Fixed-And Voltage Divider - Bias of BJTS: Experiment No - 12

College of Electrical & Mechanical Engineering (CEME), NUST-Pakistan Electrical Engineering
EXPERIMENT NO – 12
FIXED- AND VOLTAGE DIVIDER- BIAS OF BJTs

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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
DATE:
INSTRUCTOR: Rabia Jamshaid
OBJECTIVE:
To analyze the fixed- and voltage divider- bias bipolar junction configurations.
THEORY:
BASE RESISTOR METHOD / FIXED BIAS METHOD:
In this method, a high resistance RB (several hundred k Ω) is connected between the base and
+ive end of supply for n-p-n transistor (See Fig. below) and between base and negative end of
supply for p-n-p transistor. Here, the required zero signal base current is provided by VCC and it
flows through RB. It is because now base is positive w.r.t. emitter i.e. base-emitter junction is
forward biased. The required value of zero signal base current IB (and hence IC= β IB) can be
made to flow by selecting the proper value of base resistor RB.
It is required to find the value of RB So that required collector current flows in the zero signal
conditions. Let IC be the required zero signal collector current.
∴ IB=IC/β
Considering the closed circuit ABENA and applying Kirchhoff 's voltage law, we get,
VCC = IB RB + VBE
or IB RB= VCC− VBE
∴ RB=(VCC –VBE)/ IB .................................................................................................(i)
As VCC and IB are known and VBE can be seen from the transistor manual, therefore, value of RB
can be readily found from exp. (i).
Since VBE is generally quite small as compared to VCC, the former can be neglected with little
error. It then follows from exp. (i) that :
RB= VCC / IB
It may be noted that VCC is a fixed known quantity and IB is chosen at some suitable value.
Hence, RB can always be found directly, and for this reason, this method is sometimes called
fixed-bias method.
VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS METHOD:

This is the most widely used method of providing biasing and stabilization to a transistor. In this
method, two resistances R1and R2 are connected across the supply voltage VCC (See Fig. below)
and provide biasing. The emitter resistance RE provides stabilization. The name ‘‘voltage
divider’’ comes from the voltage divider formed by R1and R2. The voltage drop across R2
forward biases the base emitter junction. This causes the base current and hence collector current
flow in the zero signal conditions.
Suppose that the current flowing through resistance R1 is I1. As base current IB is very small,
therefore, it can be assumed with reasonable accuracy that current flowing through R2 is also I1.
(i) Collector current IC:

I1= VCC/ (R1+R2)
∴ Voltage across resistance R2 is V2 = VCC.R2/ (R1 + R2)
Applying Kirchhoff 's voltage law to the base circuit of Fig. below,
V2 =VBE + VE
or V2=VBE+ IE RE
or IE=V2-VBE / RE
Since IE ≈ IC
∴ IC= V2-VBE / RE.....(i)
It is clear from exp. (i) above that IC does not at all depend upon β. Though IC depends upon VBE
but in practice V2 >> VBE so that IC is practically independent of VBE. Thus IC in this circuit is
almost independent of transistor parameters and hence good stabilization is ensured. It is due to
this reason that potential divider bias has become universal method for providing transistor
biasing.
(ii) Collector-emitter voltage VCE.
Applying Kirchhoff 's voltage law to the collector side,
VCC=IC RC+ VCE+ IE RE
=IC RC+ VCE+ IC RE
=IC(RC+RE) +VCE
∴ VCE=VCC− IC(RC+ RE)
APPARATUS:
1. BJT (2N3904) 2. Resistances (fixed) 680,2.7k, 1.8k, 6.8k, 33k, 1MΩ
3. DC power Supply 4. Digital Multi Meter (DMM) 5. Connecting wires
PROCEDURE, OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

PART (1) – DETERMINING OF BETA:
a. Construct the network of the figure as shown in the figure below using 2N3904 transistor.
Insert the measured resistances values.
RB (meas) = ______________________________ ,RC (meas) = __________________________
Figure 1
b. Measure the voltages VBE and VRC
VBE (measured) = _______________________, VRC (measured) = _______________________
c. Using the measured resistor values calculate the resulting base current using the equation
IB = VRB / RB = (VCC-VBE) / RB
and the collector current using the equation
IC = VRC / RC
The voltage VRB was not measured directly for determining IB because of the loading effects of
the meter across the high resistance RB.
The values if IB and IC are _______________ and _____________ respectively.
d. Using the results of step 1 (c) determine the value of β as
β = ______________________________________
PART (2) – FIXED BIAS CONFIGURATION:

a. Using the β determined in part (1), calculate the currents IB and IC for the network of figure 1
using the measured resistor values, the supply voltage and the above measured values of VBE.
That is, determine the theoretical values of IB and IC using the network parameters and the value
of β.
IB (calculated) = _____________________, IC (calculated) = ____________________________
How do calculated levels of IB and IC compare to those determined from measured voltage
levels in part 1 (c)?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
b. Using the results of step 2 (a) calculate the levels of VB, VC, VE and VCE.
VB (calculated) =_______________________________________________________________
VC (calculated) = _______________________________________________________________
VE (calculated) = _______________________________________________________________
VCE (calculated) = ______________________________________________________________
c. Energize the network of figure 1 and measure VB, VC, VE and VCE.
VB (measured) = _______________________________________________________________
VC (measured) = _______________________________________________________________
VE (measured) = _______________________________________________________________
VCE (measured) = ______________________________________________________________
How do the measured values compare to the calculated levels of step 2 (b)?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
PART (3) – VOLTAGE DIVIDER CONFIGURATION:
a. Construct the network as shown below using 2N3904 transistor. Inset the measured values of
each resistor.
R1 (measured) = _________________________, R2 (measured) = ________________________
RC (measured) = _________________________, RE (measured) = _______________________
Figure 2
R1 (measured) = __________________________ R2 (measured) = _______________________
RC (measured) = __________________________ RE (measured) = _______________________
b. Using β determined in part 1 for the 2N3904 transistor, calculate the theoretical levels of VB,
VE, IE, IC, VC, VCE and IB for the network of figure 2. Insert the results in table below:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2N3904 VBE VE VC VCE IE (m A) IC (m A) IB (µA)

Calculated
[part 3 (b)]
Measured
[part 3 (c)]
c. Energize the network of figure 2 and measure VB, VE, VC and VCE. Record their values in
table above. In addition, measure the voltages VR1 and VR2. Try to measure quantities to
hundredth or thousandth place. Calculate the current IE and IC and the currents I1 and I2 ( I1 =
VR1 / R1 and I2 = VR2 / R2) from the voltage readings and measured resistor values. Using the
results for I1 and I2, calculate the current IB using Kirchhoff’s current law. Insert the calculated
current levels for IE, IC and IB in table above.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
How do the calculated and measured value in table from each other.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
EXPERIMENT: STUDY OF DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
DATE
INSTRUCTOR Rabia Jamshaid
THEORY:
A pn junction is known as a semi-conductor or crystal diode. A crystal diode is usually represented by the
schematic symbol shown in Fig. below. The arrow in the symbol indicates the direction of easier
conventional current flow.
A crystal diode has two terminals. When it is connected in a circuit, one thing to decide is whether the
diode is forward or reverse biased. Putting in simple words:
(i) If arrowhead of diode symbol is positive w.r.t. bar of the symbol, the diode is forward biased.
(ii) If the arrowhead of diode symbol is negative w.r.t. bar, the diode is reverse biased.
The current-volt characteristics of a silicon or germanium diode have a general shape as shown below.
Note the change in scale for both the horizontal and vertical axis. In the reverse biased region the
reverse saturation currents are fairly constant form zero volt to zener potential. In the forward biased
region the current increases quite rapidly with increasing diode voltage. The forward biased diode
current is solely limited by the network in which diode is connected.
The ‘firing potential’ or ‘threshold voltage’ is determined by extending a straight line tangent to the
curves until it hits the horizontal axis. The intersection with horizontal axis will determine the threshold
voltage i.e. 0.7V for Si diode and 0.3V for Ge diode.
Resistance of a Crytsal Diode:

A forward biased diode conducts easily whereas a reverse biased diode practically conducts no current.
It means that forward resistance of a diode is quite small as compared with its reverse resistance.
1. Forward resistance. The resistance offered by the diode to forward bias is known as forward
resistance. This resistance is not the same for the flow of direct current as for the changing current.
Accordingly; this resistance is of two types, namely; d.c. forward resistance and a.c. forward resistance.
(i) d.c. forward resistance. It is the opposition offered by the diode to the direct current. It is measured
by the ratio of d.c. voltage across the diode to the resulting d.c. current through it. Thus, referring to the
forward characteristic in Fig. below, it is clear that when forward voltage is OA, the forward current is
OB.
 d.c. forward resistance, RDC = OA/OB
(ii) a.c. forward resistance. It is the opposition offered by the diode to the changing forward current. It is
measured by the ratio of change in voltage across diode to the resulting change in current through it i.e.
a.c. forward resistance, rd = Change in voltage across diode / Corresponding change in current through
diode
The a.c. forward resistance is more significant as the diodes are generally used with alternating voltages.
The a.c. forward resistance can be determined from the forward characteristic as shown in Fig. below. If
P is the operating point at any instant, then forward voltage is ob and forward current is oe.
To find the a.c. forward resistance, vary the forward voltage on both sides of the operating point equally
as shown in Fig. where ab = bc. It is clear from this figure that :
For forward voltage oa, circuit current is od.

For forward voltage oc, circuit current is of.
 a.c. forward resistance, rd = Change in forward voltage/Change in forward current
=(oc- oa)/ (of- od)= ac/ df = ∆V/∆I
It may be mentioned here that forward resistance of a crystal diode is very small, ranging from 1 to 25Ω.
a.c. forward resistance can numerically be calculated from
for levels of currents above knee of curve

and
for levels of current at and below knee of curve
2. Reverse resistance. The resistance offered by the diode to the reverse bias is known as reverse
resistance. It can be d.c. reverse resistance or a.c. reverse resistance depending upon whether the
reverse bias is direct or changing voltage. Ideally, the reverse resistance of a diode is infinite. However,
in practice, the reverse resistance is not infinite because for any value of reverse bias, there does exist a
small leakage current. It may be emphasized here that reverse resistance is very large compared to the
forward resistance. In germanium diodes, the ratio of reverse to forward resistance is 40000: 1 while for
silicon this ratio is 1000000: 1.
APPARATUS:
1. DC power supply
2. 1N4001 diode
3. Resistance (fixed) 1kΩ
4. DMM
5. Connecting wires
The diodes need not be exact model 1N4001 units. Any of the "1N400X" series of rectifying diodes are
suitable for the task, and they are quite easy to obtain.
PROCEDURE:
Diode Test
(a)- Diode Testing Scale: Diode testing scale of DMM is used to check the operating condition of a diode.
With one polarity the DMM should provide the ‘firing potential’ of diode, while the reverse should result
in an ‘OL’response to support the open circuit approximation. If a low reading (less than 1V) is obtained
in both directions, the junction is shorted internally. If an OL indication is obtained in both directions,
the junction is open.
Perform above check and note DMM readings:
Test DMM Reading (Diode Testing Scale)

Forward Biased
Reverse Biased
(b)- Resistance Scale: using the appropriate scale of DMM, determine the resistence levels of the
forward and reverse biased regions of Si diode.
Test DMM Reading (Resistance Scale)

Forward Biased
Reverse Biased
Although the ‘firing potential’ is not revealed using resistance scales, a ‘good’ diode will result in lower
resistance level in a forward biased state and a much higher resistance level in a reverse biased state.
1. Construct the network of figure below with supply (E) set to 0V. Record the measured value of
resistor.
2. Increase the supply voltage until VR (not E) reads 0.1V. Then measure VD and insert the voltage
in table. Calculate the value of corresponding current ID using the equation given in table.
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
10.0
3. Plot ID vs VD curve. Complete the curve by extending the lower region of curve to the
intersection of axis at ID = 0mA and VD = 0V. Label each curve and indicate data points clearly.
Be neat!
4. Using Si curve determine diode voltage at diode current levels as indicated below. Then
determine DC resistance at each current level.
0.2
1
5
10
5. Using the equation, a.c. forward resistance, rd = ∆V/∆I, calculate AC resistance at ID= 9 mA using
the curve drawn.
rd (Calculated)=__________________
6. Now calculate a.c. forward resistance using
rd (Calculated)=__________________
7. Compare the values calculated in step 5 and 6.
8. Repeat steps 5-7 for ID= 2mA.
9. Graphically determine Threshold voltage / Firing Potential of diode from its characteristics.
Threshold Voltage (Firing Potential) =______________________________
TO CONSTRUCT A HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT AND TO

CHECK ITS OUTPUT WAVEFORM ON OSCILLOSCOPE
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THEORY:
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:
Rectifier is the diode used in converting AC to DC and this process is rectification. The basic
way of rectification is half-wave rectifier circuit shown in Figure 1. The rectifier which converts
a single half of input A.C. into pulsating D.C. is called Half Wave Rectifier.
During positive half cycle of input A.C. the diode becomes forward biased and conducts while
during the negative half it becomes reverse biased and fails to conduct. The result is obtaining a
half wave rectified at the output terminals. However the output waveform is pulsating D.C which
can be made ripple free by introducing a filter (simple capacitor) at the output.
Following are the relations that hold for a half wave rectifier circuit:
i. Vdc = 0.318 Vp
ii. Idc = Vdc / RL=0.318Vp / RL= 0.318Ip
iii. Irms = 0.5Ip
iv. PIV(Peak Inverse Voltage) = Vp
v. Form Factor = RMS Value/ Average Value = 0.5Ip / 0.3181Ip= 1.57
vi. Ripple Factor = [(Form Factor)²-1]½ = 1.21
vii. Efficiency= 40.6 %
APPARATUS:
1. Low-voltage AC power supply
2. One 1N4001 diode
3. Resistance 100Ω
4. Oscilloscope
The diode need not be an exact model 1N4001. Any of the "1N400X" series of rectifying diodes
are suitable for the task.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:
FIGURE-2
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the diode to the low-voltage AC power supply as shown in a figure. Note that the
resistor is used to limit the current.
2. Connect CH1 of oscilloscope to Input and CH2 to Output/Load Resistance of a circuit.
3. Switch on the oscilloscope and the sinusoidal supply.
4. Sketch the input waveform
INPUT WAVEFORM
5. Measure and record time T , peak voltage Vp and peak to peak voltage Vpp of Input supply
T= _______________ Vp: _______________ Vpp _______________
6. With the oscilloscope DC. Coupled adjust the time-base and the Y amplifier sensitivity.
7. Sketch the waveform and label it to show the periods when the diode is conducting and those
when it is not. Time T depends upon the frequency of your power supply.
OUTPUT WAVEFORM
8. Measure and record time T and peak voltage Vp of output

T= _______________ Vp: _______________
9. Confirm this Vp should be very nearly equal to the peak voltage of the alternating supply
TO CONSTRUCT A FULL-WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT & TO

CHECK AND MEASURE THE INPUT & OUTPUTS WAVE FORMS ON
OSCILLOSCOPE
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THEORY:
FULL-WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER:
More useful and effective way of converting AC to DC is using both positive and negative parts
of AC input signal. This results in full wave rectification at the output. There are two kinds of
circuit used:
(1) Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. (2) Full Wave Center Tapped Rectifier
A basic full-wave bridge rectifier is illustrated in Figure 1.
A full wave bridge rectifier has one advantage over the conventional full-wave rectifier: the
amplitude of the output signal. The frequency of the positive pulses will be the same in either
rectifier. When the output signal is taken from a bridge rectifier, it is taken across the entire
potential of the transformer; thus, the output signal will be twice the amplitude of a conventional
full-wave rectifier. For the first half cycle of a bridge rectifier, refer to Figure 2.
Figure 2 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier (First Half-Wave Cycle Operation)
During the first half cycle of the input signal, a positive potential is felt at Point A and a negative
potential is felt at Point B. Under this condition, a positive potential is felt on the anode of D2
and on the cathode of D1. D2 will be forward-biased, while D1 will be reverse-biased. Also, a
negative potential will be placed on the cathode of D3 and the anode of D4. D3 will be forward-
biased, while D4 will be reverse biased. With D3 and D2 forward-biased, a path for current flow
has been developed. The current will flow from the lower side of the transformer to Point D. D3
is forward-biased, so current will flow through D3 to Point E, from Point E to the bottom of the
load resistor, and up to Point F. R3 is forward biased, so current will flow through D2, to Point
C, and to Point A. The difference of potential across the secondary of the transformer causes the
current to flow. Diodes D3 and D2 are forward-biased, so very little resistance is offered to the
current flow by these components. Also, the resistance of the transformer is very small, so
approximately all the applied potential will be developed across the load resistor. If the potential
from Point A to Point B of the transformer is 24 volts, the output developed across the load
resistor will be a positive pulse approximately 24 volts in amplitude.
Figure 3. Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier (Second Cycle Operation)
When the next alternation of the input is felt (Figure 3), the potential across the transformer
reverses polarity. Now, a negative potential is felt at Point A and a positive potential is felt at
Point B. With a negative felt at Point C, D1 will have a negative on the cathode and D2 will have
a negative on the anode. A positive at Point D will be felt on the anode of D4 and the cathode of
D3. D1 and D4 will be forward-biased and will create a path for current flow. D3 and D2 will be
reverse-biased, so no current will flow. The path for current flow is from Point A to Point C,
through D1 to Point E, to the lower side of the load resistor, through the load resistor to Point F,
through D4 to Point D, and to the lower side of T1. Current flows because of the full potential
being present across the entire transformer; therefore, the current through the load resistor will
develop the complete voltage potential. The frequency of the output pulses will be twice that of
the input pulses because both cycles of the input AC voltage are being used to produce an output.
Following relations hold for a full wave bridge rectifier:
viii. Vdc = 0.636 Vp

ix. Idc = 0.636 Ip
x. Irms = 0.707 Ip
xi. PIV(Peak Inverse Voltage) = Vp
xii. Form Factor = RMS Value/ Average Value = 1.11
xiii. Ripple Factor = [(Form Factor)²-1]½ = 0.482
xiv. Efficiency= 81.2 %
APPARATUS:
2. Four 1N4001 diodes
3. Resistance 1kΩ
4. Oscilloscope
The diodes need not be exact model 1N4001 units. Any of the "1N400X" series of rectifying
diodes are suitable for the task, and they are quite easy to obtain.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:
FIGURE
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the bridge to the low-voltage AC power supply as shown in a figure.

INPUT WAVEFORM
T= _______________ Vp: _______________ Vpp _______________
7. Sketch the output waveform and label it to show the periods when the diode D1 and D4 are
conducting and when the diode D2 and D3 are conducting those. Time T depends upon the
frequency of your power supply.
8. Sketch the output waveform during positive Half Cycle.
9. Sketch the output waveform during negative Half Cycle.

10. Sketch the output waveform.
OUTPUT WAVEFORM
11. Measure and record time T and peak voltage Vp of output

T= _______________ Vp: _______________
12. Calculate the value of Vdc(calculated) = ______________________________________
13. Using DMM, measure the value of Vdc(measured) at the output =
____________________________
14. Calculate the percent difference between the measured and calculated values
% difference = _______________________________
15. Also compare input and output voltages.

16. Repeat the above experiment for peak values of input voltages as:
Vp = 4V, Vp = 6V, Vp = 8V
Input Waveform Output Waveform

Vp Vp-p T F Vp Vdc Vdc %
(claculated) (measured) difference
4V
6V
8V
DIODE CLIPPERS
(APPLICATIONS OF DIODE)
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CLIPPING CIRCUITS: The circuit in which waveform is shaped by removing (or clipping) a
portion of the applied wave is known as a clipping circuit.
Clippers find an extensive use in radar, digital and other electronic systems. Although several clipping
circuits have been developed to change the wave shape, we shall confine our attention to diode clippers.
Clippers can remove signal voltages above or below a specified level. The important diode clippers are:
(I) Positive clipper (II) Biased clipper (III) Combination clipper
Part-I: Positive Clipper:

A positive clipper is that which removes the positive half cycles of the input voltage. Figure shows typical
circuit of a positive clipper using a diode. As shown, the output voltage has the entire positive half cycles
removed or clipped-off.
The circuit action is as follows. During the positive half cycle of input voltage, the diode is forward
biased and conducts heavily. Therefore, the voltage across the diode (which behave as a short circuit) and
hence across RL is zero. Hence output voltage during positive half-cycles is zero.
During the negative half cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reverse biased and behaves as an open. In
this condition, the circuit behaves as a voltage divider with an output given by:
RL
Output Voltage = − Vm
R + RL
Generally, RL is much greater than R
Output Voltage = −Vm

It may be noted that if it is desired to remove the negative half cycle of input, the only thing to be done is
to reverse the polarities of diode in the circuit. Such a clipper is then called a “Negative Clipper”
APPARATUS:
2. One 1N4001 diode
3. Resistors (100-ohm, 1k-ohm)
4. Breadboard
5. Oscilloscope.
PROCEDURE:
resistor uses to limit the current.
2. Select RL= 1k-ohm and R= 100-ohm.
INPUT WAVEFORM
T= _______________ Vp: _______________ Vpp :_______________

OUTPUT WAVEFORM (POSITIVE CLIPPER)
9. Sketch the output waveform for negative clipper using the same values of input voltage.
OUTPUT WAVEFORM (NEGATIVE CLIPPER)
Part-II: Biased Clipper:

Sometimes it is desired to remove a small portion of positive or negative half-cycle of the signal voltage.
For this purpose biased clipper is used. Figure shows the circuit of a biased clipper using a diode with a
battery of V volts. With the polarities of battery shown, a portion of each positive half cycle will be
clipped. However, the negative half-cycles will appear as such across load. Such a clipper is called Biased
Positive Clipper.
The circuit action is as follows. The diode will conduct heavily so long as input voltage is greater than
+V. When the input voltage is greater than +V the diode behaves as a short and output equals +V. The
output will stay at +V so long as the input voltage is greater than +V. During the period the input voltage
is less than +V, the diode is reverse biased and behaves as an open. Therefore most of the input voltage
appears across the output. In this way, the biased positive clipper removes input voltage above +V.
During the negative half cycle of the input voltage, the diode remains reverse biased. Therefore almost
entire negative half cycle appears across the load.
If it is desired to clip a portion of negative half-cycles of input voltage, the only thing to be done is to
reverse the polarities of diode or battery. Such a circuit is then called a “Biased Negative Clipper”
APPARATUS:
1.Battery.
3. One 1N4001 diode
4. Resistors(100-ohm, 1k-ohm)
5. Oscilloscope.
6. DC power supply or a dry cell (1.5volts)
PROCEDURE:
resistor uses to limit the current.
2. Select RL=1k-ohm and R= 100-ohm.
INPUT WAVEFORM
T= _______________ Vp: _______________ Vpp _______________
7. Select the value of V = 1.5V and make correct connections as depicted in diagram.
OUTPUT WAVEFORM (POSITIVE BIASED CLIPPER)
10. Sketch the output waveform for negative biased clipper keeping the same values for
input voltages.
OUTPUT WAVEFORM (NEGATIVE BIASED CLIPPER)

DIODE CLAMPERS
(APPLICATIONS OF DIODE)
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CLAMPING CIRCUITS:
The circuit that places either the positive or negative peak of the signal at a desired DC level is
known as a clamping circuit.
Figure- I
A clamping circuit is (or a clamper) essentially adds DC component to the signal. Figure I shows
the key idea behind clamping. The input signal is a sine wave having a peak-to-peak value of
10V. The clamper adds the DC component and pushes the signal upwards so that the negative
peaks fall on the zero level. As we can see, the waveform has now peak values of +10V and V.
It may be seen that the shape of the original signal has not changed; only there is vertical shift
in the signal. Such a clamper is called a positive clamper. The negative clamper does the reverse
i.e. it pushes the signal downwards so that the positive peaks falls on the zero level.
The following points may be noted carefully:
I. The clamping circuit does not change the peak-to-peak or r.m.s. value of the waveform.
Thus referring to above figure the input waveform and clamped output have the same
peak-to-peak value i.e. 10V in this case. If we measure the input voltage and clamped out
with a n AC voltmeter, the readings will be the same.
II. A clamping circuit changes the peak and average values of the waveform. This point
needs explanation. Thus in the above circuit, it is easy to see that input waveform has a
peak value of 5V and average value over a cycle is zero. The clamped output varies
between 10V and 0V. Therefore the peak value of clamped output is 10V and average
value is 5V. Hence we arrive at a very important conclusion that a clamper changes the
peak value as well as average value of the waveform.
Basic Idea Of Clamper:

A clamping circuit should not change peak-to-peak value of the signal; it should only change DC
level. To do so, a clamping circuit uses a capacitor, together with a diode and a load resistance
RL. Figure II shows the circuit of a positive clamper.
Figure II
The operation of a clamper is based on the principle that charging time of a capacitor is made
very small as compared to its discharging time. Thus, referring to figure II.
Charging Time Constant, τ = Rf. C = (10Ω). (10^-6 F) = 10 µs

Total Charging Time, τc = 5 Rf. C = 5x10 = 50 µs
Discharging Time Constant, τ = RL. C = (10 x 10^3) (1x 10^-6) = 10 ms
Total Discharging Time, τd = 5 RL.C = 5x10 = 50 ms
It may be noted that charging time (i.e. 50 µs) is very small as compared to the discharging time
(i.e. 50ms). This is the basis of clamper circuit, the value of C and RL are so chosen that
discharging time is very large.
PART(A) POSITIVE CALMPER:

The figure III below shows a positive clamper. The waveform is assumed to be square wave with
time period T. The clamped output is obtained across RL. The circuit design incorporates two
main features. Firstly, the value of C and RL are so selected that time constant τ = C.RL is very
large. This means that the voltage across the capacitor will not discharge sufficiently during the
interval the diode is non-conducting. Secondly, RL.C time constant is deliberately made much
higher than the time period T of input signal.
Figure III
Operation:
I. During the negative half cycle of the input the diode is forward biased. Therefore the
diode behaves as short as shown below in Figure IV. The charging time constant (= C.Rf,
Rf is forward resistance) is very small that so that the capacitor will charge to V volts
very quickly. It is easy to see that during this interval, the output voltage is directly across
the short circuit. Therefore Vout = 0.
Figure IV Figure V
II. When the input switches to +V state (i.e. positive half cycle), the diode is reverse biased
and behaves as an open circuit as shown. Since the discharging time (= C.RL) is much
greater than the time period of the input signal, capacitor remains almost fully charged to
V volts during the off time of diode. Referring to Fig. V above and applying Kirchhoff ’s
voltage law to the input loop, we have,
V+ V – Vout = 0 or Vout = 2V
Figure VI
APPARATUS:
1. Function Generator (for square wave generation)
2. One 1N4001 diode
3. Resistors (100k-ohm)
4. Oscilloscope.
5. Capacitor (1micro-F)
6. Breadboard
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the diode to the function generator (generating square waves) as shown in a figure.
Note that the value of RL is considerably high i.e. 10k ohm and a capacitor of 1microF.

3. Switch on the oscilloscope and make necessary settings for Function Generator.
4. Set the value of input signal as: Vp-p = 8V, f =1000 Hz
5. Sketch the input waveform.
INPUT WAVEFORM
6. Be sure to preset output voltage = 0V line on the screen using GND position of the
coupling switch (and DC position to view the wave form)
7. Record the resulting output waveform below
OUTPUT WAVEFORM
8. Using above graph the values come out to be,

Vp-p = _____________________________________________________________
PART (B) NEGATIVE CALMPER:
Fig. VI shows the circuit of a negative clamper. The clamped out-put is taken across RL. Note
that only change from the positive clamper is that the connections of diode are reversed.
Figure VI
(i) During the positive half-cycle of the input signal, the diode is forward biased.
Therefore, the diode behaves as a short as shown in Fig. VII. The charging time
constant (= C.Rf) is very small so that the capacitor will charge to V volts very
quickly. It is easy to see that during this interval, the output voltage is directly across
the short circuit. Therefore, Vout= 0.
Figure VII
(ii) When the input switches to –V state (i.e., negative half-cycle), the diode is reverse
biased and behaves as an open as shown in Fig. VIII. Since the discharging time
constant (= CRL) is much greater than the time period of the input signal, the
capacitor almost remains fully charged to V volts during the off time of the diode.
Referring to Fig. 18.53 and applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the input loop, we
have,
− V − V – Vout = 0 or Vout = −2 V.
Figure VIII
The resulting waveform is shown in Fig. IX. Note that total swing of the output
signal is equal to the total swing of the input signal.
Figure IX
APPARATUS:
1. Function Generator (for square wave generation)
2. One 1N4001 diode
3. Resistors (100k-ohm)
4. Oscilloscope.
5. Capacitor (1micro-F)
6. Breadboard
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the diode to the function generator (generating square waves) as shown in a figure.
Note that the value of RL is considerably high i.e. 10k ohm and a capacitor of 1microF.

3. Switch on the oscilloscope and make necessary settings for Function Generator.
4. Set the value of input signal as: Vp-p = 8V, f=1000 Hz
INPUT WAVEFORM

6. Be sure to preset output voltage = 0V line on the screen using GND position of the
coupling switch (and DC position to view the wave form)
7. Record the resulting output waveform below
OUTPUT WAVEFORM
8. Using above graph the values come out to be,

Vp-p = _________________________________________________________________
● Changing the input signal to sine wave, repeat the above process and draw the output
waveforms.
I INPUT WAVEFORM
Vp = 4V
Vp-p = 8V
Frequency = 1000 Hz
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------
OUTPUT WAVEFORM
(POSTIVE CLAMPER)
Vp-p = _______________
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
OUTPUT WAVEFORM
(NEGATIVE CLAMPER)
Vp-p = _______________

Fixed-And Voltage Divider - Bias of BJTS: Experiment No - 12

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College of Electrical & Mechanical Engineering (CEME), NUST-Pakistan Electrical Engineering

FIXED- AND VOLTAGE DIVIDER- BIAS OF BJTs

VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS METHOD:

(i) Collector current IC:

PROCEDURE, OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

PART (2) – FIXED BIAS CONFIGURATION:

PART (3) – VOLTAGE DIVIDER CONFIGURATION:

2N3904 VBE VE VC VCE IE (m A) IC (m A) IB (µA)

EXPERIMENT: STUDY OF DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

Resistance of a Crytsal Diode:

 d.c. forward resistance, RDC = OA/OB

For forward voltage oa, circuit current is od.

a.c. forward resistance can numerically be calculated from

for levels of currents above knee of curve

for levels of current at and below knee of curve

Perform above check and note DMM readings:

Test DMM Reading (Diode Testing Scale)

Test DMM Reading (Resistance Scale)

8. Repeat steps 5-7 for ID= 2mA.

TO CONSTRUCT A HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT AND TO

8. Measure and record time T and peak voltage Vp of output

TO CONSTRUCT A FULL-WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT & TO

A basic full-wave bridge rectifier is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 2 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier (First Half-Wave Cycle Operation)

Figure 3. Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier (Second Cycle Operation)

Following relations hold for a full wave bridge rectifier:

viii. Vdc = 0.636 Vp

1. Connect the bridge to the low-voltage AC power supply as shown in a figure.

8. Sketch the output waveform during positive Half Cycle.

9. Sketch the output waveform during negative Half Cycle.

10. Sketch the output waveform.

11. Measure and record time T and peak voltage Vp of output

15. Also compare input and output voltages.

Input Waveform Output Waveform

Part-I: Positive Clipper:

Output Voltage = −Vm

8. Sketch the output waveform.

OUTPUT WAVEFORM (POSITIVE CLIPPER)

OUTPUT WAVEFORM (NEGATIVE CLIPPER)

Part-II: Biased Clipper:

OUTPUT WAVEFORM (POSITIVE BIASED CLIPPER)

OUTPUT WAVEFORM (NEGATIVE BIASED CLIPPER)

The following points may be noted carefully:

Basic Idea Of Clamper:

Charging Time Constant, τ = Rf. C = (10Ω). (10^-6 F) = 10 µs

Discharging Time Constant, τ = RL. C = (10 x 10^3) (1x 10^-6) = 10 ms

Total Discharging Time, τd = 5 RL.C = 5x10 = 50 ms

PART(A) POSITIVE CALMPER:

2. Connect CH1 of oscilloscope to Input and CH2 to Output/Load Resistance of a circuit.

8. Using above graph the values come out to be,

PART (B) NEGATIVE CALMPER:

2. Connect CH1 of oscilloscope to Input and CH2 to Output/Load Resistance of a circuit.

5. Sketch the input waveform

8. Using above graph the values come out to be,

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