation and pest infestation. The diameter, size,
and shape of the biofibers are not regular. This irregularity has a
major impact that governs density, hardness and strength of the
composite. They have lower mechanical strength and modulus
when compared to synthetic fibers (Teklu et al., 2019).
2.8. Recent advances in biofibers
Recently, many studies reported the treatment of biofibers for
antimicrobial properties. Kapok fibers were treated with chitosan/
AgCleTiO2 to introduce an antimicrobial effect on textiles (Moqeet
Hai et al., 2019). The wool fibers were treated using antimicrobial
natural dyes to prevent the bacterial growth. In this regard
T. chebula and A. tinctoria dyes were used over wool fibers to pre-
vent the growth of Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus (gram
positive) (Shabbir et al., 2020). Similarly, antibacterial cotton tex-
tiles can be produced using bee wax, propolis, and chitosan
(Unango and Ramasamy, 2019). Further research on antimicrobial
textiles are required to prevent the outbreak of harmful diseases
and for making surgical costumes to prevent infection. A recent
study reported that chitosan and phosphorylated nanocellulose (P-
NC) treated jute fabrics showed excellent antibacterial activity (El-
Shafei et al., 2019). Kenaf fibers reinforced limestone clay cemen-
titious composite showed better performance in building con-
structions materials which is comparable to synthetic reinforcemts
(Baghban and Mahjoub, 2020). Recently, moisture-sensitive smart
yarns were developed from animal fibers like silk for smart textile
applications (Jia et al., 2019). Biocatalytic textile fibers were pre-
pared from sugarcane cellulose functionalized by epichlorohydrin
and glutaraldehyde. These proteins were immobilized using
bromelain from pine apple to treat burn wounds (Costa et al., 2020).
It is observed that various advances in bio-based fibers are being
developed for wellbeing of the society that has a potential impact in
textiles, medical treatment and surgical applications.
2.9. Application of biofibers
Biofibers obtained from plants and animals are used in various
applications. Jute fibers are used to make shopping bags, ropes,
hats, etc., Coir fibers are used to make cushions for car seats, beds,
and bike seats, ropes, etc., cotton, ramie, flax, hemp, kenaf, nettle
kapok are commonly used in textile industries. Wool and silk are
also used in the textile industry. Some applications of biofibers are
listed in Table 4.
2.10. Future scope of biofibers
New technological developments and environmental conser-
vation policies have fastened the replacement of hazardous syn-
thetic fibers with biofibers. There is always a need of new potential
raw material with superior quality. Hence, the quest of identifying
new bio-fiber is very essential. There are many explorations on
antibacterial textiles, but are resistant to only certain bacterial
strains. In this regard, textiles that are highly resistant to many
bacterial strains should be developed and can be used in medical
facilities to prevent various contagious diseases. Researches on
cellulose based medical scaffolds is required and can be applied for
tissue engineering, surgical sutures and would healing process due
to its biocompatibility. As of now, it is widely used globally in
automotive and various lightweight applications and has also made
its way toward electronic, biomedical and aerospace applications
(S. Gopi et al., 2019a,b; Rout et al., 2019). Researches on natural fiber
coated conductive materials are in progress. It can be further
developed to make pressure sensors to monitor injured muscle and
bone movements. Natural fiber has a good thermal resistance
property. In a recent research, Juncus maritimus fibers are used as
reinforcement in cement for thermal insulation in building. It is
found that result shows better performance than hemp fiber re-
inforcements. In this regard natural fiber reinforced building ma-
terials can be more explored to minimize the use of glass fibers
(Saghrouni et al., 2020). In the future, natural fiber will overrule the
use of glass fibers, carbon fibers, and other synthetic fibers, due to
their low cost and environmental safety. It will also provide
employment and revolutionize the use of synthetic materials.
3. Biopolymers
Generation of synthetic polymer waste is increasing at an
alarming rate. Studies have revealed that less than 10% of the
generated synthetic plastics are recycled. This raise concerns over
the production of synthetic polymers. Biopolymers are a recent
growth for the replacement for synthetic polymers in the concern
of environmental awareness. To date, many biodegradable poly-
mers such as polylactic acid (PLA), poly-hydroxy-alkanoates (PHA),
poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB), polyhydroxy-valerate (PHV), and
poly-hydroxy-hexanoate (PHH), gluten, etc., have been produced
from renewable resources. However, the thermomechanical prop-
erties of the biopolymers are poor compared to synthetic polymers.
3.1. Classification of biopolymers
Biopolymers are derived from agro-resources (plants), micro-
organisms (fungi), and synthesized from bioderived monomers
(Vinayagamoorthy and Venkatakoteswararao, 2019). Biopolymers
obtained from plant, animal and bacterial sources are PLA, PHA,
PHB, PHV, PHH, proteins, and polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are
agro-based polymers otherwise known as carbohydrates. The
general chemical formula is Cx(H2O)y. A large number of mono-
saccharides (hydroxy aldehydes or ketones) combine to form
polysaccharides. The important polysaccharides are cellulose,
chitin, alginate, xanthan gum, dextrin, and carrageenan (Luzi et al.,
2019). Starch is considered a promising material due to its attrac-
tive combinations of availability, thermoplastic behavior, recycla-
bility and renewability (Nevoralova  et al., 2019). A classification of
the biopolymers is presented in Fig. 9.
The degradation of biopolymer depends on various factors like
composition, environment, type of polymer and chemical bonds
between them. The degradation process is classified as below:
 Biodegradable: Degradation occurs due to the presence of mi-
cro-organisms.
 Hydro-biodegradable: Degradation occurs in the presence of
micro-organisms and water.
 Photo-degradable: Delinking between molecules in the pres-
ence of light.
 Bioerodable: Degradation due to erosion by natural abrasion.
 Compostable: Degradation occurs due to bacterial action that
improves soil condition.
3.2. Processing of biopolymers
Plasticizers plays a major role in processing biopolymers.
Compatibility is the major issue faced by plasticizer and biopolymer
 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
Table 4
Applications of biofibers.
Plant Applications
Fibers
Abaca Making ropes and good replacement of glass fibers in automobiles Alpaca
Coir Short fibers from outer coconut, used in ropes, mattresses, brushes, Angora
etc.
Cotton It is pure cellulose and is the world most used fiber used in the
textile industry
Flax Flax is a strong vegetable fiber, it is used in textiles, making hat and Cashmere
bags
Hemp It’s a recent trend and it is used in the high-quality clothing
industry
Jute Making sacks, shopping bags, etc.,
Ramie Due to its silky lusters used in textiles
Sisal Replacement of glass fiber, used in clothing and reinforcement in e
composite
Fig. 9. Classification of biopolymers (Reproduced with permission from Elsevier, Li-
cense Number: 4715360368982) (Gurunathan et al., 2015).
that is mainly governed by various factors like solubility, dielectric
constant, polarity and hydrogen bonding. In many cases, plasti-
cizers are used as processing additives because it has the ability to
reduce viscosity, easy filler dispersion, reduce heat generation, easy
flow, better release and good building performance.
Starch cannot be melted or processed as a thermoplastic in its
natural form. Starch granules can be thermo-plasticized by heating
and shearing in the presence of water or glycerol (Mazerolles et al.,
2019). Thermoplastic starch (TPS), has some limitations such as low
strength, being moisture sensitive and brittleness due to retrogra-
dation. This can be overcome by blending it with synthetic or
biodegradable polymers (Ravindra et al., 2019). Sustainable poly-
mer blends can be produced by melt blending TPS with low-density
polyethylene (LDPE), polystyrene (PS) and biodegradable polymers
such as poly(hydroxy ester ether) (PHEE), (polyhydroxybutyrate
covalerate) PHBV and castor oil-based polyurethane, etc., (Sessini
et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2019).
Soy protein plastic (SP), is made from defatted soybean meal by
removing soluble sugars and protein compounds. SP contains 20
different amino acids and so has strong inter and intramolecular
11
Animal Applications
Fibers
High-End luxury fabrics
Wool
The silky white wool of the angora rabbit is very soft. It is used for making
Wool knitted cloths.
Camel Hair Obtained from Bactrian camels from Mongolia, baby camel hair fine and soft,
used in textiles
Very soft owing to the structure of the fibers, good insulation property without
being bulky
Mohair It is a silk-like hair fiber from angora goat. It is used for making carpets,
sweaters, socks, etc.
Silk Obtained from silk cocoons, used in royal clothes
Wool Used for making sweaters, good insulation property
e
interactions. Hence the processability of SP is difficult without
plasticizers like water, glycerol, ethylene glycol and sorbitol. SP is
highly brittle (Chalermthai et al., 2019). There are other processing
ways where sodium tripolyphosphate is used to interrupt with SP
ionic interactions and sodium sulfite breaks the disulfide bonds (T.
Liu et al., 2019a). The physical and mechanical properties of SP
plastic were improved by blending with PLA, Polycaprolactone
(PCL), poly (butylene succinate-co-adipate) (PBSA) and poly (tetra
methylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PTAT) (Pilar et al., 2019; Tous
et al., 2019). The incorporation of SP in PHEE lead to improved
mechanical properties of the composites because of hydrogen
bonding between the polymer and filler (Wang et al., 2002). Soy-
bean oil polyol can be prepared by microwave-assisted alcoholysis
reaction in the absence of catalysts (Favero et al., 2019). Cottonseed
oil is epoxidized by heating the oil at 55
C in the presence of glacial
acetic acid and sulfuric acid for 10 min. Later hydrogen peroxide is
added drop by drop to initialize epoxidation (Wijayapala et al.,
2019).
Polylactic acid (PLA), a widely used biopolymer, can be prepared
by bacterial fermentation of carbohydrates such as corn, sugarcane,
potatoes, biomass and synthesized through ring-opening poly-
merization of lactide, azeotropic dehydrative condensation and
direct condensation polymerization. PLA can be easily processed by
injection molding, extrusion, film blowing, etc. To improve the
performance, PLA can be blended with other polymers such as
polyethylene oxide, polyvinyl acetate, and polyethylene glycol or by
copolymerizing lactides with other monomers or polymers (poly
(lactic-glycolic acid) (Sadasivuni et al., 2019). Sugar beet pulp (SBP)
plastic is a residue after the extraction of sugar from sugar beets.
SBP can be blended with PLA to make green composites
(Finkenstadt et al., 2007).
Gluten, a protein-based biopolymer derived from starch is used
as bio-based plastic. Potato protein (PP) and wheat gluten (WG)
obtained as byproducts in industries are chemically treated
resulting in the inter and intramolecular changes which reduce the
processing window. The easy processing of the PP and WG requires
the addition of chemical reagents such as polyol based plasticizers
that reduce the glass transition temperature (Muneer et al., 2019).
Plasticizers used in gluten are sodium dodecyl sulfate, sodium
sulfite and urea. These are used to reduce hydrophobic interactions,
increase crosslinking and improve hydrogen bonding respectively.
Glycerol is used to reduce Tg (Gavin et al., 2019). In a recent study
sodium tripolyphosphate was used to modify the structural, func-
tional and rheological properties of rice glutelin. The results stated
that phosphorylation increased viscosity and decreased particle
size (Y. R. Y.R. Wang et al., 2019b).
12 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978

3.3. Properties of biopolymers
The physico-chemical and thermo-mechanical properties of
biopolymer are controlled by factors like biopolymer blend, types
of plasticizer and reinforcement. Plasticizers are liquids having a
high boiling point with 300e600 molecular weight possessing
linear and cyclic carbon chains. The degree of plasticity of bio-
polymers are governed by chemical structure, chemical composi-
tion, functional groups and molecular weight.
Thermoplastic starch is an amorphous and semi-crystalline
material consisting of gelatinized starch with one or a mixture of
plasticizers. Starch consists of two major components amylose and
amylopectin. TPS can be softened and hardened repeatedly, as it
can be easily shaped or molded using processes like shear and
application of shear forces (Fekete et al., 2019; M. H. Mohammad
et al., 2019b). PLA polymers range from amorphous glassy poly-
mers with a glass transition of 60
C to semicrystalline/highly
crystalline products with crystalline melting points ranging from
130 to 180
C (NagarajaGanesh and Muralikannan, 2016). PLA’s
poor melt elasticity property leads to various problems such as high
neck in or poor bubble stability during extrusion, film casting, and
blown film manufacturing. Properties of biopolymers such as PLA,
poly-l-lactic acid, poly-dl-lactic acid, polyglycolic acid, poly-ε-cap-
rolactone, and polyhydroxybutyrate are shown in Table 5. PLA
range from amorphous polymers to semi-crystalline or highly
crystalline polymers (Velde and Kiekens, 2002). PLA is a potential
material for packaging applications. It has good flexural modulus,
good resistance to fatty foods and dairy products, good heat seal-
ability and high surface strength thus enabling easy printing. They
also exhibit high gloss and high optical clarity (Mie˛ kos et al., 2019;
S. S. Nagarajan et al., 2019b).
Hydroxyethyl Cellulose is a biopolymer tolerant to thermal,
durable in saline environment and stable in neutral/basic pH so-
lution. Methylcellulose have high thermal stability, high water
solubility and the ability to form gel by breaking hydrogen bonds
between polymer and its surroundings (Machado et al., 2020). Due
to the gelation ability, it can be used to form membranes, thermal
responsive hydrogels and in tissue engineering.
3.4. Applications of biopolymers
In a recent study, Perfluorosulphonic acid-based membrane
were replaced by chitosan-based membranes in fuel cell applica-
tions. It showed better conductivity of ions even under anhydrous
conditions. It is also evident that Biobased membranes and ionic
liquids are good sustainable source of clean energy (Adiera et al.,
2020).
Air filters are developed with soy protein, cellulose and chitosan
which is comparable to synthetic filter system due to its remarkable
absorbance nature. Soy protein has 18 amino acids possessing 60%
active functional groups. It can easily trap air-based pollutants by
the process of polar hydrophilic bonding, hydrogen binding,
charge-charge interactions etc., Chitosan based air filters are posi-
tively charged with NH3 that deactivates E-Ecoli gram negative
bacteria. Hence, used as potential bacterial filters (Souzandeh et al.,
2019). The development of 3 and 2-dimensional electro spun nano
fibers are developed from biopolymers like collagen for wound
dressing and tissue recovery. Growth medicines like fibroblast
growth factor loaded poly (ethylene imine) was made as electro
spun fibers for treating wounds (Ahmed et al., 2019). There are
some limitations of using nano fibers for dressing dry wounds. It
makes the wound much drier and increases healing time.
Protein films have been developed from wheat gluten, soy
protein, gelatin, corn, casein, and whey protein. It was demon-
strated that protein films have low oxygen permeability. However,
protein films have higher water vapor permeability compared to
plastic films due to its hydrophilic nature of most proteins; Poly-
hydroxyalkonates (PHA) Based Packaging Materials (Azeredo et al.,
2019; Heras-mozos et al., 2019). Nitrocellulose wax or poly-
vinylidene chloride coated cellophane are used for packing baked
goods, processed meat, cheese, etc. Similarly, protein films have
good film-forming ability and low oxygen permeability, but have
higher water vapor permeability compared to plastic films (Preda
Ma da
lina et al., 2019). Fire retardancy can be imparted to gluten-
based composite by using lanosol as an additive. The results
stated that the fire retardancy effect was better than that of con-
ventional fire retardants trabromobisphenol A and Hex-
abromocyclododecane. Lanosol delayed the ignition and decreased
heat release (Das et al., 2019a). Gluten can also be used to prepare
antimicrobial composite by treating it with triethylene-glycol and
dialdehyde (Das et al., 2019b). Chitosan-based biopolymers coating
on magnesium, chitosan-based antimicrobial bioimplants are used
in biomedical applications (Francis et al., 2019; Thi khanah ly et al.,
2019). A new source of biopolymers based on polylactides prepared
from sugar is used for biomedical purposes. They do not produce
any harmful side effects when they degrade in the human body
(Deb et al., 2019; Karakurt et al., 2019).
Bio polymers-based peptides are synthesized for the application

Table 5
Properties of biopolymers (Reproduced with permission from Elsevier, License Number: 4715360707530) (Velde and Kiekens, 2002).

Properties Limits Type of polymer

PLA L-PLA DL-PLA PGA DL-PLA/PGA 50/50 DL-PLA/PGA 75/25 PCL PHB
3
Р (g/cm ) Upper 1.21 1.24 1.25 1.5 1.3 0.3 1.11 1.18
Lower 1.25 1.3 1.27 1.707 1.4 e 1.146 1.262
s (MPa) Upper 21 15.5 27.6 60 41.4 41.4 20.7 40
Lower 60 150 50 99.7 55.2 55.2 42
E (GPa) Upper 0.35 207 1 6 1 1.38 0.21 3.5
Lower 3.5 4014 3.45 7 4.34 4.13 0.44 4
e (%) Upper 2.5 3 2 1.5 2 2.5 300 5
Lower 6 10 10 20 10 10 1000 8
s* (Nm/g) Upper 16.8 40 22.1 40 30.9 31.8 18.6 32
Lower 48.0 66.8 39.4 >45.1 41.2 42.5 36.7 33.9
E* (kNm/g) Upper 0.28 2.23 0.80 4.00 0.77 1.06 0.19 2.8
Lower 2.8 3.85 2.36 4.51 2.14 2.12 0.38 2.97
Tg 
(C) Upper 45 55 50 35 40 50 60 5
Lower 60 65 60 45 50 55 65 15
Tm 
(C) Upper 150 170 am. 220 am. am. 58 168
Lower 162 200 233 e e 65 182

am.: Amorphous no melt.

 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978 13

in drug industries. Similarly, genetically coded peptides like poly
amino acids, poly peptides with repeating peptide signature are
used in food industries for protein purification, drug delivery and
newer applications are being explored (Ganguly et al., 2020).
However, there are limitations like size of biopolymer complex is
affected by acidification process and peptides are prone to oxidative
degradations. In future, those limitations can be overcome by a
precise structural design that has high affinity and structural sta-
bility which is resistant to oxidative and enzymatic degradation,
significantly improving its functional attributes. In this regard,
there is some peptide drug which are under different stages of
clinical trials namely AEZS108 (Phase II), NGR-hTNF (Phase III), and
EP100 (Phase II).
In general, biopolymers are widely used in biomedical, food and
drug industries. Some of the recently explored biopolymer and its
possible potential application is presented in Table 6.
3.5. Advantages and limitations of biopolymers
The main advantage of biopolymers is biocompatibility and
biodegradability. This functionality can be modified or changed by
blending it with other polymers (Estevinho and Rocha, 2018). PLA
has a good flexural modulus that is greater than polystyrene; good
resistance to fatty foods and dairy products equivalent to PET;
better flavor and aroma barrier in packaging in food industry; good
heat sealability; high surface strength, thus enabling easy printing;
in the case of amorphous and biaxial films, they exhibit high gloss
and high clarity compared to that of PET, OPP, and OPET. Bio-
polymers reinforced with other materials are a potential source of
medical implants, as they disintegrate in the human body without
any harmful side effects. They can be engineered to alter the
property for many applications such as drug delivery, food pack-
aging and also in electronic application (Bhushan and Kumar, 2019;
Rostami et al., 2019).
Over the advantages, there are also certain limitations. Bio-
polymers are prone to fungi and bacterial attack, it is essential to
add some antimicrobial and antifungal components based on the
application (Beck et al., 2019). Gas permeability is a common
drawback in PLA based packaging material. Starch-based polymers
are highly sensitive to water. Hence, blending with plasticizers is
required. It also needs proper disposal for biodegradation. There are
other limitations such as high manufacturing cost to low produc-
tion volume. Service life and biodegradation are questionable. They
have poor physical, chemical and mechanical resistance. In the case
of gluten, tensile strength is comparable to that of commercially
available polypropylene (Rostami et al., 2019; Tuntachon et al.,
2019).
3.6. Future scope of biopolymers
Many of the biopolymers synthesized are used in the medicine
and food industry. However, in composite manufacturing

Table 6
Biopolymer property and its application.

S. Bio polymer Property Application References

no

1 Cellulose acetate
2 Micro crystalline cellulose Good absorption, Non-toxic, easily deformable
3 Methylcellulose
4 Carboxymethyl cellulose
5 Hemicellulose and acrylic
acid copolymer
6 Carboxymethyl chitosan
hemicellulose
7 Acetylated hemicellulose
8 Esterified hemicellulose
with fatty acids
9 Bio-phenol-
hydroxymethyl furfural
10 Phenol-formaldehyde
resol-organosolv pine
lignin
11 Polyaniline-
lignosulfonate/epoxy
Starch-sodium
lignosulfonate
12 Lignopolyurethanic-
sodium lignosulfonate
13 Alginate
14 Poly Lactic acid
15 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
16 g-Polyglutamic acid
17 Dextran
18 Xanthan
Easily spun as thread and good foam forming Textiles, lightweight frames, photo films, Air filters Huang and Dean
(2020)
Stabilizers and emulsifiers in food industry Ahsan et al.
(2020)
Additive nature, increases tensile strength Construction materials, adhesives and cosmetics Schmidt et al.
(2020)
Stabilizer and alters viscosity, increases tensile strength Biomedical, food, textile and paper Miyashiro et al.
(2020)
Good adsorbent of heavy metals like Pb, Cd and Zn Purification of solutions Y. Chen et al.
(2020)b
Used in water purification Sreerag Gopi
et al. (2019)a,b
Water resistant nature Water resistant films and flexible films Peng et al. (2019)
hydrophobic nature used as water barrier Cunha and
Gandini (2010)
moldable and additive nature Coatings, molding Zhang et al.
(2016)
Resistant to heat and withstand pressure Used in pressure sensitive and thermal resistive Sivasankarapillai
coating et al. (2019)
Corrosion resistance and antioxidant Cosmetics, coatings and food industry Yao et al. (2020)
Good mechanical strength Improves flexural modulus Silva et al. (2019)
e Drug delivery and scaffold Farokhi et al.
(2019)
e Packaging and bio plastics Putri et al. (2020)
Various thermoplastics with melting temperature of 60e180
C, Nanoparticles, fibres, films, blends and composites Mukheem et al.
glass transition temperature of ~4e40
C, 10e80% crystallinity, for various purposes, including vaccine development, (2020)
elongation to break 3e450% regenerative medicine, implants and tissue
engineering
Highly hygroscopic, negatively charged, chelating agents Hydrogels and blends for biomedical, industrial and Fang et al. (2020)
bioremediation applications
Encapsulation, neutral, water soluble, and stable more than 5 Tissue engineering, vascular applications and drug Şeker et al.
years delivery. (2020)
Mainly constitutes glucose Food additive and drugs Dobosz et al.
(2020)
14 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
technology biopolymers are not preferred due to their lower ther-
momechanical performance compared to synthetic polymers.
Recently synthesis of green resins from cashew nut liquid, and
soybean oil, etc., proved to be good as a matrix resin for composites.
However, more studies are on in that direction. As regards sus-
tainable development of polymer products, many studies are on to
replace traditional nonbiodegradable plastics with biodegradable
plastics. With the advancement of technology, biopolymers have
found acceptance in medical, agriculture, packaging and compos-
ites. In 2020 the production of biopolymers is expected to cross 12
million tones a 10-fold increase from 1.2 million in 2011. Researches
on the field of energy science over biopolymer is very limited. Only
few researches on cellulose, carrageenan and animal protein-based
biopolymers are developed for clean energy. In present days bio-
polymers like cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, starch pectin etc., are
extracted through chemical polymerization. Furthermore, xanthan,
alginate, nanocellulose, hyaluronic acid and dextran are produced
by biological polymerization. In this scenario technological ad-
vancements of new biopolymers and new potential applications
will bring a great promise for industrial revolution in near future.
4. Biofilms
Biofilms are made from biopolymers such as PLA, PHA, PHBV,
starch, cellulose, proteins, gluten, PEEK, etc. Studies reported that
these biopolymers have excellent film-forming capacity and can be
used in food packaging, pragmatical industry, implants, food in-
dustries, drug deliveries, food coatings, wound therapy, and other
industrial applications (Lavery et al., 2019; Macha et al., 2019; Zhou
et al., 2019). Various processing techniques and advances in the
biofilms are discussed in the forthcoming sections.
4.1. Processing techniques of biofilms
There are various methods to process biofilms, the methods
varying based on the type of polymer, plasticizers, reinforcements
and the type of applications (Sharif et al., 2019). Bioabsorbable PLA/
Mg-based biofilm is developed with the vigorous stirring of Mg
particles in PLA solution using a mechanical stirrer. Tape casting
technique is used to prepare the films. The samples were cast by
pouring the PLA/Mg solutions on a glass plate followed by the
moving of the tape casting device (Ferra ndez-Montero et al., 2019).
Egg white protein (EWP) films are fabricated by a combination of
extrusion and calendaring. 2:1:1 ratio of EWP powder, water and
glycerol are introduced in a corotating twin-screw extruder. The
resulting extrudates are immediately placed between two teflon
sheets and calendared using double drum dryers (Pranata et al.,
2019). PLA based melt films can be made after extrusion by the
application of a head force of 3000 N and a temperature of 200
C to
obtain films with a thickness that ranges from 20 to 80 m (Fortunati
et al., 2012). A UV protective sunshield film is prepared from lignin
(Cinnamomum cassia bark), chitosan and gelatin-based materials
with the help of ionic liquid solvents having melting
points < 100
C.The film showed good mechanical and antibacterial
properties (Mehta and Kumar, 2019). Recently, biobased films were
developed from citrus pectin, babassu coconut mesocarp, and
glycerol using a simple film casting method (Da Silva et al., 2019). A
comprehensive report on plasticizers used in bio film is given in
Table 7. It helps the researchers to explore new type of biofilm using
data provided from Tables 6 and 7
Although there are various studies in processing biofilms using
polyols as stated in Table 7, there are limited potential applications.
It is very essential to explore new types of biofilms, plasticizers and
stabilizers in future with more structural stability for sustainable
industrial, food packaging and biomedical applications.
4.2. Characterization techniques for biofilms
The morphological analysis of bio-based films such as exami-
nation of the fracture surface during the tensile test, surface
roughness, voids and porosity present in the biofilms can be
analyzed using SEM images. TEM (Transmission electron micro-
scope) can be used to detect minute details in biofilms. The pres-
ence of nanofillers, their distribution and interaction with the
matrix can be studied by TEM (Da Silva et al., 2019). AFM (Atomic
force microscopy) is used to analyze biofilm formation over nano-
particles, bacterial adhesion and bacterial activity present in the
specimen (Mangaraj et al., 2019a). Optical microscopy is a simple
technique used to characterize the morphology of biofilms at lower
resolutions. The captured images are used to analyze the
morphological characters such as particle (microfiber or fillers)
distribution, particle size, voids, cracks spherulites, crystallization,
biodegradation, etc., of the samples (El-Hadi, 2019). The molecular
structure, composition, grafting and the purity of biofilms can be
determined by the NMR technique (Shibata et al., 2019; Zeng et al.,
2019). Further, functional groups, variations in functional group
position, generation of new functional bands, interaction between
components in biopolymer blends and composites, etc., can be
carefully analyzed by FTIR (Arantes et al., 2019). The study of
complex viscosity, dynamic strain sweep and frequency sweep of
the samples is called rheology. The study also involves stress and
frequency sweeps in small amplitude oscillatory experiments and
stepwise shear flow tests, carried out in a Haake-MARS controlled
stress rheometer (Chunhua Wu et al., 2019a).
4.3. Properties of biofilms
The functional, mechanical and antimicrobial activities of
chitosan-based film is increased by loading curcumin and meso-
porous silica nanoparticle (SBA-15) through the rotavapor method.
This curcumin loaded chitosan film is found to be efficient over
bacterial strands such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus
(Chunhua Wu et al., 2019b). Antibacterial effect of alginate-casein
bilayer film over Escherichia coli bacteria is improved by adding
silver nanoparticles, which also improved the oxidative stability
(Bora and Mishra, 2019). Encapsulating antibacterial AgNP (silver
nano particles) to edible food packaging biofilms causes cytotox-
icity, genotoxicity and inflammation in human cells. However, in
further research it was found chitosan was suitable for AgNPS
caping to eliminate cytotoxicity (Krasniewsk et al., 2020). Currently,
researches on packaging antibacterial biofilm is not sufficient. The
antibacterial effect in biofilms are limited to time and only to
certain bacterial strains. In future, it is necessary to explore more
about natural antibacterial encapsulating materials that can be
used in biofilms. The tribological and water vapor barrier behavior
of the PLA film is improved by introducing a coating of cross-linked
chitosan and bee wax over the films (Mohd Aris et al., 2019). Chi-
tosan and wax over biofilms form a good protective water vapor
barrier but variations in temperature and dynamic loading condi-
tions would affect mechanical and water barrier properties.
Recently, bioactive films were developed through subcritical water
technology using potato starch and gallic acid, the results revealing
a reduction in tensile strength and improvement in water vapor
permeability (Zhao and Saldan ~ a, 2019). A recent study states that
the antioxidant property of gelatin-based biofilm can be increased
by the addition of melanin nanoparticles (Shankar et al., 2019). PLA
biofilm coated with PLA-Si/SiO2, PCL-Si/SiO2 or PEO-Si/SiO2 shows
improved oxygen and water vapor barrier properties. Similarly,
coating with Al2O3 improves the water vapor and oxygen barrier
property of PLA, PHB, pectin and nano-fibrillated cellulose
(Hirvikorpi et al., 2011). The mechanical and antifungal properties
 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978 15

Table 7
Natural plasticizers used in biodegradable films from biomass products (polysaccharide-, protein-, and lipid-based films) or other films obtained by extraction of
micro-organisms) (Reproduced with permission from Elsevier, License Number:4761680717539) (Vieira et al., 2011).

Type Biopolymer compound Plasticizer

Polysaccharide- Citric acid-modified pea starch (CAPS) and GLY

based films citric acid-modified rice starch (CARS)
g-Carrageenan edible films GLY and water
Potato starch GLY and EG
GLY, xylitol and sorbitol
GLY
Waxy maize starch, maize starch and GLY, sorbitol and water
amylomaize starch
Soluble starch/gelatin GLY, sorbitol and sucrose
Corn starch Ethanolamine
Caproic acid, lauric acid and glycerol triacetate (triacetin)
GLY, acetamide, formamide, anhydrous glucose and urea
Sorbitol and GLY
GLY and amino acids
Cassava starch GLY
GLY and sorbitol
Oat starch GLY, sorbitol and urea
GLY, sorbitol and urea, sucrose and glycerol-sorbitol mixture
Pea starch Mannose, glucose, fructose, GLY and sorbitol
Chitosan films GLY, EG, PEG and PG (PG)
Hydroxypropyl methycellulose (HPMC) GLY and mannitol
ebeeswax (BW)
Cellulose from sugarcane bagasse and cellulose Residual xylan acetate
acetates
Konjac glucomannan Sorbitol and GLY
Alginate/pectin GLY
Protein-, lipid-based Zein Oleic and linoleic acids
films Caseinate-pullulan Water and sorbitol
Whey protein GLY and sorbitol
Whey protein/beeswax emulsion GLY
b-Lactoglobulin Sorbitol, GLY and polyethylene glycol
Sorbitol, GLY, EG, PEG 200 and PEG 400
Propylene glycol (PG), GLY, sorbitol, PEG 200, PEG 400 and sucrose
GLY, EG, DEG, TEG and PG
Sunflower protein Saturated fatty acids (FA)
Peanut protein Glycerin, sorbitol, PEG, PG
Wheat gluten Glycerin
Feather keratin GLY
Fish mince from Atlantic sardines (Sardina Sorbitol, GLY and sucrose
pilchardus)
Fish skin protein Fatty acids (FA) and sucrose esters (FASE)
Water-soluble fish proteins GLY and PEG
GLY, PEG, EG, sucrose and sorbitol
Fish muscle proteins GLY, PG, DEG and EG
Fish myofibrilar protein Glycerin and water
Gelatin GLY and sorbitol
Sucrose, oleic acid, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, PEG of different molecular weights (300, 400,
600, 800, 1500, 4000, 10,000, 20,000), sorbitol, mannitol, EG, DEG, TEG, EA, diethanolamine (DEA)
and TEA
Pigskin gelatin GLY
Sorbitol
Bovine gelatin Fatty acids
Sorbitol
GLY
Other films (from Amaranthus cruentus flour edible films GLY
microbial sources) Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) Dodecanol, lauric acid, tributyrin and trilaurin
Poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3- Soybean oil (SO), epoxidized soybean oil (ESO), dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and triethyl citrate (TEC)
hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV)

GLY- Glycerol, EG-Ethylene glycol, DEG-Diethylene glycol, TEG-Triethylene glycol, PEG-Polyethylene glycol, PG-Propylene glycol, TEA-Triethanolamine.

of the soy protein isolate film were improved by the addition of
cinnamaldehyde and zinc oxide nanosheets (J. Wu et al.,
2019a,b,c,d). Studies have shown that addition of materials such
as nanoclay, chemically modified kaolinite, bentonite, montmoril-
lonite layered silicate, etc., to PLA film, increases the oxygen barrier
by 50% and also improving the thermal stability and mechanical
properties (Sanchez-Garcia and Lagaron, 2010). When mesocarp
cellulose fiber was added to rice starch-based biofilm, the results
showed increase in thermal stability and reduced water vapor
permeability. The increase in the addition of fibers reduces its
physicomechanical properties (Suwanprateep et al., 2019).
4.4. Advantages and disadvantages of biofilms
Biofilms made from biopolymers are biodegradable and have
good biocompatibility in drugs, tissue engineering, biomedicals,
packaging and food industry. Being a source of clean energy, they
are developed from renewable resources and its raw materials are
found in abundant (Deb et al., 2019; Lavery et al., 2019). Biofilms are
widely used in packaging industries, especially in food packaging
16 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
where they are subjected to certain limitations and restrictions
such as low shelf-life and mostly losing its mechanical properties
when being recycled due to their functional groups and various
environmental conditions. Most of the biofilms are non-recyclable
due to its chemical composition and complex processing proced-
ures. The production of biofilms comes with a high cost compared
to synthetic plastic films (M. H. Mohammad et al., 2019b; Sessini
et al., 2019). Biofilms are brittle when made from TPS and PLA.
Low thermal stability, low melt strength, low heat seal, high water
vapor and oxygen permeability limits the usage of PLA in the food
packaging industries. The hydrophilic nature of the starch and
cellulose biofilms exhibits poor water vapor barrier properties
which limit its long-term stability. Moreover, they are difficult to
process, possess high brittleness and are vulnerable to degradation
spa
(Ga r et al., 2005).
4.5. Recent advances and application of biofilms
Biobased films made from cellulose and chitosan have improved
magnetic and electrical properties with the addition of magnetite
and glycerol. Magnetite and glycerol improve charge storage and
insulative properties. Hence, future research on chitosan and other
biopolymers can potentially improve the applications in green
electronics (Arantes et al., 2019). In recent research, bacteriophages
were loaded in sodium alginate-based films for packaging meat to
prevent the growth of P.fluorescens (Alves et al., 2019). Phages are
known to be more effective for treating bacterial infection, which is
not yet been widely explored. Hence, in near future antibacterial
biofilm with bacteriophages would play a major role in food
packaging and also to treat bacterial infected wounds. Ionic gela-
tion technique was used to encapsulate a-Terpineol in chitosan
biopolymer film to prevent fungal attack while storing maize.
Recently, novel techniques were explored for “intelligent food
packaging materials”. Red cabbage anthocyanins were immobilized
in a matrix of oxidized-chitin nanocrystals/konjac glucomannan
and formed as films. The films exhibited a predominant Fickian
diffusion release mechanism and exhibited good pH-sensitive, UV-
barrier, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties (Wu et al., 2020).
In another research, pH responsive chitosan/alizarin film was
developed by solution casting method. The biofilm showed excel-
lent UV barrier, good thermal stability and surface hydrophobicity.
The release rate of alizarin was higher in ethanol solution but lower
in water. Moreover, the biofilm showed a color change from yellow
to purple with respect to change in pH in the range 4e10. The
biofilm can also reveal the onset of fish spoilage by changing the
color from khaki to light brown (Ezati and Rhim, 2020). It is
observed that intelligent packaging biofilm communicates by
changing colors with respect to pH changes in food. It is evident, in
near future intelligent packaging biofilm would revolutionize the
food packaging industries. Moreover, there are very less findings in
this regard. Hence, it is very essential to conduct experiments and
to explore more on intelligent packaging films which would react to
much environmental conditions like changes in pH, temperature,
bacterial/fungal growth etc. Chitosan-based biofilms with spermi-
dine and glycerol enhanced the elasticity and reduced gas perme-
ability. Plasticized chitosan films can be easily heat sealed and have
antimicrobial properties and are a potential replacement for Vis-
cofan films (Sabbah et al., 2019). Chitosan-based polymeric films
combined with nanocrystalline cellulose, calcium peroxide and
gelatin improved the mechanical and biomedical behavior of bio-
film by inducing antibacterial effect and improving wound healing
in humans (Aflori et al., 2019; Akhavan-Kharazian and Izadi-Vasafi,
2019). To improve water-resistance, surface hydrophobicity, and
water vapor barrier properties, biofilm obtained from soy protein
are blended with stearic acid through bioconjugation showed
improved results (Ye et al., 2019). Cardboard cups coated with PLA
are used for packaging coffee and tea. Moreover, PLA is used to
make cups, containers, bottles, trays, bags, etc., and for packing
beverages, fruits, food items, etc., (Fan et al., 2019; Gavril et al.,
2019). Starch obtained from corn can be used for packing milk
chocolates and vegetables (Mangaraj et al., 2019b). PLA, PHA, ker-
atin and chitosan-based biofilms are widely used in medical ap-
plications like wound healing, medical implants, anti-bacterial and
antifungal coatings (S. S. Kumar et al., 2019b; Vincenzo et al., 2020).
4.6. Future scope of biofilms
Biofilms are better for environmental conservation and hence
are used for many industrial applications, such as packaging of food
and industrial goods. Many studies reported certain limitations in
using bio-based films such as water sensitivity, air permeability,
being prone to bacterial, fungal attacks and having poor mechanical
properties. However, recent studies have shown that these draw-
backs can be overcome by the use of plasticizers, nanomaterials,
etc. Also, the incorporation of plasticizers and nanomaterials im-
proves their mechanical, chemical and thermal properties. There is
a risk for using antibacterial and preservative nanomaterials in food
packaging biofilms because the exposure, inhalation/injection and
migration of nanoparticles to food surface leads hazardous effects
on humans. Deep toxicology analysis and developing regulatory
standards on nanomaterials is a big challenge faced by the current
researchers. The production cost of biofilms is too high compared to
synthetic plastics. To replace the traditional materials, it is neces-
sary to develop new types of bio-based films with easy processing
which involves low cost, renewable resource with good thermo-
mechanical, physical, chemical and antibacterial qualities. Pres-
ently, antibacterial based edible packaging material is being a trend
of research but in future years antibacterial nanoparticle reinforced
biofilms are going to be a major trend. Though there are many re-
searches in this filed there exists many challenges like encapsula-
tion capability, drug loading, human side effects, control over
controlled drug release and gas permeability. Hence, in the near
future chemically, mechanically and edible biofilms should be
developed with superior properties that can be potentially used in
biomedical and packaging industries.
5. Biocomposites
5.1. Biofiber reinforced biocomposites
Biofibers such as lignocellulose fibers and animal fibers are used
to reinforce polymer matrices for various structural applications.
Various types of natural fiber such as jute, flax, hemp, sisal, hard-
wood, softwood, silk, wool, and various other fibers are used as
reinforcement in polymer matrices to improve the mechanical
properties of the composite (Bharath et al., 2019; Vaidya et al.,
2019; Change Wu et al., 2019a,b,c,d). The mechanical strength of
the fiber-reinforced composite depends on the type of fiber and
orientation (unidirectional, random, chopped, short fiber, long fi-
ber, bi-woven mat) of the fiber used in the matrix. Many studies
report that performance of composite is influenced by factors like
type of matrix, filler, reinforcements and plasticizers. In addition,
other factors includes interfacial bonding of reinforcement material
and volume fraction (Ferreira et al., 2019; W. Liu et al., 2019b). Due
to the hydrophilic nature of the biofiber and hydrophobic nature of
the matrix, it is essential to modify the surface of the fibers by
chemical treatment to enhance adhesion between the fiber and
matrix. With chemical treatment, the hydrophilic nature of the
plant fiber is reduced by breaking down the hydroxyl and carbonyl
groups on the surface of the fiber. Various studies reported that
 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
biofibers could be used as reinforcement in various matrices such
as polypropylene, polystyrene, epoxy, polyester, polylactic acid, etc
(Madhu et al., 2019; Teklu et al., 2019). In this regard, biocompati-
bility and appropriate processing window are two major problem
faced, as there is a property change for each material depending on
the processing environment. It is very essential to develop bio
composite with suitable processing techniques for attaining supe-
rior physical, mechanical and thermal properties.
The properties of the biocomposite can be controlled and
enhanced using fillers as reinforcement. Reinforcements govern
various properties of composites such as mechanical strength,
thermal properties, electrical conductivity and reducing production
cost. Several studies reported the use of biofillers like bio-flour,
lignocellulose fillers, shellfish shell, eggshell powder, wood flour,
etc., enhances mechanical and thermal performance of the com-
posites (Azman et al., 2019; Bajwa et al., 2019; Beigbeder et al.,
2019). The performance and properties of composite are gov-
erned by conditions like type of filler, size, quantity, distribution,
surface morphology of filler, chemical treatment and interaction of
the matrix with the filler. Different fillers have different physical
properties such as size, density, porosity and shape that control the
bonding behavior of the filler and matrix. Lignocellulose fillers are
considered as conventional fillers as they are easily available and
when reinforced in polymers, it enhances mechanical properties of
the composites by improving interaction with the matrix
(Chaitanya et al., 2019; Gonz pez et al., 2019). The study of
alez-Lo
biofiller on biocomposites are very limited. Nanofillers play an
important role in governing the rheological property and density of
the biocomposite. As an emerging trend current studies focus on
the nanofiller based composites and are widely used in medical
implants, packaging materials but in early stage. In future it is very
essential to develop new strategies for the sustainable use of
nanofillers in biocomposite.
PLA based biocomposites is a rapidly developing research area.
The physical-chemical and thermal properties of maleated PLA
treated and untreated agave fiber reinforced PLA composite were
studied. The results showed that there is an increase in tensile
strength by 68% compared to an untreated composite. There was an
increase in thermal stability with reduced hydrophilicity
(Gonza lez-Lo
pez et al., 2019). Similarly, various studies in fiber
reinforcements such as kenaf, eucalyptus microfibrils, bagasse, etc.,
were reported. It is observed that chemical modification enhances
the performance of composite by altering functional groups of the
reinforcement depending upon processing type that involves
environmental conditions like type of technique, chemical, con-
centration of treatment, duration of treatment and temperature.
Though there are various chemical treatment techniques explored,
the performance of biocomposites are not much comparable to
synthetic composites (Hijazi et al., 2019; Lila et al., 2019). The effect
of different plasticizers poly (ethylene glycol) and tributyl citrate on
the poly(hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) and modified flax fibers com-
posites was studied. The results revealed that glycol triacetate had a
high influence on shifting the glass transition to low temperatures.
Most research on natural fiber reinforced poly (hydroxybutyrate-
co-valerate) PHBV biocomposites reveals excellent thermo-
mechanical performance suitable for semi-structural applications
(Wong et al., 2002; Zini et al., 2007). Plasticizers and re-
inforcements plays a vital role in governing various properties of
biocomposites like degradability, rheology, density, gas perme-
ability, water sensitivity, antimicrobial and shelf life. Various types
of bio plasticizers are presented in Table 7. It is very helpful for the
researchers to get a clear idea about various plasticizers and their
combinations for future development and explorations in the field
of biopolymer based biocomposite that are suitable for perspective
applications.
17
5.2. Properties of composites
5.2.1. Mechanical properties
The mechanical properties of biocomposite are widely depen-
dent on the factors like heating and cooling rate, applied force,
deformation, rate of deformation and temperature. These condi-
tions are vitally governed by polymer type, crystallinity, molecular
weight, morphology, chemical composition, cross linking, plastici-
zation, copolymerization, molecular orientation, concentration and
the type of reinforcement. The tensile strength of composite is
governed by processing environment, reinforcement type, orien-
tation and polymer. There exists diverse range of mechanical
properties that involves tensile strength, tensile modulus, flexural
strength, flexural modulus, yield strength, yield modulus,
compressive strength, impact strength, hardness, rate of elonga-
tion, storage modulus, loss modulus, poison’s ratio, creep, micro-
mechanical analysis etc. Studies have shown that the chemical
treatment of natural fibers enhances tensile strength of composites
by reducing the hydrophilic nature and thus enhances the matrix
fiber interaction. A similar trend is observed in Bio-Polyethylene-
Based Composites Reinforced with Alkali and Palmitoyl Chloride-
Treated Coffee Silverskin (Dominici et al., 2019). Also it is noticed
there is an increase in tensile and flexural strength in alkali treated
Typha fiber-reinforced polymer composite (Rizal et al., 2019). The
orientation of fibers has a significant influence on the mechanical
performance of composites. Mechanical properties of the polyester/
jute composites in longitudinal and transversal directions are
shown in Table 8. It is observed that longitudinal orientation of jute
fibers performs better during tensile and flexural load. However,
orientation of the reinforcement are selected depending upon
loading application on the composite (Laranjeira et al., 2006).
Several studies reported a significant increase in flexural strength,
impact strength, interlaminar shear strength and hardness by
incorporating natural fibers in different polymer matrices. Some of
these works are reported in Table 9. Similarly, a significant increase
in impact strength is seen in Schumannianthus dichotomous and
Jute/hemp/flax-based epoxy composites (Barbhuiya and Ismail,
2016; Chaudhary et al., 2018). There is also a substantial increase
in the interlaminar shear strength in Ecinoidea spike/kenaf/Azadir-
achta indica reinforced epoxy hybrid composite and Cocos nucifera
sheath based epoxy composites (Arun Prakash and Viswanthan,
2019; Naveen et al., 2019). These mechanical properties are also
governed by the addition of nanofibers and nanomaterials to the
biopolymer. Some of the mechanical properties of biopolymer
reinforced bionanomaterials are given in Table 10. The biocom-
patibility of bio filler reinforced biopolymer is more crucial in
biomedical applications but there is very less research in this field
of bioimplants and some are in clinical trials. It is very essential to
develop biocompatible bioimplants in future which helps the pa-
tients to avoid additional surgery for the removal of implants.
5.2.2. Dynamical analysis
Dynamic mechanical analysis is used to measure the compos-
ite’s heat deflection temperature (HDT). The dynamic properties
were measured using DMA Q800, TA Instruments Inc. The test was
carried out as per ASTM D648, ASTM D5023-15. The storage
modulus (elastic response of the material), loss modulus (viscous
response of the material) and the tan delta (material damping)
values were obtained as a function of temperatures with a rate of
3
C/min. These dynamic properties were also governed by type of
reinforcement, polymer and plasticizer. Dynamic mechanical
properties were performed in a dual cantilever clam with a 15 mm
oscillating amplitude and 1 Hz vibrating frequency. Readings were
taken in a three-point bending machine with a heating rate of 2
C/
min (Hidalgo-Salazar and Salinas, 2019; Torres et al., 2019).
18 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978

Table 8
Tensile properties of biocomposites.

Composites Elongation of break Tensile strength Youngs Modulus Processing References

(%) (MPa) (GPa)

Prosopis juliflora fibers (PJF) 1.55 ± 0.12 570 ± 8.4 5.87 ± 1.7 e Saravanakumar et al.
Alkali treated PJF 3.54 ± 0.06 650 ± 6.43 6.92 ± 1.9 e (2014)
Polyester 2.07 ± 0.13 34.80 ± 2.51 1.36 ± 0.08 Casting Laranjeira et al. (2006)
Polyester þ 50% jute 5.34 ± 0.07 161.78 ± 3.33 5.58 ± 0.52 Compression molding
(longitudinal)
Polyester þ 50% jute 0.18 ± 0.01 0.43 ± 0.12 0.98 ± 0.21 Compression molding
(transversal)
PLA 2 ± 0.2 50 ± 2.4 3.4 ± 0.1 Twin-screw extruder þ compression Oksman et al. (2003)
molding
PLA þ 30% flax 1 ± 0.2 53 ± 3.1 8.3 ± 0.6 Twin-screw extruder þ compression
molding

Table 9
Flexural properties of composites.

Composites Flexural strength (MPa) Flexural Modulus (GPa) Processing References

PLA 104.4 3.79 Hot compression Bajpai et al. (2012)

PLAþ 20% sisal 249.8 9.75 Hot compression
Polyester þ 10% Cocos nucifera fibers 20.6 e Hand lay-up (NagarajaGanesh and Muralikannan, 2016)
Polyester þ 40% Cocos nucifera fibers 26.3 e Hand lay-up
Polyester þ 30% sun hemp (0
orientation) 80.7 ± 2.3 e Compression molding Krishnan et al. (2018)
Polyester þ 30% sun hemp (triaxial orientation) 107.3 ± 2.5 e Compression molding
Epoxy þ 30% Jute 31 e Compression molding Koradiya et al. (2010)

Table 10
Mechanical properties of nanofiller reinforced Biocomposites (Reproduced with permission from John Wiley and Sons, License Number: 4762830588074).

Biopolymer Filler Weight % Preparation Tensile Tensile Yeild strength Elongation of

methods modulus (MPa) strength (MPa) (MPa) break

TPS Winceyette 20 wt% Plasticization e 15.16 e 19

TPS Cellulose NF 15 wt% e 224 ± 15.4 220 6.78 ± 0.5 e
TPS Wheatstraw NFs 10 wt% Chemi- 271 ± 27.4 e 7.71 ± 0.6 e
Mechanical
TPS Bacterial cellulose 22 wt% Solution 361.4 ± 1.9 31.06 ± 0.8 e 5.3 ± 0.
impregnation
PVA Chitin Whiskers Electrospinning e 5.7 ± 0.6 e e
TPS Chitosan Nps 6 wt% Solution casting e 10.8 e e
chitosan Chitin whiskers 20 wt% e e 120 (dry) 17.3 e 6 (dry)10
(wet) (wet)
Chitosan Graphene sulfonic acid 5 wt% Solution casting 5100 ± 240 200 ± 2.9 e e
PLA Cellulose nanocrystals Solution casting 2600 ± 300 e 31.9 ± 2.8 157 ± 30
Hydroxypropyl Bacterial cellulose nanocrystals and silver 4 wt% BCNC and 1 wt Solution casting 2280 ± 270 78 ± 6.9 e 44.0 ± 4.5
methylcellulose nano particles % AgNPs

5.2.3. Thermal analysis
Several studies have reported the melting and crystallization
behavior of the natural fiber-reinforced composites. In general,
most of the studies reported identical Tg for composites with
respect to neat polymer matrix with variations in Tm, Tc and per-
centage crystallinity based on the type of the polymer matrix used
and processing conditions. In an interesting work, Muthuraj et al.
(2017a) studied the changes in Tm, Tc, DHm, and DHc of the poly(-
butylene succinate) (PBS)/poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)
(PBAT) blends and its composites with miscanthus fiber. In a recent
work, Tengsuthiwat et al. (2019) studied the changes in Tg, Tm, and
Tcc in PLA/Cu2O modified sisal fibers. There was no change in Tg, Tm,
with the addition of sisal fibers however Tcc shifted to a lower
temperature and sisal fibers provide additional sites for crystalli-
zation. It is observed, addition of fiber in polymer blends reduced
the Tc, DHc, and DHm, which mean, crystallinity of blends was
reduced by fibers because it hinders the polymer chain to diffuse
toward the surface of growing nuclei.
The thermogravimetric analysis of the biofiber reinforced
polymer composites depends on the thermal stability of the filler.
Generally, for fiber-reinforced composites, thermal stability may be
reduced due to degradation of natural fibers (Ngaowthong et al.,
2019). In a recent work, Muthuraj et al. (2019) studied the ther-
mal stability of four different poly(butylene adipate-co-
terephthalate)/poly(lactic acid) (PBAT/PLA) composites with
different natural fibers such as rice husk, wheat husk, wood fibers,
and textile waste fibers. The TGA thermogram obtained for the
composites is given in Fig. 10. It is observed, the initial degradation
temperature of the composites is reduced due to the presence of
natural fibers. In another work, Muthuraj et al. (2017b) studied the
effect of reactive compatibilization on the thermal stability of
PHBV/miscanthus (70/30) fiber composites. The authors observed a
marginal reduction in onset degradation temperature of the 70/30
fiber composites compared to PHBV. As stated earlier this was due
to the lower thermal stability of the fibers. Interestingly, an
increasing addition of DCP in the polymer composites reduced the
onset degradation temperature due to the chain scission of the
polymer chains caused by the presence of DCP. Similarly, the
 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
Fig. 10. (A) TGA graph of Ecovio® (B0 ) wheat husk composite (C0 ) Textile fiber com-
posite (D0 ) wood fiber composite (E0 ) Rice husk composite (Reproduced with
permission from Elsevier, License Number: 4715360960160) (Muthuraj et al., 2019).
authors observed a reduction in onset temperature with the
incorporation of miscanthus (70/30) and 70/40 fiber content in
PBAT (Muthuraj et al., 2017c). Studies showed good thermal insu-
lation properties for the natural fiber-reinforced composites.
Therefore, natural fiber composites are suitable for making interior
parts of automobiles and aircraft (Idicula et al., 2006; Righetti et al.,
2019).
5.2.4. Tribological properties
Tribology is the study of friction and wear of two mating sur-
faces. It is very important to study the tribological properties of
natural fiber-reinforced composites due to the advances in inno-
vation and applications. Firstly, “Pinon disc” test procedure is the
commonly used wear test. The typical test includes sliding wear,
where the area of contact is constant. Studies have shown that the
friction and wear performance of the composites can be enhanced
by the incorporation of natural fibers (Y. Liu et al., 2019c; Mohan
and Kanny, 2019b). There are other test methods like “Dry sand
rubber wheel”. The test is carried out according to ASTM G65. The
rubber wheel is in contact with the specimen, where the load is
applied. Fine, grain or coarse sand particles are introduced at a
particular flow rate. When abrasive sand is involved it is known as
an abrasive test. It is named as an adhesive test when sand is not
used. These tests are used to study the wear performance of tire
thread, rollers, bushes and bearings. “Linear tribo machine”, is
where, the stainless-steel counter face moves linearly when
coupled to a motor. The test conducted may be abrasive or adhe-
sive, if abrasive particles are added. The frictional indicator is
connected to the load cell to measure frictional force. The speed
controller controls the sliding speed. Dead weights are applied
parallel to the specimen. Water can be added instead of abrasive to
stimulate wet conditions. “Block on ring tribo test”, the test is
carried out according to ASTM G77, G137-95 and used for appli-
cations such as sliding or rolling wear behavior of threads, pulleys,
etc (Díez-Pascual, 2019; Jena, 2019; Mohan and Kanny, 2019b). It is
very essential to determine the environmental conditions while
performing tribological test due to the changes of environment in
each practical application.
5.2.5. Flame retardancy
When biocomposites are involved in building materials and
thermal insulation applications, there are chances for fire accidents.
19
Flame retardancy is a crucial test for biocomposite to evaluate
flammability and flame retardancy property. There is limited ex-
plorations in fire retardant biocomposite. Current researchers are
focusing to incorporate fire retardant in biocomposite that would
have a better performance and zero hazard impact on living crea-
tures after being disposed.
Flame retardancy test for natural fiber composites is carried out
using a vertical Bunsen burner test, in accordance with Federal
Aviation Regulation (FAR). A methane gas flame of a specified
standard of height 38 mm above the burner is positioned to the
specimen center for 12s. The test results indicate the drip flame
time, total flame time and burn length (Khalili et al., 2019). Vertical
and horizontal fire test is also used to measure flame retardancy.
The test is conducted according to the standard UL-94 vertical and
UL-94 horizontal according to DIN EN 60695-11-10. Five and three
samples are tested for UL-94 V and UL-94 HB, respectively. The
results were used to study the ignitability and flame spreading
rates. Generally, natural fibers burn in the flame and hence flame
retardant should be used to improve the flammability properties
(Bachtiar et al., 2019).
Recent work on flame retardancy of thermoplastic starch-based
bio composites stated that the addition of ammonium poly-
phosphate (APP) to the TPS ensured better flame retardancy.
Moreover, a similar trend was observed when 20 of 30% of APP was
replaced with keratin fibers (Rabe et al., 2019). Biocomposites made
out of gluten is as so susceptible to flame. Fire retardant property
can be imparted by adding lasonol (Das et al., 2019b, 2019a). Hal-
loysite nanotube is used as a fire-retardant agent in bacterial grade
PHBV. The result showed an increase in HNT content. There is
increased fire retardancy but reduced the mechanical property
(Zainuddin et al., 2019). It is observed there are various fire
retarding agents, but it is crucial to identify new fire retardants that
are compatible with biomaterials without hindering the mechani-
cal properties.
5.2.6. Morphological properties
The morphological properties of biocomposites like fracture
morphology, particle distribution, voids, type of bonding, re-
inforcements in the matrix, etc., are easily studied by using
microscopic images taken from (Scanning electron microscope)
SEM, (Field emission scanning electron microscope) FESEM,
(Transmission electron microscope) TEM, (Atomic force micro-
scope) AFM, (Polarized optical microscope) POM etc. The images
are taken at different magnification factors enabling easy under-
standing of the mechanisms of fracture, surface textures and par-
ticle distributions (Ganapathy et al., 2019; M Kathirselvam et al.,
2019a,b; M. Kathirselvam et al., 2019a,b).
5.2.7. Advantage and limitations of biocomposites
Biocomposites are eco-friendly, biodegradable, environmentally
friendly and their properties can be easily hand tailored depending
on the respective application. They are compatible with the
biomedical and food industry. Raw materials used for bio-
composites are renewable resource, easily available and abundant
in quantity. It provides employability and also encourages farming
for the production of raw materials, thus reducing the greenhouse
effect (Ferreira et al., 2019). Due to its compatibility, it is used in
versatile applications. In spite of the advantages, there are some
limitations in the use of biocomposites. Due to the biocomposite’s
limited strength, they cannot be used for the heavy load-bearing
applications. Biofibers are hydrophilic in nature and when used in
composites, moisture contact may cause water swell in the com-
posites. They are prone to bacterial, fungal and insect attacks and
have poor durability in an alkaline environment (Sun et al., 2019).
20 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
5.2.8. Recent advances and applications of biocomposites
Biocomposites made out of PEEK, collagen, chitosan, chitin, etc.,
are now used in additive manufacturing for bio-inspired materials.
It widely used in 3D printing of organs, bones, etc. Some bio-
composites are used in medical implants and drug deliveries (Mei
et al., 2019; Tozar et al., 2019). Recently biocomposites were
widely used in various applications such as automotive industry,
medical implants, aerospace industries, construction, household
products, biosensors, and noise and vibration-control materials,
etc. (Priyadarsini et al., 2019; Rwahwire et al., 2019). In a recent
research, osteoindustive bone filling biocomposite nanospheres
was developed using strontium-doped hydroxyapatite with silk
fibroin ultrasonic coprecipitation. The biocomposite nanospheres
were rough and uneven with diameter ranging from 500 to 700 nm.
It’s observed that the developed nanospheres are potentially
biocompatible for bone filling during fracture treatment, bone in-
fections, trauma and bone tumor resection (Wang et al., 2020). In
another research, biocomposite interference screws were devel-
oped from micro b-tricalcium phosphate poly levo (96%)/dextro
(4%) lactide beta-tricalcium phosphate for the anterior cruciate
ligament reconstruction in human injured knee that is approved by
institutional review board. The screws were implanted in twenty
humans and were kept for 42 months post-surgical observation.
The results showed complete biocompatibility without any tunnel
widening, lytic or cystic changes. Location of screw showed good
osteoconductivity and complete ossification(Barber and Dockery,
2020). Similarly, nanohydroxyapatite was combined with poly-
mers like collagen, glycol and chitosan to form ceramic/biopolymer
scaffold biocomposite that are suitable for bone implants. It is
observed hydroxyapatite along with collagen increases mechanical
strength and also mimicked the bone environment enhancing the
bone tissue growth (Dumont et al., 2016). Various advancements in
medical field are explored recently, but most of them are under
clinical trials. In future, explorations in biofilms would revolu-
tionize the medical treatments with full biocompatibility and re-
duces the risk of side effects.
In the electronic and biomedical application, nanofiber struc-
tured chitosan-silk biocomposite film was developed by facile so-
lution casting technique. It showed strong hydrogen bonding
interaction and good biocompatibility with living cells. It can be
potentially used as biomedical and electronic display screens due to
its mechanical performance and strong nanofibril structure (Huang
et al., 2020). Development in wearable electronics includes cotton
substrates coated with graphene nanoplatelets (GnPs), carbon
nanofibers (CnFs), and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (CnTs). Due
to its flexibility nature, it is used in wide range of electronics,
wearables, thermal management, solar cells, electro diagnostic
tools, gas barrier, robotics and electromagnetic shielding (Cataldi
et al., 2020). Among other organic materials, aleuritic (9,10,16-
trihydroxyhexadecanoic) acid is a newly explored material that is
used in building blocks of polymers which mimics the structural
element of plant cutin. This polyhydroxylated fatty acid is poly-
merized using chemical approaches to produce polyaleuritate, a
long-chain polyester that exhibits good structural properties when
combined with cellulose and lactic acid blend. It is mostly used in
packaging food and electronic goods due to its interesting proper-
ties like infusibility, hydrophobicity and insolubility (Cataldi et al.,
2020; K. Li et al., 2019a). Polyaleuritate is a polymer synthesized
from secretion of female Kerria lacca bugs seems to have good po-
tential properties with limited explorations and also in future it
could possibly revolutionize the packaging industries (Cataldi et al.,
2020).
The environmental awareness has forced many automobile in-
dustries to develop biocomposites that replaces traditional syn-
thetic materials in automobile applications. In this regard, FIAT
used wood floor filled door panels in FIAT Punto, Brava, etc.
(Mohammed et al., 2015). The practical applications of bio-
composites took place in the late twentieth century. Daimler-Benz
used coconut fibers in the body parts of commercial vehicles (John
and Thomas, 2008). Toyota’s first commercial vehicle involved the
use of PLA matrix from sweet potatoes and sugar cane reinforced
with kenaf fibers in its RAUM 2003 model spare tire cover (Cunha
et al., 2006). A similar application is seen in Audi A3, where the side
panel is made from hemp fiber reinforced biocomposite
(Akampumuza et al., 2017).
5.2.9. Future scope of biocomposites
Recently, a novel biocomposite is developed with combination
of poly (vinyl alchohol), chitosan and graphene oxide that can be
used for wound dressing application which is conformed through
VIVO experimentation. It is observed that it possess better anti-
microbial, anti-inflammatory property with extended cell prolif-
eration which is also proved to perform better than genipin
crosslinked PVA/chitosan film (S. Chen et al., 2020a). Presently,
chitosan is a potential material due to its biocompatibility with
living tissue and are widely employed in surgical and biomedical
application. Researches in chitosan based biocomposite will revo-
lutionize the medical treatments during trauma, bone fracture and
facilitate tissue healing. Similarly, chitosan is also used as absorbent
in various industrial and medical application. In a recent research,
chitosan derived from shrimp waste through lactic acid fermenta-
tion is combined with polymer matrix to form pellets and
employed in mini reactors to absorb copper ions from aqueous
solutions (Velasco-Gardun ~ o et al., 2020). In another research bio-
composite beads were developed from prawn shell chitosan and
kaolinite rich modified clay that are more prone to absorption of
heavy metals and dye from industrial effluents (Biswas et al., 2020).
It is observed chitosan has more potential effect on waste water
treatment to prevent contamination. Presently, various novel re-
searches and techniques are emerging for potential use of chitosan
as water treatments materials that will have high impact on marine
life in near future.
Apart from use of chitosan in water treatment, polyaniline
synthesized from almond shell through chemical copolymerization
has the ability to absorb chromium and orange G dye from aqueous
solutions. The composite can be regenerated and deployed again
for water treatment by treating them with NaOH (Hsini et al., 2020).
In present days, toxicated water bodies are a major concern faced
by various countries. It is very crucial to develop new water treat-
ment techniques with the help of biocomposites for the welfare of
living beings and to conserve the ecosystem efficiently.
Very recently biocomposites has extended its application to
energy sector. In a research, it is observed that glycol/boron nitride
with chitosan have capacity to store thermal energy (Jia et al.,
2020). In a similar way, it was discovered spent coffee grounds
incorporated with natural wax can be used as phase change ma-
terial for building and construction application (Yoo et al., 2019).
Mostly synthetic materials are used in energy field like storage of
electrical and thermal energy. To overcome this issue, researches of
biocomposites in this field are very limited. In future, further
research on biocomposites will overrule the use of traditional non
ecofriendly methods.
The industrial interest in biocomposites has been gradually
increasing over the last few decades. Insite of the significant
research done so far, they are yet to achieve full commercial po-
tential due to the industries increasing demands. Natural fibers
have a promising role in reducing the weight of automobiles thus,
increasing fuel efficiency. New efficient materials are developed by
hybridizing biocomposites. To create environmental awareness,
Ford introduced the U concept car in 2003, it is made entirely with
 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
eco-friendly materials. The UK based car lotus introduced Eco Elise
green technology at a British motor show in 2008. It’s made up of
bioplastics (PLA) from potatoes and sugarcane. Thus, it can be seen
that there are various industries focused on the green revolution to
reduce environmental hazards. Hence, green revolution continues
to produce completely fit commercial biocomposites for various
applications. Currently, environmental conservation has forced
global industries to focus on bio-based materials in which few in-
dustries are listed below.
 Toyota uses wood/cotton fiber, sisal and flax to make glove
boxes.
 Mercedes Benz uses sisal and flax to make interior door panels.
 Ford uses jute, coir, flax and sisal to make end cap in car.
 Daimler Chrysler uses flax to make pillar trims.
 General motors use hemp, kenaf and flax combined with poly-
propylene to make rear bumpers.
There are some limitations that concerns the use of bio-
composites in automobiles because of its durability and limited
mechanical strength. However, many researches are in process to
improve the durability and strength of biocomposite for effective
dynamic automobile applications. In this regard, many researchers
are involved in development of recyclability, machining and
tribological properties of biocomposites. In future, development of
durable light weight structures will improve fuel efficiency and
reduce global warming by minimizing the emissions of
automobiles.
6. Conclusion
Researchers, scientists, and academicians are more focused on
environmental conservation by developing sustainable bio-
materials to preserve earth. Biofibers are a powerful source of raw
materials obtained from various renewable resources and can be
used as a potential reinforcement in composites for industrial,
commercial and biomedical applications. Limitations such as
biocompatibility and hydrophilic nature can be resolved by per-
forming various surface modifications and chemical treatment
techniques. In this regard, properties of biomaterials can be tailored
so as to improve its mechanical, thermal and physiological perfor-
mance in versatile applications. Developments on the use of
protein-based silk fibers in tissue engineering and various
biomedical applications will revolutionize the medical sectors and
industrial sectors. Finding alternative resource, artificial syntheti-
zation of protein fibers, antibacterial fabrics and electronic sensors
obtained from biofibers will be explored more in near future.
Biopolymers are a better substitute for petroleum based syn-
thetic polymers because of its environmental friendliness, biode-
gradability and a renewable resource. However, the mechanical
properties of materials are not satisfactory when compared to
synthetic polymers and it requires more exploitation. Nowadays,
various techniques for property and structural enhancement in-
cludes addition of plasticizers, nanofillers, and coupling agent to
biopolymer and biopolymer blends. Various biopolymers namely
TPS, PVA, PLA, PHBV, Chitosan, epoxidized plant oils, poly-
saccharides are commercially used but possess major limitations
like gas permeability, moisture sensitive, low shelf life, low me-
chanical strength, prone to bacteria and fungi. In this regard,
nanomaterials as fillers plays a major role in tailoring the structural
and physical properties of biopolymers. It has revolutionized the
polymer technology and has drawn the interest of various in-
dustries to develop high-end commercial products for day to day
life.
The biobased materials are widely used in packaging, surgical
21
implants, automobiles, food products, drugs, electronics, con-
struction etc. In this regard, smart packaging, biosensors, antibac-
terial textiles and conductive biofibers are a ground breaking
exploration in bio-based materials. The use of appropriate plasti-
cizers and fillers have proved to influence various properties of the
biopolymer to perform better when used as composites. The major
problem that limits the performance of biopolymer-based com-
posites are improper dispersion of fillers and agglomerations. There
are several other factors like limited production, high cost, poor
recyclability and nonlinear mechanical strength that hinders the
extensive use of bio-based composites. Though there are certain
limitations, it has drawn much interest with expectation of future
constant development that reduces the use of traditional synthetic
materials and emission of greenhouse gases. The mechanical
properties of bio-composite is governed by the selection of
appropriate biopolymer, plasticizer, obtaining homogenous filler
dispersion, optimal filler quantity, optimum filler modification and
optimal interfacial bonding. The interfacial bonding is improved by
tailoring the functional group of reinforcements through physical
and chemical modification techniques. Explorations on the bio-
based materials for sustainable application is very limited. Scien-
tists, researchers and academicians should have a strong vision to
develop bio-based composites that will have no hazardous influ-
ence on the environment and ecosystem.
Currently, governments and industries are investing lot of funds
for developing applications on biofibers, biopolymers and bio-
composites through researches for enhancing its efficiency. It is
concluded that explorations on bio-based material technologies are
growing tremendously and in future it will be a potential resource
for many commercial and sustainable applications.
Declaration of competing interest
We have no conflict of interest to declare.
Acknowledgment
This project is funded by King Mongkut’s University of Tech-
nology North Bangkok, Grant no: KMUTNB-PHD- 62-01. This
research was partly supported by the King Mongkut’s University of
Technology North Bangkok with Grant No. KMUTNB-63-KNOW-
003.
References
Abu Bakar, N., Sultan, M.T.H., Azni, M.E., Ariffin, A.H., 2019. Investigation of the
mechanical properties of Napier-grass-reinforced composites for the aerospace
industry: a review. In: Durability and Life Prediction in Biocomposites, Fibre-
Reinforced Composites and Hybrid Composites. Woodhead Publishing,
pp. 321e334. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-102290-0.00014-3.
Adebayo, G.O., Hassan, A., Yahya, R., Muhamad Sarih, N., Odesanya, K.O., 2019.
Impact of water saturation on the tensile and thermal properties of heat-
treated mangrove/high-density polyethylene composites. J. Thermoplast.
Compos. Mater., 0892705719847238 https://doi.org/10.1177/
0892705719847238.
Adiera, N.R.H., Loh, K.S., Wong, W.Y., Yunus, R.M., Lee, T.K., Ahmad, A., Chong, S.T.,
2020. Review of chitosan-based polymers as proton exchange membranes and
roles of chitosan-supported ionic liquids. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 21, 632.
Aflori, M., Spiridon, M., Butnaru, M., Ma ^ndru, M., Laura, R., Darab a, O., Burlui, A.,
2019. Chitosan-based bionanocomposite for transdermal therapy. Int. J. Med.
Dent. 9, 40e45.
Ahmed, S., Sohail, M., Khan, S., Usman, M., Matas, M. De, Sikstone, V., Hussain, Z.,
Abbasi, M., Kousar, M., 2019. Biopolymer-based biomaterials for accelerated
diabetic wound healing : a critical review. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 139, 975e993.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.08.007.
Ahsan, H.M., Zhang, X., Liu, Y., Wang, Y., Li, Y., Li, B., Wang, J., Liu, S., 2020. Stable
cellular foams and oil powders derived from methylated microcrystalline cel-
lulose stabilized pickering emulsions. Food Hydrocolloids 105742. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.105742.
Akampumuza, O., Wambua, P.M., Ahmed, A., Li, W., Qin, X., 2017. Review of the
applications of biocomposites in the automotive industry. Polym. Compos. 38,
22 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
2553e2569. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.23847.
Akhavan-Kharazian, N., Izadi-Vasafi, H., 2019. Preparation and characterization of
chitosan/gelatin/nanocrystalline cellulose/calcium peroxide films for potential
wound dressing applications. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 133, 881e891. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.04.159.
Alves, D., Marques, A., Milho, C., Costa, M.J., Pastrana, L.M., Cerqueira, M.A.,
Sillankorva, S.M., 2019. Bacteriophage fIBB-PF7A loaded on sodium alginate-
based films to prevent microbial meat spoilage. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 291,
121e127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.11.026.
Amatosa, T.A., Loretero, M.E., Santos, R.B., Giduquio, M.B., 2019. Analysis of sea-
water treated laminated bamboo composite for structural application. Nat.
Environ. Pollut. Technol. 18, 307e312.
s, A., 2019. Rice husk-earth based composites: a
Antunes, A., Faria, P., Silva, V., Bra
novel bio-based panel for buildings refurbishment. Construct. Build. Mater. 221,
99e108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.06.074.
Arantes, A.C.C., Silva, L.E., Wood, D.F., Almeida, C. das G., Tonoli, G.H.D., Oliveira, J.E.
de, Silva, J.P. da, Williams, T.G., Orts, W.J., Bianchi, M.L., 2019. Bio-based thin
films of cellulose nanofibrils and magnetite for potential application in green
electronics. Carbohydr. Polym. 207, 100e107. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.carbpol.2018.11.081.
Arockiam, N.J., Jawaid, M., Saba, N., 2018. Sustainable bio composites for aircraft
components. In: Sustainable Composites for Aerospace Applications. Woodhead
Publishing, pp. 109e123. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-102131-6.00006-2.
Arthanarieswaran, V.P., Kumaravel, A., Saravanakumar, S.S., 2015. Physico-chemical
properties of alkali-treated Acacia leucophloea fibers. Int. J. Polym. Anal. Char.
20, 704e713. https://doi.org/10.1080/1023666X.2015.1081133.
Arun Prakash, V.R., Viswanthan, R., 2019. Fabrication and characterization of echi-
noidea spike particles and kenaf natural fibre-reinforced Azadirachta-Indica
blended epoxy multi-hybrid bio composite. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf.
118, 317e326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2019.01.008.
Azeredo, H.M.C., Barud, H., Farinas, C.S., vasconcellos, M vanessa, C, M.A., 2019.
Bacterial cellulose as a raw material for food and food packaging applications.
Embrapa Agroindústria Trop. em perio  dico indexado. https://doi.org/10.3389/
fsufs.2019.00007.
Azman, N.A.N., Islam, M.R., Parimalam, M., Rashidi, N.M., Mupit, M., 2019. Me-
chanical, structural, thermal and morphological properties of epoxy composites
filled with chicken eggshell and inorganic CaCO3 particles. Polym. Bull. 1e17.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-019-02779-y.
Aznar-Cervantes, S.D., Pagan, A., Monteagudo Santesteban, B., Cenis, J.L., 2019. Effect
of different cocoon stifling methods on the properties of silk fibroin bio-
materials. Sci. Rep. 9, 6703. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-43134-5.
Bachtiar, E.V., Kurkowiak, K., Yan, L., Kasal, B., Kolb, T., 2019. Thermal stability, fire
performance, and mechanical properties of natural fibre fabric-reinforced
polymer composites with different fire retardants. Polymers (Basel) 11, 699.
https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11040699.
Baghban, M.H., Mahjoub, R., 2020. Natural kenaf fiber and LC3 binder for sustain-
able fiber-reinforced cementitious composite: a review. Appl. Sci. 10, 357.
https://doi.org/10.3390/APP10010357.
Bajpai, P.K., Singh, I., Madaan, J., 2012. Comparative studies of mechanical and
morphological properties of polylactic acid and polypropylene based natural
fiber composites. J. Reinforc. Plast. Compos. 31, 1712e1724. https://doi.org/
10.1177/0731684412447992.
Bajwa, D.S., Adhikari, S., Shojaeiarani, J., Bajwa, S.G., Pandey, P., Shanmugam, S.R.,
2019. Characterization of bio-carbon and ligno-cellulosic fiber reinforced bio-
composites with compatibilizer. Construct. Build. Mater. 204, 193e202.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.068.
Balaji, A.N., Nagarajan, K.J., 2017. Characterization of alkali treated and untreated
new cellulosic fiber from Saharan aloe vera cactus leaves. Carbohydr. Polym.
174, 200e208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.06.065.
Barber, F.A., Dockery, W.D., 2020. Biocomposite interference screws in anterior
cruciate ligament reconstruction: osteoconductivity and degradation. Arthrosc.
Sport. Med. Rehabil. 1e6 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asmr.2019.10.001.
Barbhuiya, A.H., Ismail, K., 2016. Effect of fiber length and loading on the properties
of Schumannianthus dichotomus (murta) fiberereinforced epoxy composites.
Int. J. Polym. Anal. Char. 21, 221e227. https://doi.org/10.1080/
1023666X.2016.1139282.
Basu, G., Mishra, L., Samanta, A.K., 2019. Appropriate bleaching technique for co-
conut fiber. J. Nat. Fibers 16, 442e452. https://doi.org/10.1080/
15440478.2017.1423263.
Battegazzore, D., Abt, T., Maspoch, M.L., Frache, A., 2019. Multilayer cotton fabric
bio-composites based on PLA and PHB copolymer for industrial load carrying
applications. Compos. B Eng. 163, 761e768. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.compositesb.2019.01.057.
Beck, B.H., Yildirim, M., Craig, A.S., Adam, F.S., Eric, P., 2019. Antimicrobial activity of
the biopolymer chitosan against Streptococcus iniae. J. Fish. Dis. 42, 371e377.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jfd.12938.
Beigbeder, J., Soccalingame, L., Perrin, D., Be ne
zet, J.C., Bergeret, A., 2019. How to
manage biocomposites wastes end of life? A life cycle assessment approach
(LCA) focused on polypropylene (PP)/wood flour and polylactic acid (PLA)/flax
fibres biocomposites. Waste Manag. 83, 184e193. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.wasman.2018.11.012.
Bharath, K.N., Manjunatha, G.B., Santhosh, K., 2019. Failure analysis and the optimal
toughness design of sheepewool reinforced epoxy composites. In: Failure
Analysis in Biocomposites, Fibre-Reinforced Composites and Hybrid Compos-
ites. Woodhead Publishing, pp. 97e107. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-
102293-1.00005-x.
Bhushan, B., Kumar, R., 2019. Plasma treated and untreated thermoplastic bio-
polymers/biocomposites in tissue engineering and biodegradable implants. In:
Materials for Biomedical Engineering. Elsevier Inc., pp. 339e369. https://
doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816901-8.00011-0
Biswas, S., Rashid, T.U., Debnath, T., Haque, P., Mohammed, Rahman, M., 2020.
Application of chitosan-clay biocomposite beads for removal of heavy metal
and dye from industrial effluent. J. Compos. Sci. 4, 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/
jcs4010016.
Bora, A., Mishra, P., 2019. Casein and Ag nanoparticles: synthesis, characterization,
and their application in biopolymer-based bilayer film. J. Food Process. Preserv.
14062 https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.14062.
Brindha, R., Narayana, C.K., Vijayalakshmi, V., Nachane, R.P., 2019. Effect of different
retting processes on yield and quality of banana pseudostem fiber. J. Nat. Fibers
16, 58e67. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2017.1401505.
Burrola-Nún ~ ez, H., Herrera-Franco, P.J., Rodríguez-Fe lix, D.E., Soto-Valdez, H.,
Madera-Santana, T.J., 2019. Surface modification and performance of jute fibers
as reinforcement on polymer matrix: an overview. J. Nat. Fibers 16, 944e960.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2018.1441093.
Cataldi, P., Cassinelli, M., Heredia-Guerrero, J.A., Guzman-Puyol, S., Naderizadeh, S.,
Athanassiou, A., Caironi, M., 2020. Green biocomposites for thermoelectric
wearable applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 30, 1907301. https://doi.org/10.1002/
adfm.201907301.
Chaitanya, S., Singh, I., Song, J. Il, 2019. Recyclability analysis of PLA/Sisal fiber
biocomposites. Compos. B Eng. 173, 106895. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.compositesb.2019.05.106.
Chalermthai, B., Chan, W.Y., Bastidas-Oyanedel, J.R., Taher, H., Olsen, B.D.,
Schmidt, J.E., 2019. Preparation and characterization of whey protein-based
polymers produced from residual dairy streams. Polymers (Basel) 11, 722.
https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11040722.
Chandrasekar, M., Ishak, M.R., Sapuan, S.M., Leman, Z., Jawaid, M., 2017. A review on
the characterisation of natural fibres and their composites after alkali treatment
and water absorption. Plast. Rubber Compos. 46, 119e136. https://doi.org/
10.1080/14658011.2017.1298550.
Chatha, S.A.S., Asgher, M., Asgher, R., Hussain, A.I., Iqbal, Y., Hussain, S.M., Bilal, M.,
Saleem, F., Iqbal, H.M.N., 2019. Environmentally responsive and anti-bugs
textile finishes e recent trends, challenges, and future perspectives. Sci. Total
Environ. 690, 667e682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.520.
Chaudhary, V., Bajpai, P.K., Maheshwari, S., 2018. Studies on mechanical and
morphological characterization of developed jute/hemp/flax reinforced hybrid
composites for structural applications. J. Nat. Fibers 15, 80e97. https://doi.org/
10.1080/15440478.2017.1320260.
Chee, S.S., Jawaid, M., Sultan, M.T.H., Alothman, O.Y., Abdullah, L.C., 2019. Thermo-
mechanical and dynamic mechanical properties of bamboo/woven kenaf mat
reinforced epoxy hybrid composites. Compos. B Eng. 163, 165e174. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.11.039.
Chen, H., Lin, Z., Tan, C., 2019. Classification of different animal fibers by near
infrared spectroscopy and chemometric models. Microchem. J. 144, 489e494.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2018.10.011.
Chen, S., Wang, H., Jian, Z., Fei, G., Qian, W., Luo, G., Wang, Z., Xia, H., 2020a. Novel
poly(vinyl alcohol)/chitosan/modified graphene oxide biocomposite for wound
dressing application. Macromol. Biosci. 1900385. https://doi.org/10.1002/
mabi.201900385.
Chen, Y., Li, Q., Li, Y., Zhang, Q., Huang, J., Wu, Q., Wang, S., 2020b. Fabrication of
cellulose nanocrystal - g - poly ( acrylic acid - Co - acrylamide ) aerogels for
efficient Pb ( II ) removal. Polymers (Basel) 12, 333. https://doi.org/10.3390/
polym12020333.
Cheng, L., Huang, H., Zeng, J., Liu, Z., Tong, X., Li, Z., Zhao, H., Dai, F., 2019. Effect of
different additives in diets on secondary structure, thermal and mechanical
properties of silkworm silk. Materials (Basel) 12, 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ma12010014.
Cheung, H. yan, Ho, M. po, Lau, K. tak, Cardona, F., Hui, D., 2009. Natural fibre-
reinforced composites for bioengineering and environmental engineering ap-
plications. Compos. B Eng. 40, 655e663. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.compositesb.2009.04.014.
Coelho de Carvalho Benini, K.C., Voorwald, H.J.C., Cioffi, M.O.H., Milanese, A.C.,
Ornaghi, H.L., 2017. Characterization of a new lignocellulosic fiber from Brazil:
imperata brasiliensis (Brazilian satintail) as an alternative source for nano-
cellulose extraction. J. Nat. Fibers 14, 112e125. https://doi.org/10.1080/
15440478.2016.1167647.
Costa, F., Silva, R., Boccaccini, A.R., 2018. Fibrous protein-based biomaterials (silk,
keratin, elastin, and resilin proteins) for tissue regeneration and repair. In:
Peptides and Proteins as Biomaterials for Tissue Regeneration and Repair.
Elsevier Ltd., pp. 175e204. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100803-4.00007-
3
Costa, S.A., Ceron, A.A., Petreca, B.B., Costa, S.M., 2020. Fibers of cellulose sugarcane
bagasse with bromelain enzyme immobilized to application in dressing. SN
Appl. Sci. 2, 285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2100-1.
Cunha, A.G., Gandini, A., 2010. Turning polysaccharides into hydrophobic materials :
a critical review . Part 2 . Hemicelluloses , chitin/chitosan , starch , pectin and
alginates. Cellulose 17, 1045e1065. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-010-9435-5.
Cunha, A.M., Campos, A.R., Cristova ~o, C., Vila, C., Santos, V., Parajo
 , J.C., 2006. Sus-
tainable materials in automotive applications. Plast. Rubber Compos. 35,
233e241. https://doi.org/10.1179/174328906X146487.
Da Silva, D.C., Lopes, I.A., Da Silva, L.J.S., Lima, M.F., Barros Filho, A.K.D., Villa-
 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
Velez, H.A., Santana, A.A., 2019. Physical properties of films based on pectin and
babassu coconut mesocarp. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 130, 419e428. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.02.151.
Das, O., Kim, N.K., Hedenqvist, M.S., Bhattacharyya, D., Johansson, E., Xu, Q.,
Holder, S., 2019a. Naturally-occurring bromophenol to develop fi re retardant
gluten biopolymers. J. Clean. Prod. 243, 118552. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jclepro.2019.118552.
Das, O., Rasheed, F., Kim, N.K., Johansson, E., Capezza, A.J., Kalamkarov, A.L.,
Hedenqvist, M.S., 2019b. The development of fire and microbe resistant sus-
tainable gluten plastics. J. Clean. Prod. 222, 163e173. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jclepro.2019.03.032.
Deb, P.K., Kokaz, S.F., Abed, S.N., Paradkar, A., Tekade, R.K., 2019. Pharmaceutical and
biomedical applications of polymers. In: Basic Fundamentals of Drug Delivery.
Academic Press, pp. 203e267. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817909-
3.00006-6.
Díez-Pascual, A.M., 2019. Poly(propylene fumarate)-based biocomposites for tissue
engineering applications. In: Materials for Biomedical Engineering. Elsevier,
pp. 417e447. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-816874-5.00012-8.
Dobosz, A., Sikora, M., Krystyjan, M., Lach, R., Borczak, B., 2020. Influence of xanthan
gum on the short- and long-term retrogradation of potato starches of various
amylose content. Food Hydrocolloids 102, 105618. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.foodhyd.2019.105618.
Dominici, F., García García, D., Fombuena, V., Luzi, F., Puglia, D., Torre, L., Balart, R.,
2019. Bio-polyethylene-based composites reinforced with alkali and Palmitoyl
chloride-treated coffee Silverskin. Molecules 24, 3113. https://doi.org/10.3390/
molecules24173113.
Dorez, G., Ferry, L., Sonnier, R., Taguet, A., Lopez-Cuesta, J.-M., 2014. Effect of cel-
lulose , hemicellulose and lignin contents on pyrolysis and combustion of
natural fibers. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 107, 323e331. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jaap.2014.03.017.
Dumont, V.C., Mansur, H.S., Mansur, A.A.P., Carvalho, S.M., Capanema, N.S.V.,
Barrioni, B.R., 2016. Glycol chitosan/nanohydroxyapatite biocomposites for
potential bone tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Int. J. Biol. Mac-
romol. 93, 1465e1478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.04.030.
El-Hadi, A.M., 2019. Miscibility of crystalline/amorphous/crystalline biopolymer
blends from PLLA/PDLLA/PHB with additives. Polym. Plast. Technol. Eng. 58,
31e39. https://doi.org/10.1080/03602559.2018.1455863.
El-Shafei, A.M., Adel, A.M., Ibrahim, A.A., Al-Shemy, M.T., 2019. Dual functional jute
fabric biocomposite with chitosan and phosphorylated nano-cellulose (anti-
microbial and thermal stability). Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 124, 733e741. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.11.137.
Estevinho, B.N., Rocha, F., 2018. Application of biopolymers in microencapsulation
processes. In: Biopolymers for Food Design. Elsevier Inc., pp. 191e222. https://
doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811449-0/00007-4
Ezati, P., Rhim, J.-W., 2020. pH-responsive chitosan-based film incorporated with
alizarin for intelligent packaging applications. Food Hydrocolloids 102, 105629.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105629.
Fan, C., Cui, R., Lu, W., Chen, H., Yuan, M., Qin, Y., 2019. Effect of high pressure
treatment on properties and nanoeAg migration of PLA-based food packaging
film. Polym. Test. 76, 73e81. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.polymertesting.2019.03.005.
Fang, J., Huan, C., Liu, Y., Xu, L., Yan, Z., 2020. Bioconversion of agricultural waste into
poly- c -glutamic acid in solid-state bioreactors at different scales. Waste
Manag. 102, 939e948. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.12.016.
Farokhi, M., Shariatzadeh, F.J., Solouk, A., Mirzadeh, H., To, 2019. Alginate based
scaffolds for cartilage tissue Engineering : a review. Int. J. Polym. Mater. Polym.
Biomater. 69, 230e247. https://doi.org/10.1080/00914037.2018.1562924.
Faruk, O., Bledzki, A.K., Fink, H.P., Sain, M., 2012. Biocomposites reinforced with
natural fibers: 2000-2010. Prog. Polym. Sci. 37, 1552e1596. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2012.04.003.
Favero, D., Marcon, V., Barcellos, T., Go  mez, C.M., Sanchis, M.J., Carsí, M.,
Figueroa, C.A., Bianchi, O., 2019. Renewable polyol obtained by microwave-
assisted alcoholysis of epoxidized soybean oil: preparation, thermal proper-
ties and relaxation process. J. Mol. Liq. 285, 136e145. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.molliq.2019.04.078.
Fazeli, M., Florez, J.P., Sim~ao, R.A., 2019. Improvement in adhesion of cellulose fibers
to the thermoplastic starch matrix by plasma treatment modification. Compos.
B Eng. 163, 207e216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.11.048.
 Csisza
Fekete, E., Bella, E., r, E., Moczo , J., 2019. Improving physical properties and
retrogradation of thermoplastic starch by incorporating agar. Int. J. Biol. Mac-
romol. 136, 1026e1033. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.06.109.
ndez-Montero, A., Lieblich, M., Gonza
Ferra lez-Carrasco, J.L., Benavente, R.,
Lorenzo, V., Detsch, R., Boccaccini, A.R., Ferrari, B., 2019. Development of
biocompatible and fully bioabsorbable PLA/Mg films for tissue regeneration
applications. Acta Biomater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2019.05.026.
Ferreira, D.P., Cruz, J., Fangueiro, R., 2019. Surface modification of natural fibers in
polymer composites. In: Green Composites for Automotive Applications.
Woodhead Publishing, pp. 3e41. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-102177-
4.00001-x.
Finkenstadt, V.L., Liu, L., Willett, J.L., 2007. Evaluation of poly ( lactic acid ) and sugar
beet pulp green composites. J. Polym. Environ. 15, 1e6. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10924-006-0038-z.
Fombuena, V., Petrucci, R., Dominici, F., Jord a-Vilaplana, A., Montanes, N., Torre, L.,
2019. Maleinized linseed oil as epoxy resin hardener for composites with high
bio content obtained from linen byproducts. Polymers (Basel) 11, 301. https://
23
doi.org/10.3390/polym11020301.
Fonseca, A.S., Panthapulakkal, S., Konar, S.K., Sain, M., Bufalino, L., Raabe, J.,
Miranda, I.P.A., Martins, M.A., Tonoli, G.H.D., 2019. Improving cellulose nano-
fibrillation of non-wood fiber using alkaline and bleaching pre-treatments. Ind.
Crop. Prod. 131, 203e212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.01.046.
Fortunati, E., Armentano, I., Zhou, Q., Iannoni, A., Saino, E., Visai, L., Berglund, L.A.,
Kenny, J.M., 2012. Multifunctional bionanocomposite films of poly(lactic acid),
cellulose nanocrystals and silver nanoparticles. Carbohydr. Polym. 87,
1596e1605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2011.09.066.
Francis, A., Yang, Y., Boccaccini, A.R., 2019. A new strategy for developing chitosan
conversion coating on magnesium substrates for orthopedic implants. Appl.
Surf. Sci. 466, 854e862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.10.002.
Ganguly, A., Sharma, K., Majumder, K., 2020. Peptides as biopolymersdpast, pre-
sent, and future. In: Biopolymer-Based Formulations. Elsevier Inc., pp. 87e104.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816897-4.00004-7
Ganapathy, T., Sathiskumar, R., Senthamaraikannan, P., Saravanakumar, S.S.,
Khan, A., 2019. Characterization of raw and alkali treated new natural cellulosic
fibres extracted from the aerial roots of banyan tree. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 138,
573e581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.07.136.
Gaspar, M., Benko, Z., Dogossy, G., Re czey, K., Czigany, T., 2005. Reducing water
absorption in compostable starch-based plastics. Polym. Degrad. Stabil. 90,
563e569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2005.03.012.
Gavin, C., Verbeek, C.J.R., Lay, M.C., 2019. The role of plasticizers during protein
thermoplastic foaming. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 136, 47781. https://doi.org/10.1002/
app.47781.

Gavril, G.L., Wrona, M., Bertella, A., Swieca, M., Ra^pa, M., Salafranca, J., Nerín, C.,
2019. Influence of medicinal and aromatic plants into risk assessment of a new
bioactive packaging based on polylactic acid (PLA). Food Chem. Toxicol. 132,
110662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2019.110662.
Geyer, R., Jambeck, J.R., Law, K.L., 2017. Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever
made. Sci. Adv. 3, 1700782. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700782.
Gonza lez-Lopez, M.E., Pe rez-Fonseca, A.A., Cisneros-Lo pez, E.O., Manríquez-
Gonz alez, R., Ramírez-Arreola, D.E., Rodrigue, D., Robledo-Ortíz, J.R., 2019. Effect
of maleated PLA on the properties of rotomolded PLA-agave fiber bio-
composites. J. Polym. Environ. 27, 61e73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-018-
1308-2.
Gopi, S., Balakrishnan, P., Chandradhara, D., Poovathankandy, D., Thomas, S., 2019a.
General scenarios of cellulose and its use in the biomedical field. Mater. Today
Chem. 13, 59e78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtchem.2019.04.012.
Gopi, Sreerag, Pius, A., Kargl, R., Kleinschek, K.S., Thomas, S., 2019b. Fabrication of
cellulose acetate/chitosan blend films as efficient adsorbent for anionic water
pollutants. Polym. Bull. 76, 1557e1571. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-018-
2467-y.
€
Gurarslan, A., Ozdemir, _
B., Bayat, I.H., Yelten, M.B., Karabulut Kurt, G., 2019. Silver
nanowire coated knitted wool fabrics for wearable electronic applications.
J. Eng. Fiber. Fabr. 14 https://doi.org/10.1177/1558925019856222,
1558925019856222.
Gurukarthik Babu, B., Princewinston, D., SenthamaraiKannan, P.,
Saravanakumar, S.S., Sanjay, M.R., 2019. Study on characterization and physi-
cochemical properties of new natural fiber from Phaseolus vulgaris. J. Nat. Fi-
bers 16, 1035e1042. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2018.1448318.
Gurunathan, T., Mohanty, S., Nayak, S.K., 2015. A review of the recent developments
in biocomposites based on natural fibres and their application perspectives.
Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 77, 1e25. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.compositesa.2015.06.007.
Hendaw, Y., 2017. Stifling cocoons silkworms using butane gas mechanical dryer.
J. Soil Sci. Agric. Eng. 8, 149e156. https://doi.org/10.21608/jssae.2017.37240.
Heras-mozos, R., Muriel-galet, V., Lo pez-carballo, G., Catal a, R., Hern andez-
mun ~ oz, P., Gavara, R., 2019. International Journal of Food Microbiology Devel-
opment and optimization of antifungal packaging for sliced pan loaf based on
garlic as active agent and bread aroma as aroma corrector. Int. J. Food Microbiol.
290, 42e48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.09.024.
Hidalgo-Salazar, M.A., Salinas, E., 2019. Mechanical, thermal, viscoelastic perfor-
mance and product application of PP- rice husk Colombian biocomposites.
Compos. B Eng. 176, 107135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.107135.
Hijazi, N., Le Moigne, N., Rodier, E., Sauceau, M., Vincent, T., Benezet, J.C., Fages, J.,
2019. Biocomposite films based on poly(lactic acid) and chitosan nanoparticles:
elaboration, microstructural and thermal characterization. Polym. Eng. Sci. 59,
E350eE360. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.24983.
Hirvikorpi, T., V€ aha€-Nissi, M., Nikkola, J., Harlin, A., Karppinen, M., 2011. Thin Al2O3
barrier coatings onto temperature-sensitive packaging materials by atomic
layer deposition. Surf. Coating. Technol. 205, 5088e5092. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.surfcoat.2011.05.017.
Hsini, A., Essekri, A., Aarab, N., Laabd, M., Addi, A.A., Lakhmiri, R., Albourine, A.,
2020. Elaboration of novel polyaniline @ Almond shell biocomposite for effec-
tive removal of hexavalent chromium ions and Orange G dye from aqueous
solutions. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 1e14.
Hu, Y., Yu, J., Liu, L., Fan, Y., 2019. Preparation of natural amphoteric silk nanofibers
by acid hydrolysis. J. Mater. Chem. B 7, 1450e1459. https://doi.org/10.1039/
c8tb03005g.
Huang, H., Dean, D., 2020. 3-D printed porous cellulose acetate tissue scaffolds for
additive manufacturing. Addit. Manuf. 31, 100927. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.addma.2019.100927.
Huang, J., Qin, J., Zhang, P., Chen, X., You, X., Zhang, F., Zuo, B., Yao, M., 2020. Facile
preparation of a strong chitosan-silk biocomposite film. Carbohydr. Polym. 229,
24 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
115515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.115515.
Huda, S., Yang, Y., 2009. Feather fiber reinforced light-weight composites with good
acoustic properties. J. Polym. Environ. 17, 131e142. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10924-009-0130-2.
Idicula, M., Boudenne, A., Umadevi, L., Ibos, L., Candau, Y., Thomas, S., 2006. Ther-
mophysical properties of natural fibre reinforced polyester composites. Com-
pos. Sci. Technol. 66, 2719e2725. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.compscitech.2006.03.007.
Ilyas, R.A., Sapuan, S.M., Ibrahim, R., Abral, H., Ishak, M.R., Zainudin, E.S., Asrofi, M.,
Atikah, M.S.N., Huzaifah, M.R.M., Radzi, A.M., Azammi, A.M.N.,
Shaharuzaman, M.A., Nurazzi, N.M., Syafri, E., Sari, N.H., Norrrahim, M.N.F.,
Jumaidin, R., 2019. Sugar palm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb.) Merr) cellulosic fibre
hierarchy: a comprehensive approach from macro to nano scale. J. Mater. Res.
Technol. 8, 2753e2766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.04.011.
Indran, S., Raj, R.E., 2015. Characterization of new natural cellulosic fiber from Cissus
quadrangularis stem. Carbohydr. Polym. 117, 392e399. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.carbpol.2014.09.072.
Jebadurai, S.G., Raj, R.E., Sreenivasan, V.S., Binoj, J.S., 2019. Comprehensive charac-
terization of natural cellulosic fi ber from Coccinia grandis stem. Carbohydr.
Polym. 207, 675e683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.12.027.
Jena, H., 2019. Study of tribo-performance and application of polymer composite.
In: Katiyar, J.K., Bhattacharya, S., Patel, V.K., Kumar, V. (Eds.), Automotive
Tribology. Springer, Singapore, pp. 65e99.
Jia, T., Wang, Y., Dou, Y., Li, Y., Jung de Andrade, M., Wang, R., Fang, S., Li, J., Yu, Z.,
Qiao, R., Liu, Zhuangjian, Cheng, Y., Su, Y., Minary-Jolandan, M., Baughman, R.H.,
Qian, D., Liu, Zunfeng, 2019. Moisture sensitive smart yarns and textiles from
self-balanced silk fiber muscles. Adv. Funct. Mater. 29, 1808241. https://doi.org/
10.1002/adfm.201808241.
Jia, X., Li, Q., Ao, C., Hu, R., Xia, T., Xue, Z., Wang, Q., Deng, X., Zhang, W., Lu, C., 2020.
High thermal conductive shape-stabilized phase change materials of poly-
ethylene glycol/boron nitride@chitosan composites for thermal energy storage.
Compos. Part A 129, 105710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2019.105710.
John, M.J., Thomas, S., 2008. Biofibres and biocomposites. Carbohydr. Polym. 71,
343e364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2007.05.040.
Jung, J.S., Song, K.H., Kim, S.H., 2019. Mechanical properties and biodegradability of
enzyme-retted kenaf fiber composites. Textil. Res. J. 89, 1782e1791. https://
doi.org/10.1177/0040517518779996.
Kabir, M.M., Wang, H., Lau, K.T., Cardona, F., 2012. Chemical treatments on plant-
based natural fibre reinforced polymer composites: an overview. Compos. B
Eng. 43, 2883e2892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2012.04.053.
Kakati, N., Assanvo, E.F., Kalita, D., 2019. Alkalinization and graft copolymerization
of pineapple leaf fiber cellulose and evaluation of physic-chemical properties.
Polym. Compos. 40, 1395e1403. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.24873.
Karakoti, A., Biswas, S., Aseer, J.R., Sindhu, N., Sanjay, M.R., 2018. Characterization of
microfiber isolated from Hibiscus sabdariffa var. altissima fiber by steam ex-
plosion. J. Nat. Fibers 1e10. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2018.1477085.
Karakurt, I., Ozaltin, K., Vesela, D., Lehocky, M., Humpolí
cek, P., Miran, M., 2019.
Antibacterial activity and cytotoxicity of immobilized glucosamine/chondroitin
sulfate on polylactic acid films. Polymers (Basel) 11, 1186. https://doi.org/
10.3390/polym11071186.
Kathirselvam, M., Kumaravel, A., Arthanarieswaran, V.P., Saravanakumar, S.S., 2019a.
Isolation and characterization of cellulose fibers from Thespesia populnea
barks: a study on physicochemical and structural properties. Int. J. Biol. Mac-
romol. 129, 396e406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.02.044.
Kathirselvam, M., Kumaravel, A., Arthanarieswaran, V.P., Saravanakumar, S.S.,
2019b. Assessment of cellulose in bark fibers of Thespesia populnea: influence
of stem maturity on fiber characterization. Carbohydr. Polym. 212, 439e449.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.02.072.
Kato, K., Vasilets, V.N., Fursa, M.N., Meguro, M., Ikada, Y., Nakamae, K., 1999. Surface
oxidation of cellulose fibers by Vacuum ultraviolet irradiation. J. Polym. Sci. Part
A Polym. Chem. 37, 357e361. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-
0518(19990201)37:3<357::AID-POLA13>3.0.CO;2-2.
Kengkhetkit, N., Amornsakchai, T., 2012. Utilisation of pineapple leaf waste for
plastic reinforcement: 1. A novel extraction method for short pineapple leaf
fiber. Ind. Crop. Prod. 40, 55e61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.02.037.
Khalili, P., Liu, X., Tshai, K.Y., Rudd, C., Yi, X., Kong, I., 2019. Development of fire
retardancy of natural fiber composite encouraged by a synergy between zinc
borate and ammonium polyphosphate. Compos. B Eng. 159, 165e172. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.09.036.
Kluge, J.A., Rabotyagova, O., Leisk, G.G., Kaplan, D.L., 2008. Spider silks and their
applications. Trends Biotechnol. 26, 244e251. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.tibtech.2008.02.006.
Koh, L., Cheng, Y., Teng, C., Khin, Y., Loh, X., Tee, S., Low, M., Ye, E., Yu, H., Zhang, Y.,
Han, M., 2015. Structures , mechanical properties and applications of silk fibroin
materials. Prog. Polym. Sci. 46, 86e110. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.progpolymsci.2015.02.001.
Kommula, V.P., Reddy, K.O., Shukla, M., Marwala, T., Rajulu, A.V., 2013. Physico-
chemical, tensile, and thermal characterization of napier grass (native african)
fiber strands. Int. J. Polym. Anal. Char. 18, 303e314. https://doi.org/10.1080/
1023666X.2013.784935.
Kommula, V.P., Reddy, K.O., Shukla, M., Marwala, T., Reddy, E.V.S., Rajulu, A.V., 2016.
Extraction, modification, and characterization of natural ligno-cellulosic fiber
strands from napier grass. Int. J. Polym. Anal. Char. 21, 18e28. https://doi.org/
10.1080/1023666X.2015.1089650.
Koradiya, S.B., Patel, J.P., Parsania, P.H., 2010. The preparation and physicochemical
study of glass, jute and hybrid glass-jute bisphenol-C-based epoxy resin com-
posites. Polym. Plast. Technol. Eng. 49, 1445e1449. https://doi.org/10.1080/
03602559.2010.496409.
Krasniewsk, K., Galus, S., Gniewosz, M., 2020. Biopolymers - based materials con-
taining silver nanoparticles as active packaging for food applications e a review.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 21, 698. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21030698.
Krishnan, T., Jayabal, S., Krishna, V.N., 2018. Tensile, flexural, impact, and hardness
properties of alkaline-treated Sunnhemp fiber reinforced polyester composites.
J. Nat. Fibers 1e11. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2018.1492488.
Kumaar, A.S., Senthilkumar, A., Sornakumar, T., Saravanakumar, S.S.,
Arthanariesewaran, V.P., 2019. Physicochemical properties of new cellulosic
fiber extracted from Carica papaya bark. J. Nat. Fibers 16, 175e184. https://
doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2017.1410514.
Kumar, R., Ul Haq, M.I., Raina, A., Anand, A., 2019a. Industrial applications of natural
fibre-reinforced polymer compositesechallenges and opportunities. Int. J.
Sustain. Eng. 12, 212e220. https://doi.org/10.1080/19397038.2018.1538267.
Kumar, S., Nehra, M., Kedia, D., Dilbaghi, N., Tankeshwar, K., Kim, K.-H., 2019b.
Nanotechnology-based biomaterials for orthopaedic applications: recent ad-
vances and future prospects. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 106, 110154. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.msec.2019.110154.
Labidi, K., Cao, Z., Zrida, M., Murphy, A., Hamzaoui, A.H., Devine, D.M., 2019. Alfa
fiber/polypropylene composites: influence of fiber extraction method and
chemical treatments. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 136, 47392. https://doi.org/10.1002/
app.47392.
Laranjeira, E., De Carvalho, L.H., Silva, S.M.D.L., D’Almeida, J.R.M., 2006. Influence of
fiber orientation on the mechanical properties of polyester/jute composites.
J. Reinforc. Plast. Compos. 25, 1269e1278. https://doi.org/10.1177/
0731684406060577.
Lavery, L.A., Bhavan, K., Wukich, D.K., 2019. Biofilm and diabetic foot ulcer healing:
all hat and no cattle. Ann. Transl. Med. 7 https://doi.org/10.21037/
atm.2019.03.33.
Lemeune, S., Jameel, H., Chang, H.M., Kadla, J.F., 2004. Effects of ozone and chlorine
dioxide on the chemical properties of cellulose fibers. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 93,
1219e1223. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.20509.
Li, K., Zhang, W.W., Shi, X.J., Liu, L.X., Li, Kai, Xu, J., Ma, J.J., Zhang, H., 2019a. Prep-
aration of novel mcl-PHA by green synthesis: influence of active small molecule
via esterification effect on side chain. Mater. Res. Express 6, 075328. https://
doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ab166c.
Li, Y.-B., Liu, H.-H., Wang, X.-C., Zhang, X.-X., 2019b. Fabrication and performance of
wool keratinefunctionalized graphene oxide composite fibers. Mater. Today
Sustain. 3, 100006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtsust.2019.100006.
Lila, M.K., Shukla, K., Komal, U.K., Singh, I., 2019. Accelerated thermal ageing
behaviour of bagasse fibers reinforced Poly (Lactic Acid) based biocomposites.
Compos. B Eng. 156, 121e127. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.compositesb.2018.08.068.
Liu, T., Peng, X.F., Mi, H.Y., Li, H., Turng, L.S., Xu, B.P., 2019a. Preparation of fast-
degrading poly(lactic acid)/soy protein concentrate biocomposite foams via
supercritical CO2 foaming. Polym. Eng. Sci. 59, 1753e1762. https://doi.org/
10.1002/pen.25175.
Liu, W., Chen, T., Fei, M. en, Qiu, R., Yu, D., Fu, T., Qiu, J., 2019b. Properties of natural
fiber-reinforced biobased thermoset biocomposites: effects of fiber type and
resin composition. Compos. B Eng. 171, 87e95. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.compositesb.2019.04.048.
Liu, Y., Xie, J., Wu, N., Wang, L., Ma, Y., Tong, J., 2019c. Influence of silane treatment
on the mechanical, tribological and morphological properties of corn stalk fiber
reinforced polymer composites. Tribol. Int. 131, 398e405. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.triboint.2018.11.004.
Luzi, F., Puglia, D., Torre, L., 2019. Natural fiber biodegradable composites and
nanocomposites: a biomedical application. In: Biomass, Biopolymer-Based
Materials, and Bioenergy. Woodhead Publishing, pp. 179e201. https://doi.org/
10.1016/b978-0-08-102426-3.00010-2.
Maache, M., Bezazi, A., Amroune, S., Scarpa, F., Dufresne, A., 2017. Characterization
of a novel natural cellulosic fiber from Juncus effusus. L. Carbohydr. Polym. 171,
163e172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.04.096.
Macha, I.J., Karacan, I., Ben-Nissan, B., Cazalbou, S., Müller, W.H., 2019. Development
of antimicrobial composite coatings for drug release in dental, orthopaedic and
neural prostheses applications. SN Appl. Sci. 1, 68. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s42452-018-0064-1.
Machado, G., Santos, F., Lourega, R., Mattia, J., Faria, D., Eichler, P., Auler, A., 2020.
Biopolymers from lignocellulosic biomass: feedstocks, production processes,
and applications. In: Lignocellulosic Biorefining Technologies, pp. 125e158.
Madhu, P., Sanjay, M.R., Pradeep, S., Subrahmanya Bhat, K., Yogesha, B., Siengchin, S.,
2019. Characterization of cellulosic fibre from Phoenix pusilla leaves as po-
tential reinforcement for polymeric composites. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 8,
2597e2604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.03.006.
Mangaraj, S., Mohanty, S., Swain, S., Yadav, A., 2019a. Development and character-
ization of commercial biodegradable film from PLA and corn starch for fresh
produce packaging. J. Packag. Technol. Res. 3, 127e140. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s41783-019-00055-y.
Mangaraj, S., Yadav, A., Bal, L.M., Dash, S.K., Mahanti, N.K., 2019b. Application of
biodegradable polymers in food packaging industry: a comprehensive review.
J. Packag. Technol. Res. 3, 77e96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41783-018-0049-y.
Manimaran, P., Senthamaraikannan, P., Sanjay, M.R., Marichelvam, M.K., Jawaid, M.,
2018. Study on characterization of Furcraea foetida new natural fi ber as
composite reinforcement for lightweight applications. Carbohydr. Polym. 181,
 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
650e658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.11.099.
Manimaran, P., Saravanan, S.P., Prithiviraj, M., 2019a. Investigation of physico
chemical properties and characterization of new natural cellulosic fibers from
the bark of Ficus Racemosa. J. Nat. Fibers 1e11. https://doi.org/10.1080/
15440478.2019.1621233.
Manimaran, P., Saravanan, S.P., Sanjay, M.R., Siengchin, S., Jawaid, M., Khan, A.,
2019b. Characterization of new cellulosic fiber: Dracaena reflexa as a rein-
forcement for polymer composite structures. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 8,
1952e1963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2018.12.015.
Masood, A., Shoukat, Z., Yousaf, Z., Sana, M., Faisal Iqbal, M., Rehman, A.R., Sultana, I.,
Razaq, A., 2019. High capacity natural fiber coated conductive and electroactive
composite papers electrode for energy storage applications. J. Appl. Polym. Sci.
136, 47282. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.47282.
Mazerolles, T., Heuzey, M.C., Soliman, M., Martens, H., Kleppinger, R.,
Huneault, M.A., 2019. Development of co-continuous morphology in blends of
thermoplastic starch and low-density polyethylene. Carbohydr. Polym. 206,
757e766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.11.038.
Mazzanti, V., Pariante, R., Bonanno, A., Ruiz de Ballesteros, O., Mollica, F.,
Filippone, G., 2019. Reinforcing mechanisms of natural fibers in green com-
posites: role of fibers morphology in a PLA/hemp model system. Compos. Sci.
Technol. 180, 51e59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2019.05.015.
Mehta, M.J., Kumar, A., 2019. Ionic liquid stabilized gelatinelignin films: a potential
UV-shielding material with excellent mechanical and antimicrobial properties.
Chem. Eur J. 25, 1269e1274. https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.201803763.
Mei, S., Yang, L., Pan, Y., Wang, D., Wang, X., Tang, T., Wei, J., 2019. Influences of
tantalum pentoxide and surface coarsening on surface roughness, hydrophi-
licity, surface energy, protein adsorption and cell responses to PEEK based
biocomposite. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces 174, 207e215. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.colsurfb.2018.10.081.
Mie˛ kos, E., Zielin
 ski, M., Kołodziejczyk, K., Jaksender, M., 2019. Application of in-
dustrial and biopolymers waste to stabilise the subsoil of road surfaces. Road
Mater. Pavement Des. 20, 440e543. https://doi.org/10.1080/
14680629.2017.1389766.
Miyashiro, D., Hamano, R., Umemura, K., 2020. A review of applications using mixed
materials of cellulose, nanocellulose and carbon nanotubes. Nanomaterials 10,
186. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano10020186.
Mohammad, F., Arfin, T., Bwatanglang, I.B., Al-lohedan, H.A., 2019a. Starch-based
nanocomposites: types and industrial applications. In: Bio-Based Polymers and
Nanocomposites, pp. 157e181. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05825-8_8.
Mohammad, M.H., Le guen, M.J., Nick, G., Kate, T., 2019b. Thermo-mechanical ,
morphological and water absorption properties of thermoplastic starch/cellu-
lose composite foams reinforced with PLA. Cellulose 26, 4463e4478. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s10570-019-02393-1.
Mohammed, L., Ansari, M.N.M., Pua, G., Jawaid, M., Islam, M.S., 2015. A review on
natural fiber reinforced polymer composite and its applications. Int. J. Polym.
Sci. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/243947.
Mohan, T.P., Kanny, K., 2019a. Compressive characteristics of unmodified and
nanoclay treated banana fiber reinforced epoxy composite cylinders. Compos. B
Eng. 169, 118e125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.03.071.
Mohan, T.P., Kanny, K., 2019b. Tribological properties of nanoclay-infused banana
fiber reinforced epoxy composites. J. Tribol. 141, 052003 https://doi.org/10.1115/
1.4042873.
Mohd Aris, Z.F., Bavishi, V., Sharma, R., Nagarajan, R., 2019. Barrier properties and
abrasion resistance of biopolymer-based coatings on biodegradable poly(lactic
acid) films. Polym. Eng. Sci. 59, 1874e1881. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.25187.
Moqeet Hai, A., Ahmed, M., Afzal, A., Jabbar, A., Faheem, S., 2019. Characterization
and antibacterial property of Kapok fibers treated with chitosan/AgCleTiO 2
colloid. J. Text. Inst. 110, 100e104. https://doi.org/10.1080/
00405000.2018.1466629.
Mukheem, A., Shahabuddin, S., Akbar, N., Anwar, A., Sarih, N.M., Sudesh, K.,
Khan, N.A., Sridewi, N., 2020. Fabrication of biopolymer polyhydroxyalkanoate/
chitosan and 2D molybdenum disulfide e doped scaffolds for antibacterial and
biomedical applications. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 1e11.
Muneer, F., Johansson, E., Hedenqvist, M.S., Plivelic, S.T., Ramun, K., 2019. Impact of
pH modification on protein polymerization and structure e function relation-
ships in potato protein and wheat gluten composites. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 20, 58.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20010058.
Murawski, A., Diaz, R., Inglesby, S., Delabar, K., Quirino, R.L., 2019. Synthesis of bio-
based polymer composites: fabrication, fillers, properties, and challenges. In:
Polymer Nanocomposites in Biomedical Engineering. Springer, pp. 29e55.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04741-2_2.
Muthuraj, R., Misra, M., Mohanty, A.K., 2017a. Biocomposite consisting of mis-
canthus fiber and biodegradable binary blend matrix: compatibilization and
performance evaluation. RSC Adv. 7, 27538e27548. https://doi.org/10.1039/
c6ra27987b.
Muthuraj, R., Misra, M., Mohanty, A.K., 2017b. Reactive compatibilization and per-
formance evaluation of miscanthus biofiber reinforced poly(hydroxybutyrate-
co-hydroxyvalerate) biocomposites. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 134 https://doi.org/
10.1002/app.44860.
Muthuraj, R., Misra, M., Mohanty, A.K., 2017c. Biodegradable biocomposites from
poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) and miscanthus: preparation, compa-
tibilization, and performance evaluation. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 134, 45448. https://
doi.org/10.1002/app.45448.
Muthuraj, R., Lacoste, C., Lacroix, P., Bergeret, A., 2019. Sustainable thermal insu-
lation biocomposites from rice husk, wheat husk, wood fibers and textile waste
25
fibers: elaboration and performances evaluation. Ind. Crop. Prod. 135, 238e245.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.04.053.
Madalina, Preda, Mircea-Ioan, P., Mara, M.M., Alina, A.Ş., Alina, M.H., 2019. Natural
fibers in beverages packaging. In: Trends in Beverage Packaging. Academic
Press., pp. 409e424. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816683-3.00014-1
Nader, S., Ibrahim, H., Patrick, S., Igor, K., Randolph, L., Ishac, K., 2019. Spider silk
fibers: synthesis, characterization, and related biomedical applications. In:
Materials for Biomedical Engineering. Elsevier Inc., pp. 289e307. https://
doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816872-1.00010-8
Nagalakshmaiah, M., Afrin, S., Malladi, R.P., Elkoun, S., Robert, M., Ansari, M.A.,
Svedberg, A., Karim, Z., 2019. Biocomposites: present trends and challenges for
the future. In: Green Composites for Automotive Applications. Woodhead
Publishing, pp. 197e215. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102177-4.00009-4.
NagarajaGanesh, B., Muralikannan, R., 2016. Physico-chemical, thermal, and flexural
characterization of Cocos nucifera fibers. Int. J. Polym. Anal. Char. 21, 244e250.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1023666X.2016.1139359.
Nagarajan, K.J., Balaji, A.N., Ramanujam, N.R., 2019a. Extraction of cellulose nano-
fibers from cocos nucifera var aurantiaca peduncle by ball milling combined
with chemical treatment. Carbohydr. Polym. 212, 312e322. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.02.063.
Nagarajan, S., Radhakrishnan, S., Kalkura, S.N., Balme, S., Miele, P., Bechelany, M.,
2019b. Overview of protein-based biopolymers for biomedical application.
Macromol. Chem. Phys. https://doi.org/10.1002/macp.201900126, 1900126.
Navaneethakrishnan, G., Karthikeyan, T., Saravanan, S., Selvam, V., Parkunam, N.,
Sathishkumar, G., Jayakrishnan, S., 2019. Structural analysis of natural fiber
reinforced polymer matrix composite. Mater. Today Proc. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matpr.2019.05.295.
Naveen, J., Jawaid, M., Zainudin, E.S., Sultan, M.T.H., Yahaya, R., 2019. Improved
interlaminar shear behaviour of a new hybrid kevlar/cocos nucifera sheath
composites with graphene nanoplatelets modified epoxy matrix. Fibers Polym.
20, 1749e1753. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12221-019-3127-z.
Nevoralova , M., Koutný, M., Uj
ci
c, A., Horak, P., Kredatusova
a
, J., Ser , J., R
u

zek, L.,
Ru
zkova, M., Krej


, S., Slouf,
cíkova M., Kruli
s, Z., 2019. Controlled biodegrad-
ability of functionalized thermoplastic starch based materials. Polym. Degrad.
Stabil. 170, 108995. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2019.108995.
Ngaowthong, C., Bor uvka, M., Be
h 

alek, L., Lenfeld, P., Svec, M., Dangtungee, R.,
Siengchin, S., Rangappa, S.M., Parameswaranpillai, J., 2019. Recycling of sisal
fiber reinforced polypropylene and polylactic acid composites: thermo-
mechanical properties, morphology, and water absorption behavior. Waste
Manag. 97, 71e81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.07.038.
Oksman, K., Skrifvars, M., Selin, J.F., 2003. Natural fibres as reinforcement in poly-
lactic acid (PLA) composites. Compos. Sci. Technol. 63, 1317e1324. https://
doi.org/10.1016/S0266-3538(03)00103-9.
Oudrhiri Hassani, F., Merbahi, N., Oushabi, A., Elfadili, M.H., Kammouni, A.,
Oueldna, N., 2019. Effects of corona discharge treatment on surface and me-
chanical properties of Aloe Vera fibers. Mater. Today Proc. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matpr.2019.07.527.
Payal, R., 2019. Reliable Natural-Fibre Augmented Biodegraded Polymer Compos-
ites, Sustainable Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites. Springer, Cham.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05399-4_33.
Peng, X., Du, F., Zhong, L., 2019. Synthesis, characterization, and applications of
hemicelluloses based eco-friendly polymer composites. In: Sustainable Polymer
Composites and Nanocomposites. springer, cham, pp. 1267e1322.
Pilar, H.-M., Josep, P.C., Irene, D., Gracia, L.-C., Ramon, C., Rafael, G., 2019. Nano-
technology in food packaging. In: Nanomaterials for Food Applications. Elsevier,
pp. 205e232. https://doi.org/10.1039/9781782626879-00118.
Pranata, M.P., Gonza lez-Buesa, J., Chopra, S., Kim, K., Pietri, Y., Ng, P.K.W.,
Matuana, L.M., Almenar, E., 2019. Egg white protein film production through
extrusion and calendering processes and its suitability for food packaging ap-
plications. Food Bioprocess Technol. 12, 714e727. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11947-019-2248-0.
Priyadarsini, M., Biswal, T., Dash, S., 2019. Sustainable biocomposite its manufa-
turing processes and applications. Egypt. J. Chem. 62, 751e766. https://doi.org/
10.21608/EJCHEM.2018.4669.1440.
Putri, N., Hajar, S., Kadir, R., Talib, R.A., 2020. Characterization of polylactic acid/
halloysite nanotubes bionanocomposite fi lms for food packaging. Food Packag.
Shelf Life 23, 100450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fpsl.2019.100450.
Rabe, S., Sanchez-Olivares, G., Pe rez-Cha vez, R., Schartel, B., 2019. Natural keratin
and coconut fibres from industrial wastes in flame retarded thermoplastic
starch biocomposites. Materials (Basel) 12, 344. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ma12030344.
Ramamoorthy, S.K., Skrifvars, M., Persson, A., 2015. A review of natural fibers used
in biocomposites: plant, animal and regenerated cellulose fibers. Polym. Rev.
55, 107e162. https://doi.org/10.1080/15583724.2014.971124.
Ramanaiah, K., Ratna Prasad, A.V., Hema Chandra Reddy, K., 2011. Thermal and
mechanical properties of sansevieria green fiber reinforcement. Iternational J.
Polym. Anal. Charact. 16, 602e608. https://doi.org/10.1080/
1023666X.2011.622358.
Rao, K.M.M., Rao, K.M., 2007. Extraction and tensile properties of natural fibers:
vakka, date and bamboo. Compos. Struct. 77, 288e295. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.compstruct.2005.07.023.
Ravindra, V.G., Prakash, A.M., Pradeep, T.G., 2019. Cross-linking of polyvinyl alcohol/
starch blends by epoxy silane for improvement in thermal and mechanical
properties. BioResources 14, 3833e3843.
Ray, D., Sarkar, B.K., Basak, R.K., Rana, A.K., 2002. Study of the thermal behavior of
26 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
alkali-treated jute fibers. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 85, 2594e2599. https://doi.org/
10.1002/app.10934.
Reddy, N., Yang, Y., 2007. Structure and properties of chicken feather barbs as
natural protein fibers. J. Polym. Environ. 15, 81e87. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10924-007-0054-7.
Righetti, M.C., Cinelli, P., Mallegni, N., Massa, C.A., Bronco, S., Sta €bler, A., Lazzeri, A.,
2019. Thermal, mechanical, and rheological properties of biocomposites made
of poly(Lactic acid) and potato pulp powder. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 20, 675. https://
doi.org/10.3390/ijms20030675.
Rizal, S., Ikramullah, Gopakumar, D.A., Huzni, S., Thalib, S., Syakir, M.I., T
Owolabi, F.A., Sri Aprilla, N.A., Paridah, M.T., Abdul Khalil, H.P.S., 2019. Tailoring
the effective properties of Typha fiber reinforced polymer composite via alkali
treatment. BioResources 14, 5630e5645.
Rostami, M., Yousefi, M., Khezerlou, A., Aman, M. masoud, Mahdi, jafari seid, 2019.
Application of different biopolymers for nanoencapsulation of antioxidants via
electrohydrodynamic processes. Food Hydrocolloids 97, 105170. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.06.015.
Rout, S.K., Anwar, S., Tripathy, B.C., 2019. Nanosilver coated coir based dielectric
materials with high K and low df for embedded capacitors and insulating
material applications-A greener approach. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7,
3824e3837. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b04465.
Ruiz, V., Jiang, P., Müller, C., Jorge, I., Va  Aznar-Cervantes, S.D.,
zquez, J., Ridruejo, A.,
Cenis, J.L., Messeguer-Olmo, L., Elices, M., Guinea, G.V., Pe rez-Rigueiro, J., 2019.
Preparation and characterization of: Nephila clavipes tubuliform silk gut. Soft
Matter 15, 2960e2970. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9sm00212j.
Rwahwire, S., Tomkova, B., Periyasamy, A.P., Kale, B.M., 2019. Green thermoset
reinforced biocomposites. In: Green Composites for Automotive Applications.
Woodhead Publishing, pp. 61e80. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-102177-
4.00003-3.
Sabbah, M., Di Pierro, P., Cammarota, M., Dell’Olmo, E., Arciello, A., Porta, R., 2019.
Development and properties of new chitosan-based films plasticized with
spermidine and/or glycerol. Food Hydrocolloids 87, 245e252. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.08.008.
Sadasivuni, K.K., Saha, P., Adhikari, J., Deshmukh, K., Ahamed, M.B., Cabibihan, J.,
2019. Recent advances in mechanical properties of biopolymer composites: a
review. Polym. Compos. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.25356.
Sadeghi, S., Dadashian, F., Eslahi, N., 2019. Recycling chicken feathers to produce
adsorbent porous keratin-based sponge. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 16,
1119e1128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-018-1669-z.
Sadrmanesh, V., Chen, Y., Rahman, M., AL-Oqla, F.M., 2019. Developing a decision
making model to identify the most influential parameters affecting mechanical
extraction of bast fibers. J. Clean. Prod. 238, 117891. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jclepro.2019.117891.
Saghrouni, Z., Baillis, D., Jemni, A., 2020. Composites based on Juncus maritimus
fibers for building insulation. Cement Concr. Compos. 106, 103474. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2019.103474.
Sanchez-Garcia, M.D., Lagaron, J.M., 2010. Novel clay-based nanobiocomposites of
biopolyesters with synergistic barrier to UV light, gas, and vapour. J. Appl.
Polym. Sci. 118, 188e199. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.31986.
Sanjay, M.R., Madhu, P., Jawaid, M., Senthamaraikannan, P., Senthil, S., Pradeep, S.,
2018. Characterization and properties of natural fiber polymer composites: a
comprehensive review. J. Clean. Prod. 172, 566e581. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jclepro.2017.10.101.
Sanjay, M.R., Siengchin, S., Parameswaranpillai, J., Jawaid, M., Pruncu, C.I., Khan, A.,
2019. A comprehensive review of techniques for natural fibers as reinforcement
in composites: preparation, processing and characterization. Carbohydr. Polym.
207, 108e121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.11.083.
Saravanakumar, S.S., Kumaravel, A., Nagarajan, T., Ganesh moorthy, I., 2014. Effect of
chemical treatments on physicochemical properties of prosopis juliflora fibers.
Int. J. Polym. Anal. Char. 19, 383e390. https://doi.org/10.1080/
1023666X.2014.903585.
Sari, N.H., Sanjay, M.R., Arpitha, G.R., Pruncu, C.I., Siengchin, S., 2019. Synthesis and
properties of pandanwangi fiber reinforced polyethylene composites: evalua-
tion of dicumyl peroxide (DCP) effect. Compos. Commun. 15, 53e57. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.coco.2019.06.007.
Schmidt, P.W., Morozova, S., Ertem, S.P., Coughlin, M.L., Davidovich, I., Talmon, Y.,
Reineke, T.M., Bates, F.S., Lodge, T.P., 2020. Internal structure of methylcellulose
fibrils. Macromolecules 53, 398e405. https://doi.org/10.1021/
acs.macromol.9b01773.
Segal, L., Creely, J.J., Martin, A.E., Conrad, C.M., 1959. An empirical method for
estimating the degree of crystallinity of native cellulose using the X-ray
diffractometer. Textil. Res. J. 29, 786e794. https://doi.org/10.1177/
004051755902901003.
Şeker, Ş., Elçin, A.E., Elçin, Y.M., 2020. Materials Science & Engineering C Macro-
porous elastic cryogels based on platelet lysate and oxidized dextran as tissue
engineering sca ff old : in vitro and in vivo evaluations. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 110,
110703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2020.110703.
Senthamaraikannan, P., Kathiresan, M., 2018. Characterization of raw and alkali
treated new natural cellulosic fi ber from Coccinia grandis. L. Carbohydr. Polym.
186, 332e343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.01.072.
Sessini, V., Arrieta, M.P., Raquez, J.M., Dubois, P., Kenny, J.M., Peponi, L., 2019.
Thermal and composting degradation of EVA/Thermoplastic starch blends and
their nanocomposites. Polym. Degrad. Stabil. 159, 184e198. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2018.11.025.
Shabbir, M., Rather, L.J., Azam, M., Haque, Q.M.R., Khan, M.A., Mohammad, F., 2020.
Antibacterial functionalization and simultaneous coloration of wool fiber with
the application of plant-based dyes. J. Nat. Fibers 17, 437e449. https://doi.org/
10.1080/15440478.2018.1500336.
Shahzad, A., 2012. Hemp fiber and its compositesea review. J. Compos. Mater. 46,
973e986. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998311413623.
Shankar, S., Wang, L.F., Rhim, J.W., 2019. Effect of melanin nanoparticles on the
mechanical, water vapor barrier, and antioxidant properties of gelatin-based
films for food packaging application. Food Packag. Shelf Life 21, 100363.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fpsl.2019.100363.
Sharif, A., Mondal, S., Hoque, M.E., 2019. Polylactic acid (PLA)-Based nano-
composites: processing and properties. In: Bio-Based Polymers and Nano-
composites. springer, cham, pp. 233e254. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-
05825-8_11.
Sharma, A., Thakur, M., Bhattacharya, M., Mandal, T., Goswami, S., 2019. Commercial
application of cellulose nano-composites e a review. Biotechnol. Reports
e00316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.btre.2019.e00316.
Shera, S.S., Kulhar, N., Banik, R.M., 2019. Silk and silk fibroin-based biopolymeric
composites and their biomedical applications. In: Materials for Biomedical
Engineering. Elsevier Inc., pp. 339e374. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-
816872-1.00012-1
Shibata, M., Sugane, K., Yanagisawa, Y., 2019. Biobased polymer networks by the
thiol-ene photopolymerization of allylated p-coumaric and caffeic acids. Polym.
J. 51, 461e470. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41428-018-0165-0.
Silva, C.G., Oliveira, F. De, Frollini, E., 2019. Sugarcane bagasse fibers treated and
Untreated : performance as reinforcement in phenolic-type matrices based on
lignosulfonates. Waste and Biomass Valorization 10, 3515e3524. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s12649-018-0365-z.
Sivasankarapillai, G., Eslami, E., Laborie, M., 2019. Potential of organosolv lignin
based materials in pressure sensitive adhesive applications. ACS Sustain. Chem.
Eng. 7, 12817e12824. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b01670.
Souzandeh, H., Wang, Y., Netravali, A.N., Zhong, W., 2019. Towards sustainable and
multifunctional air- Filters : a review on biopolymer-based filtration materials.
Polym. Rev. 59, 651e686. https://doi.org/10.1080/15583724.2019.1599391.
Stafford, R., Jones, P.J.S., 2019. Viewpoint e ocean plastic pollution: a convenient but
distracting truth? Mar. Pol. 103, 187e191. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.marpol.2019.02.003.
Stevens, C., 2010. Industrial Applications of Natural Fibres: Structure, Properties and
Technical Applications, John Wiley & Sons. John Wiley & Sons, Germany.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470660324.
Subramanian, S.G., Rajkumar, R., Ramkumar, T., 2019. Characterization of natural
cellulosic fiber from Cereus Hildmannianus. J. Nat. Fibers 1e12. https://doi.org/
10.1080/15440478.2019.1623744.
Sun, E., Liao, G., Zhang, Q., Qu, P., Wu, G., Huang, H., 2019. Biodegradable copolymer-
based composites made from straw fiber for biocomposite flowerpots appli-
cation. Compos. B Eng. 165, 193e198. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.compositesb.2018.11.121.
Suwanprateep, S., Kumsapaya, C., Sayan, P., 2019. Structure and thermal properties
of rice starch-based film blended with mesocarp cellulose fiber. Mater. Today
Proc. 17, 2039e2047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.06.252.
Taimur-Al-Mobarak, Mina, M.F., Gafur, M.A., Ahmed, A.N., Dhar, S.A., 2018. Effect of
chemical modifications on surface morphological, structural, mechanical, and
thermal properties of sponge-gourd natural fiber. Fibers Polym. 19, 31e40.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12221-018-7199-3.
Teixeira, R.S., Santos, S.F., Christoforo, A.L., Paya, J., Savastano, H., Lahr, F.A.R., 2019.
Impact of content and length of curau a fibers on mechanical behavior of
extruded cementitious composites: analysis of variance. Cement Concr. Com-
pos. 102, 134e144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2019.04.022.
Teklu, T., Wangatia, L.M., Alemayehu, E., 2019. Effect of surface modification of sisal
fibers on water absorption and mechanical properties of polyaniline composite.
Polym. Compos. 40, E46eE52. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.24462.
Tengsuthiwat, J., Yorseng, K., Siengchin, S., Parameswaranpillai, J., 2019. Thermo-
mechanical, water absorption, ultraviolet resistance and laser-assisted elec-
troless plating behavior of Cu 2 O and melamineeformaldehyde-coated sisal
fiber-modified poly(lactic acid) composites. Polym. Compos. https://doi.org/
10.1002/pc.25182.
Thi khanah ly, N., Shin, H., Gupta, K.C., Kang, I.K., Yu, W., 2019. Bioactive antibac-
terial modification of orthodontic microimplants using chitosan biopolymer.
Macromol. Res. 27, 504e510. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13233-019-7069-5.
Torres, F.G., Mayorga, J.P., Vilca, C., Arroyo, J., Castro, P., Rodriguez, L., 2019. Prepa-
ration and characterization of a novel starchechestnut husk biocomposite. SN
Appl. Sci. 1, 1158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1204-y.
Tous, L., Ruseckaite, R.A., Ciannamea, E.M., 2019. Sustainable hot-melt adhesives
based on soybean protein isolate and polycaprolactone. Ind. Crop. Prod. 135,
153e158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.04.043.
_
Tozar, A., Karahan, I.H., Yücel, Y., 2019. Optimization of the electrophoretic depo-
sition parameters for biocomposite hydroxyapatite/chitosan/collagen/h-BN
coatings on Ti6Al4V biomedical implants. Metall. Mater. Trans. 50,
1009e1020. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-018-5010-8.
Tuan, H.A., Hirai, S., Tamada, Y., Akioka, S., 2019. Preparation of silk resins by hot
pressing Bombyx mori and Eri silk powders. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 97, 431e437.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2018.12.060.
Tuntachon, S., Sukolrat, A., Numnuam, A., Kaewtatip, K., 2019. Effect of kaolin
content and sonication on the properties of wheat gluten composites. Powder
Technol. 351, 66e70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2019.04.007.
Unango, F.J., Ramasamy, K.M., 2019. A review on the investigation of biologically
 A. Vinod et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120978
active natural compounds on cotton fabrics as an antibacterial textile finishing.
Int. Res. J. Sci. Technol. 1, 49e55.
Vaidya, A.A., Collet, C., Gaugler, M., Lloyd-Jones, G., 2019. Integrating softwood
biorefinery lignin into polyhydroxybutyrate composites and application in 3D
printing. Mater. Today Commun. 19, 286e296. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.mtcomm.2019.02.008.
Valentina, B., Stefano, T., Camilla, C., Anna, S., Nicola, D.V., Tamara, P., Greta, V.,
Marco, N., Giampiero, R., Michele, M., Federica, R., Roberto, Z., 2019. Silk fibroin
based technology for industrial biomanufacturing. In: Factories of the Future.
Springer, Cham, pp. 409e430. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94358-9_19.
van der Westhuizen, M.M., 2019. Preliminary retting research on different kenaf
cultivars. S. Afr. J. Plant Soil 36, 229e231. https://doi.org/10.1080/
02571862.2018.1536931.
Velasco-Gardun ~ o, O., Martínez, M.E., Gimeno, M., Tecante, A., Beristain-Cardoso, R.,
Shirai, K., 2020. Copper removal from wastewater by a chitosan-based biode-
gradable composite. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 1e9. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11356-019-07560-2.
Velde, K. Van De, Kiekens, P., 2002. Biopolymers : overview of several properties
and consequences on their applications. Polym. Test. 21, 433e442. https://
doi.org/10.1016/S0142-9418(01)00107-6.
Vieira, M.G.A., Da Silva, M.A., Dos Santos, L.O., Beppu, M.M., 2011. Natural-based
plasticizers and biopolymer films: a review. Eur. Polym. J. 47, 254e263. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2010.12.011.
Vijay, R., Manoharan, S., Vinod, A., Lenin Singaravelu, D., Sanjay, M.R., Siengchin, S.,
2019. Characterization of raw and benzoyl chloride treated Impomea pes-
caprae fibers and its epoxy composites. Mater. Res. Express 6, 095307. https://
doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/ab2de2.
Vijay, R., Lenin Singaravelu, D., Vinod, A., Sanjay, M.R., Siengchin, S., Jawaid, M.,
Khan, A., Parameswaranpillai, J., 2019a. Characterization of raw and alkali
treated new natural cellulosic fibers from Tridax procumbens. Int. J. Biol.
Macromol. 125, 99e108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.12.056.
Vijay, R., Singaravelu, D.L., Vinod, A., Paul Raj, I.D.F., Sanjay, M.R., Siengchin, S.,
2019b. Characterization of novel natural fiber from Saccharum Bengalense grass
(sarkanda). J. Nat. Fibers 1e9. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2019.1598914.
Vijay, R., Singaravelu, D.L., Vinod, A., Sanjay, M.R., Siengchin, S., 2019c. Character-
ization of alkali-treated and untreated natural fibers from the stem of Parthe-
nium Hysterophorus. J. Nat. Fibers 1e11. https://doi.org/10.1080/
15440478.2019.1612308.
Vijay, R., Manoharan, S., Arjun, S., Vinod, A., Singaravelu, D.L., 2020. Characterization
of silane-treated and untreated natural fibers from stem of leucas aspera. J. Nat.
Fibers 1e17. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2019.1710651.
Vinayagamoorthy, R., Venkatakoteswararao, G., 2019. Synthesis and property
analysis of green resin-based composites. J. Thermoplast. Compos. Mater.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0892705719828783, 0892705719828783.
Vincenzo, G., Michele, L., Silvia, S., 2020. Introducing biomaterials for tissue repair
and regeneration. In: Nanostructured Biomaterials for Regenerative Medicine.
Woodhead Publishing, pp. 1e27. https://doi.org/10.1007/12_2011_118.
Vinod, A., Vijay, R., Singaravelu, D.L., Sanjay, M.R., Siengchin, S., 2019a. Extraction
and characterization of natural fiber from stem of Cardiospermum Hal-
icababum. J. Nat. Fibers 1e11. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2019.1669514.
Vinod, A., Vijay, R., Singaravelu, D.L., Sanjay, M.R., Siengchin, S., Moure, M., 2019b.
Characterization od untreated and alkali treated natural fibers extracted from
the stem of catharanthus roseus. Mater. Res. Express 6, 085406. https://doi.org/
10.1088/2053-1591/ab22d9.
Vojoudi, E., Ai, J., Baghaban Eslaminejad, M., Azami, M., Kajbafzadeh, A.-M.,
Ebrahimi, S., 2019. A novel inexpensive method for preparation of silk nano-
fibers from cocoons. Iran. Chem. Commun. 7, 335e343. https://doi.org/
10.30473/icc.2019.42223.1473.
Wang, C., Carriere, C.J., Willett, J.L., 2002. Processing, mechanical properties, and
fracture behavior of cereal protein/poly(hydroxyl ester ether) blends. J. Polym.
Sci., Part B: Polym. Phys. 40, 2324e2332. https://doi.org/10.1002/polb.10250.
Wang, W., Zhang, F., Xiao, Z., Geng, L., Wu, J., 2019a. Fiber diameter measuring
method of textile materials based on phase information. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 1187,
032080 https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1187/3/032080.
Wang, Y.R., Zhang, B., Fan, J.L., Yang, Q., Chen, H.Q., 2019b. Effects of sodium tri-
polyphosphate modification on the structural, functional, and rheological
properties of rice glutelin. Food Chem. 281, 18e27. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.foodchem.2018.12.085.
Wang, L., Pathak, J.L., Liang, D., Zhong, N., Guan, H., Wan, M., Miao, G., Li, Z., Ge, L.,
2020. Fabrication and characterization of strontium-hydroxyapatite/silk fibroin
27
biocomposite nanospheres for bone-tissue engineering applications. Int. J. Biol.
Macromol. 142, 366e375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.09.107.
Wijayapala, R., Mishra, S., Elmore, B., Freeman, C., Kundu, S., 2019. Synthesis and
characterization of crosslinked polymers from cottonseed oil. J. Appl. Polym. Sci.
136, 47655. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.47655.
Wong, S., Shanks, R., Hodzic, A., 2002. Properties of poly(3-hydroxybutyric acid)
composites with flax fibres modified by plasticiser absorption. Macromol.
Mater. Eng. 287, 647e655. https://doi.org/10.1002/1439-2054(200210)287:
10<647::AID-MAME647>3.0.CO;2-7.
Wu, Change, Yang, K., Gu, Y., Xu, J., Ritchie, R.O., Guan, J., 2019a. Mechanical prop-
erties and impact performance of silk-epoxy resin composites modulated by
flax fibres. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 117, 357e368. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.compositesa.2018.12.003.
Wu, J., Sun, Q., Huang, H., Duan, Y., Xiao, G., Le, T., 2019b. Enhanced physico-
mechanical, barrier and antifungal properties of soy protein isolate film by
incorporating both plant-sourced cinnamaldehyde and facile synthesized zinc
oxide nanosheets. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces 180, 31e38. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.04.041.
Wu, Chunhua, Li, Y., Du, Y., Wang, L., Tong, C., Hu, Y., Pang, J., Yan, Z., 2019c. Prep-
aration and characterization of konjac glucomannan-based bionanocomposite
film for active food packaging. Food Hydrocolloids 89, 682e690. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.11.001.
Wu, Chunhua, Zhu, Y., Wu, T., Wang, L., Yuan, Y., Chen, J., Hu, Y., Pang, J., 2019d.
Enhanced functional properties of biopolymer film incorporated with
curcurmin-loaded mesoporous silica nanoparticles for food packaging. Food
Chem. 288, 139e145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.03.010.
Wu, C., Li, Y., Sun, J., Lu, Y., Tong, C., Wang, L., Yan, Z., Pang, J., 2020. Novel konjac
glucomannan films with oxidized chitin nanocrystals immobilized red cabbage
anthocyanins for intelligent food packaging. Food Hydrocolloids 98, 105245.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105245.
Yao, Y., Sun, H., Zhang, Y., Yin, Z., 2020. Corrosion protection of epoxy coatings
containing 2- hydroxyphosphonocarboxylic acid doped polyaniline nanofiber.
Prog. Org. Coating 139, 105470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.porgcoat.2019.105470.
Yazawa, K., Malay, A.D., Masunaga, H., Numata, K., 2019. Role of skin layers on
mechanical properties and supercontraction of spider dragline silk fiber. Mac-
romol. Biosci. 19, 1e7. https://doi.org/10.1002/mabi.201800220.
Ye, Q., Han, Y., Zhang, J., Zhang, W., Xia, C., Li, J., 2019. Bio-based films with improved
water resistance derived from soy protein isolate and stearic acid via bio-
conjugation. J. Clean. Prod. 214, 125e131. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jclepro.2018.12.277.
Yoo, J., Chang, S.J., Wi, S., Kim, S., 2019. Spent coffee grounds as supporting materials
to produce bio- composite PCM with natural waxes. Chemosphere 235,
626e635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.06.195.
Zainuddin, S., Kamrul Hasan, S.M., Loeven, D., Hosur, M., 2019. Mechanical, fire
retardant, water absorption and soil biodegradation properties of poly(3-
hydroxy-butyrate-co-3-valerate) nanofilms. J. Polym. Environ. 27, 2292e2304.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-019-01517-9.
Zeng, T., Hu, X. qin, Wu, H., Yang, J. wen, Zhang, H. bin, 2019. Microwave assisted
synthesis and characterization of a novel bio-based flocculant from dextran and
chitosan. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 131, 760e768. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.ijbiomac.2019.03.116.
Zhang, Y., Nanda, M., Tymchyshyn, M., Yuan, Z., Xu, C., 2016. Mechanical , thermal ,
and curing characteristics of renewable phenol-hydroxymethylfurfural resin for
application in bio-composites. J. Mater. Sci. 51, 732e738. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s10853-015-9392-3.
Zhang, S., He, Y., Yin, Y., Jiang, G., 2019. Fabrication of innovative thermoplastic
starch bio-elastomer to achieve high toughness poly(butylene succinate)
composites. Carbohydr. Polym. 206, 827e836. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.carbpol.2018.11.036.
Zhao, Y., Saldan ~ a, M.D.A., 2019. Use of potato by-products and gallic acid for
development of bioactive film packaging by subcritical water technology.
J. Supercrit. Fluids 143, 97e106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2018.07.025.
Zhou, X., Yang, R., Wang, B., Chen, K., 2019. Development and characterization of
bilayer films based on pea starch/polylactic acid and use in the cherry tomatoes
packaging. Carbohydr. Polym. 222, 114912. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.carbpol.2019.05.042.
Zini, E., Focarete, M.L., Noda, I., Scandola, M., 2007. Bio-composite of bacterial
poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) reinforced with vegetable fi-
bers. Compos. Sci. Technol. 67, 2085e2094. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.compscitech.2006.11.015.