Springer International Journal For Philosophy of Religion

Twilight of the Idols?
Pluralism and Mystical Praxis in Islam

Author(s): Abd al-Hakeem Carney
Source: International Journal for Philosophy of Religion, Vol. 64, No. 1 (Aug., 2008), pp. 1-
20
Published by: Springer
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Int J Philos Relie (2008) 64: 1-20
DOI 10.1007/sl 1153-007-9149-2
Twilight of the idols? pluralism and mystical praxis

in Islam
'Abd al-Hakeem Carney
Received: 31 May 2007 / Accepted: 18 September 2007 / Published online: 16 January 2008
© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2007
Abstract In this article, we discuss the current trend of authoritarianism in the

Islamic world, especially as embodied in the institution of taqlîd, whereby a lay per-
son blindly follows a religious scholar. We will compare this to the mystical tradition
of Ibn 'Arabî as well as the early esoteric Shî'ite tradition, where a much more "rebel-
lious" type of Islam was offered and provided purviews of pluralism and universal-
ism that challenge authoritarian closures of interpretation in relationship with God.
By way of further comparison, we will also attend to the writings of some liberal and
pluralistic thinkers in the Muslim world.
Keywords Islam • Pluralism • Mysticism • Nietzche
Maintaining cheerfulness in the midst of a gloomy task, fraught with immeasur-

able responsibility, is no small feat; and yet what is needed more than cheerful-
ness?
- Nietzsche, Twilight of the Idols
Introduction
In this article, we will be discussing the current trend of authoritarianism in the Islamic
world, especially as embodied in the institution of taqlîd, whereby a lay person blindly
follows a religious scholar. We will compare this to the mystical tradition of Ibn 'Arabî
'Abd al-Hakeem Carney is deceased.
Corresponding Author: Charlotte O' Kelly, 76 Summit Avenue, Providence, RI 02906-2704, USA.
'A. al-H. Carney (El)

Near Eastern and Asian Studies, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
e-mail: Cokelly@providence.edu
^ Springer
2 Int J Philos Relig (2008) 64: 1-20
as well as the early esoteric Shî'ite tra

Islam was offered in the form of a my
interpretationin relationship with God
'Arab! and the Shî'ite tradition that a
for the ease of the non-Arabic readin
of some liberal and pluralistic thinker
world could eventually change for the b
Idols and authoritarianism
One of the most fascinating and difficult to translate Qur'anic terms is that of jâ gut,
which occurs eight times in the Qur'an.1 The classical Arabic- Arabic dictionary Lisân
al- 'Arab defines it as "anything which is worshipped alongside of Allah" (Lisân 8:444).
Interestingly enough, the word is often used both to describe false idols and devils,
as well as authoritarian dictators. Linguistically, the word derives from the verb fagû
or \agâ, which is defined as anything that exceeds the normal bounds set for it. In
another Arabic dictionary, Kitâb aWAyn, the author gives the interesting example of
Noah's deluge to explain the meaning of the verb \agha, saying that the water of
the flood "overwhelmed" (jagâ) Noah's people (Kitâb al-'Ayn 4:435), in the sense
that the waters of the earth exceeded their previous bounds. Commenting upon the
first sequential appearance of the word \âgût in the Qur'an (verse 2:256: "And those
who disbelieve in the jagût and believe in Allah, then they have grasped the firmest
handhold") the modern Shi'a Qur'anic commentator (mufassir) 'Allâmah Muhammad
Husayn Jabâ{abâ'î writes:
JagQt means to tyrannize (jugyân, which can also mean to flood or deluge) and
to exceed the limits, and the word has a certain intensification of meaning to
it... it is used in things which lead towards such tyranny. This includes all of
the things that are worshipped alongside of Allah, such as idols, devils, spirits,
human leaders of disbelief, and everything which people follow without a Divine
permission (Tabà{abà'î 2, 1998, p. 348).
The verb jagâ is specifically used in condemnation of the arch-dictator in the

Qur'anic narrative, Pharaoh. In the surah of Ja Ha, which primarily concerns the
story of Moses, God speaks from the burning bush and says: "Go to Pharaoh, for
indeed he has exceeded all bounds (Jagâ)" (20:24, 79:17). It is important to note that,
in the Qur'anic narrative, the main crime of Pharaoh (alongside of his genocide of
the Children of Israel, cf. 14:6) was his institution of emperor-worship, saying to his
people: "I am your Lord, the Most High" (79:24). As such, it would seem that the
Qur'an posits anybody who claims the authority of God without right is regarded
as being an equivalent to idols, and those who follow such people are equivalent to
idol-worshippers.
One can broaden this understanding to all authoritarian discourse, where one speaks
"in God's Name" without right and one attempts to foster a mentality of interpretive
1 2:256, 2:257, 4:51, 4:60; 4:76, 5:60, 16:36; 39:17.
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Int J Philos Relig (2008) 64: 1-20 3
and spiritual closure, as a material examp

of the general Qur'anic discourse conc
argued that one of the greatest proble
of such authoritarian closures of inte
El Fadl is one of a number of leading
Abdolkarim Soroush and Abdulaziz Sach
a pluralistic understanding of Islam that
While there is no doubt that these think
ditional Islamic disciplines,2 these attem
of Islam must be seen in a wider conte
of a Utopian ideal of the Islamic state3
failure of such systems in Sudan, Iran,
ented reform movements in Iran and oth
Protestantism, for which the Iranian h
in 2002) is symptomatic of a widening
that operate in the name of Islam, an
arrogate a Divine authority for their r
tivities and ambiguities inherent in th
Abou El Fadl devotes a large portion of
disingenuous legal rulings (fatawa) of S
with regards to women (Abou El Fadl
the problematic juristic mechanisms th
to disclose honestly rival interpretati
185-188) and the identification of the
Qur'anic use of the term (âgUt, and esp
authoritarianism, one could argue that s
"idolatry" in the Muslim world today.
Coupled with closur this authoritarian
Shi'a world today than it is in the Sun
beholden to blindly follow (a process
with them on these issues, in deference
Muslim world into the "learned" (the '
flipside of clerical legalism and authori
taqli d that Aghajari rebelled against, an
by a judge in Hamadân. The link betwe
of course familiar from the history of P
inChristianity. Islamic anti -clerical ism
the idea that supreme sovereignty belo
2 Specifically the disciplines of tafsîr (Qur'ani

kalâm (rational theology), as well as mysticism a
J I have argued elsewhere that the widely held fait
in the Islamic tradition, (cf. Carney 2003). Also im
ing the Juridicial Status of the Iranian 'Ulama,"
idea of the Islamic jurisprudent's Divinely ordain
the Shi'a juristic tradition.
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fallible human authorities can only be a

anarchist Adin Ballou argues that a tru
. . .parents, patriarchs, priests, kings, n

islatures, constitutions, armies, mobs
and then patiently endure the penal c
ment is nothing against the governme
government, as contradistinguished fro
cipher? When it opposes God's govern
his government it is nothing; and whe
application of the general law of God
The
basic Islamic commitment to obey
lenge and break down the authoritarian
decay within the Muslim world. Such
suggests an anticipation of the "twiligh
was, of course, made famous by Nietzsc
book of that title: "I mistrust all system
a lack of integrity." In contrast to this
towards the canonical sources of Islam
towards God Himself, and it is precisel
have posited as the true perfection of
religious texts are not only a violation
God: it is an attempt to subject a prof
Divine Reality to the limitations of hum
This "openness" that accepts the Ineff
for a religious and spiritual pluralism.
by most religious people, is often given
that such a statement makes. When one
discourses to God, and one abandons th
the only other alternative is a pluralist
to a system," one has no other choice b
of God are as fallible as any others, and
to other Paths as there is to one's own.
within the Muslim world, yet there is
high-water mark. In order for pluralis
Islamic world, however, there must be a
such religious pluralism.
Pluralism and "rebellious" mysticism
Pluralism, in this context, should be di

has been noted by innumerable commen
ance" implies evil within the Other (cf
as a much as the body "tolerates" a sm
gious" or "spiritual" pluralism will be u
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IntJ Philos Relig (2008) 64: 1-20 5
a very different set of premises; it ack

dispensing with the idea of a single P
Him. While such a pluralist may none
being the best, he or she does not deny
2001). Religious pluralism, in this sens
as evil: a "pluralist" in this sense is som
commitments, is none the less able t
other religious paths.
The type of pluralism that merely to
pluralism; this would be the mere con
pluralism can be accepted by the ath
be justified in purely "secular" terms
monious society where members of di
to ground such a political pluralism i
a number of current researchers, suc
has also attempted to link religious a
of Democratic Pluralism. This spirit o
verse of Qur' an:
Indeed, those who believe, and those

Sabeans, those who believe in Allah an
they will have their reward with their
they grieve (2:62).
Sachedina argues that this verse is on

religious pluralism (Sachedina 2001, p
gence of religions is acknowledged as a
of human beings. Perhaps the most ex
Ifyour Lord had willed, He would hav

not cease to be in dispute, except for
Mercy. It was for this reason that w
Though the Qur'anic text is not clear a

ordained, the topic has become a fav
been more sensitive to the ineffability
acknowledged by almost all people for w
meaning, precludes any authoritarian
His Essence as well as any understandi
is infinite and unlimited, while simul
of God is the only valid conception,
beings are fundamentally limited being
human intellect is not. Because of this l
to adopt a position with regard to his
religion and spirituality feel a compe
most realize that His Infinity preclude
nizing the infinity of God can lead peo
enter into a state of complete despair,
Ô Springer
God and affirm an at least tentative th

confines of their own fallibility. In fac
latter: for despair is itself a position, a
applies for agnosticism; and in fact m
kind of "agnosticism" a centre-point
tant point to observe here is that any
compelled to take a position of one kin
This "taking of a position," however
where the subjectivity and fallibility of
of the Deity, or it may be one that co
pretations, where God is made to "fit"
second type of position has been quite
but there has always been a minority
transcendence of God beyond the limi
tradition, the most significant thinker
4Arabî (b. 1165/d. 1240). Throughout
the Gods created in faith"5 takes a c
The ordinary believer is seen as someo
beliefs; though he or she may be piously
heedless of the Divine Essence's intrin
ates" their God, which is distinguishe
Ipseity (cf. 'Afîfï 2, 1946, p. 67)). Such
according to a specific understanding o
with his or her belief system ( 'aqîdah).
complete; by attempting to fix God t
and therefore one is unable to confront
faith. Here, it is important to note tha
is lexicographically derived from the
al-'Ayn 1:140, Almond 2002, p. 518). T
then, are seen to "tie knots" upon Go
at least) that there is an incipient autho
discourse.
Contrasted to this is the gnostic ( 'ârif) who transcends such limitations: such a per-
son does not limit the deity to any specific form ('Afîfî 2, 1 946, p. 147). In a sense, this
is the person who is able to see the Divine manifested in the entirety of religious faiths.
Ibn 'Arabî denies the possibility of seeing the Divine in its Ipseity; but this "agnosti-
cism" is overcome by the perception of His Manifestation in the infinite succession
of created forms, of which all religious paths are a part by virtue of the fact that they
exist in the human experience. Such a gnostic, then, is a pluralist in the true sense:
4 So much so that even categories like existence and non-existence are denied. See the quasi-Ismaili
philosophical speculations of the noted heresiographer Muhammad ibn 4Abd al-Karîm ash-Shahristanî
(Ash-Shahristani 41-42) as well the discussions of the 1 lth-century Fatimid dâ'î Hamîd ad-Dîn al-Kirmânî
(Kirmànî 1 968, pp. 1 30- 1 3 1 ). in his Rahat al- 'Aql 1 30- 1 3 1 . In fact, a large part of their doctrine of Imamate
is an attempt to understand the way that an absolutely transcendent God makes Himself known to Creation:
cf. Corbin 1983: 84-87.
5 For a further discussion on the God created in faith, see Chittick 1998, pp. 23-24, 92, 275-276
^ Springer
Int J Philos Relig (2008) 64: 1 -20 7
he or she perceives Divinity in every fo

God to one religious path. In this regard
Al-4Afïfî writes:
The Real,6 in terms of His Essence as d
manifest to anybody except through th
theophanic forms (mazâhir), the forms
is manifest to every heart, and He is m
way: there, He is manifest in the forms o
heart. . .True knowledge (ma 'rifah) of the
to a specific form, so that you dispute a
knowledge is that you absolutely free Hi
tential form equally,8 meaning that He a
equally. The forms of existence are infin
end('Afïfî2, 1946, p. 147).
The verb (alaq, used here, has many m
divorce (in the sense of letting one's spo
used in the sense of "generality" or abs
(muflaq) or text are contrasted to ruling
tain conditions or circumstances. Such g
and so for this reason I have chosen to tra
an acknowledgment and acceptance of th
ogy, the Sudanese reformer Mahmoud
government for apostasy in 1985) wrote
The Qur'an can never be finally and c

never be concluded. Progress in it is et
God is Islam" (3:19). "With God" [is ete
into Islam, by means of the Qur'an, is pr
As such it has not been, and can never
Ha 1998, p. 247).
This idea of seeing God manifest in eve

'Arabî's most famous poem. I rely upon
My heart can take on any form:

For gazelles a meadow,
A cloister for monks,
For the idols, sacred ground,
Ka'ba for the circling pilgrim,
The tables of the Torah,
The scrolls of the Qur'an.
6 Al-Haqq, the Truth: one of the Ninety-Nine Nam

Ibn 'Arabi's preferred term for God.
7 Note the use of the plural here, seemingly imply
8 So much so that many Sufis (such as Hallaj) w
himself. See Nurbaksh 1986, pp. 5-^8.
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I profess the religion of love.

Wherever its caravan turns
Along the way, that is the belief,
The faith I keep (Sells 2000, p. 75)
In contrast to the "ordinary" believer who, as 'Afîfî describes, seeks to privilege his
or her understanding of God over all others, the gnostic is the pluralist par excellence.
Not only is the gnostic able to witness the Divinity in other religious paths, but he
or she reflects all of those paths within his or her heart. Even though a gnostic must
also "take a position" with regard to God (and so openly follow a specific religious
path), he or she is inwardly "believing" in every faith equally. Interestingly enough,
we find this theme taken in the Shi 'a hadtth literature, in those narrations dealing with
the "bounties" (fadâ'il) of the Prophet, his daughter Fatimah, and the Imams. As has
been amply demonstrated by Mohammad Alî Amir-Moezzi in his Divine Guide in
Early Shi' ism, "primitive" Shi 'ism regarded the Imams as being greatly exalted about
the mere law-giving function that later Shi 'a orthodoxy would ascribe to them (Amir-
Moezzi 1 39). The Imams were regarded fundamentally as beings of Light, the Face
of God Himself (Amir-Moezzi 45), in which the entirety of Creation is recapitulated.
They were not limited to their physical appearance in terrestrial history; just as Jesus
said: "Before Abraham was, I am" so the Prophet is reported to have said: "I was a
Prophet when Adam was between water and clay";9 and the first Shi'a Imam 'Alt ibn
Abî Jâlib is said to have stated: "I was a saint [wâlî] when Adam was between water
and clay" (cf. Amûlî 1969, pp. 380-382). Much like the Perfect Human of Akbarian
Sufism, the Imam is regarded as the perfect manifestation of God, and this seems to
have been a central pivot of early Shi 'ism, so much so that whole chapters of early
Shi'a hadith works are devoted to the subject. Long before Ibn 'Arabî, we see the
same ideas discussed, albeit with less technical sophistication. Many of these narra-
tions have not been presented in English language studies on Shi'ism, and so it will
be of benefit to cite two of them here:
When Ja'far as-Sadiq was asked about this verse, he said: 'It [His Face] means
His Religion, and the Prophet and the Prince of Believers were the religion of
Allah and His Face. They are His Eye over His Servants, and His Tongue through
which He speaks, and His Hand over His Creation.
We are the Face of Allah, through which He is reached." (SadQq 1398, p. 151).
'Alî said: I am the side of Allah, and the word of Allah, and the heart of Allah,
and the gate of Allah. Whoever enters this gate in prostration, I will forgive him
his sins, and I will aid the righteous. Through me, the Hour will come, and within
me the evil doers are destroyed. I am the First, and the Last. I am the Manifest,
and the Hidden, and I know all (Mâzandarânî 3, 1379, p. 387).
These narrations can, and have, been read in an authoritarian fashion, where the
Imam (because of his Divine function) is viewed as being a kind of theocratic dictator,
any religion other than his is denied any value. Yet the question remains as to what
9 i.e., before Adam was created.
Q Springer
"his" religion is; and another body of n

same themes as the previous hadîths, al
the Imam of all faiths: his religion is n
the paths, and the "Imam of Light" is s
created in faith." The identification of th
is especially important in this regard,
reads: "To Allah is the East and the Wes
of Allah." (2:114) This verse has been m
the unity of existence and the manifest
p. 33). In the Shi'a context, the Imam, a
(for the Face of God is not isolated to h
"heart" is a perpetual reflection of the m
sectarians may attempt to use him as a
others, a number of hadîths establish the
explicit in the following well-known ha
Indeed, the Mahdî is called the Mahdi

towards a hidden affair. He will take
Exalted, from a cave in Antioch. He will
Torah, the people of the Gospel by the
the Psalms, and the people of the Qur
The universal aspect of the Imam, as t

theImam is understood in his "Luminous
throughout the ages. The "universalism
only becomes intelligible when the Ima
and is understood as the bearer of the es
1997, p. 83). The famous Shi'a theosoph
follower of Ibn 'Arabî's school (cf. Corb
in a Shi'a context and emphatically arguin
cially that of the first Imâm 'Alî) is the
message, and the essence of all these r
Within the context of this highly esoter
are seen as being nothing but the physi
saints, encompassing all of them within
in one narration:
Truly, anyone who wishes to see Ada

Adam and Seth. Anyone who wishes to
that I am that Noah and Shem. Anyone
should know that I am that Abraham
Moses and Joshua should know that I
wishes to see Jesus and Simon, shoul
Anyone who wishes to see Muhamma
should know that I am that Muhamm
al-Hasan and al-Husayn, should know
Anyone who wishes to see the Imams f
© Springer
know that I am those pure Imams. Accep

will inform you whatever you wish to k
scriptures and divine scrolls, will now
1981, p. 163).
Similar ecstatic utterances are attribute

'Alt. In the famous (and controversial) K
I am the one who has the knowledge of

become. I am the first Adam. I am the first Noah. I am Ibrahim the Friend when
he was cast in the fire. I am the reality of secrets... I am the one who has a
thousand books from the books of the Prophets. I am the one who speaks every
language of the world. I am the Lord (sahib) of Noah, and the one who rescued
him. I am the Lord of Jonah, and the one who saved him (Rihand, pp. 1 19-128).
In another important sermon of 'Alî in this regard is the sermon of Luminous Knowl-
edge (al-ma'rifal an-nurwaniyyah) where 'All addresses two of his most prominent
companions, Abu Dharr al-Gafari and Salmân al-Farsî. The hadîth opens where 'All
proclaims his own "luminosity" as a saint:
Abu Dharr and Salmân al-Farsî - may Allah be pleased with them - said to 'Alî:
"We have come to you, O prince of the believers, to ask you about the Luminous
Knowledge of you." 'Ali replied: "Welcome, both of you, you who are of my
friends and those who have held fast and not broken their covenant. By my life,
I say that the Luminous Knowledge of me is obligatory on every believing man
and woman."
Then he said: "O Salmân and Jundab [Abu Dharr]!" To which they replied: "We
are here, O prince of the believers." 'Ali continued: "No one's faith is complete
without knowing me in my Essence, by knowing me through my Luminous
Reality. If one knows me through this knowledge, then Allah has tested that
person's heart for faith, and expanded his breast to Islam, and such a person
has become a Knower Cârif) and Seer (mustabsir). Whoever falls short of this
knowledge, then he is a doubter and an apostate. O Salmân and Jundab... the
Luminous Knowledge of me is knowledge of Allah the Exalted and Glorified,
and knowledge of Allah is the Luminous Knowledge of me (Majlisî 26, 1404,
p. 6).
He then goes on to present his own "universality," identifying himself with many
of the previous prophets and saints mentioned in the Qur'an.
I am the one who carried Noah in his boat by the command of my Lord. I am the
one who brought Jonah from the belly of the fish by the command of my Lord. I
am the one who brought Musa son of 'Imrân through the sea by the command of
my Lord. I am the one who took Abraham from the fire by the command of my
Lord. I am the one who flows the rivers, opens the wells, and plants the trees,
by the command of my Lord. Everyday I heard the words of the hypocrites and
tyrants, and understand their languages. I am Khidr, the teacher of Moses. I was
the teacher of Solomon the son of David. (Majlisî 26, 1404, p. 6).
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Similar statements are made in a numb

hadtth 'Alt says to the "people of the B
am he whose name in the Gospel is Elij
quotes the following Ismaili narration: "
lepers. I am he and he is I." (Ibid.) A simila
religious traditions as well. We can recal
the Lankavatara Sutra, where (similar to
of the names (described by him as being
has been in different times and places,
like Brahma, Vishnu, Ishvara, Rama, Ind
however, are seen to have "grasped" th
the moon is seen in water" (Ibid.), just as
one who has grasped him in his "Lumin
been used to justify a vehemently secta
of the Imam's "Luminosity" would challe
of the Imam to any given form; rather
fest in every religion. Rather than the I
himself the task of coming to guide peopl
of "sacred intellect" that exists within t
walâyat, is not isolated to the figure of th
latent within every believer, but has to
a process of self-realization, of discover
Mufiammad al-Bâqir, speeking of the v
his Prophet and the Light which he has
I swear by Allah that the Light is the Im

until the day of judgment. I swear by A
sent down. I swear by Allah, that they a
the Earth. I swear by Allah, the Light of
is brighter than the brilliant day star. B
of the believers. (Kulaynt 1, 1451, p. 1
Here, the authoritative position of th

alongside of the Imam's spiritual presen
rations challenge a purely dogmatic aut
instruction, frequent in the Shi'a hadîth l
being an instruction to merely submit t
knowing the Imam within, of actualizin
a saint oneself. In some hadîths, this rea
the human being, in whom God has bre
'Alt, we read:
Your sickness is within you, though you do not realize,

And your cure is within, yet you do not see.
You claim that you are nothing but a tiny entity,
Yet wrapped up inside of you is the greatest universe.
You are the clear book, through whose letters
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All that is secret is revealed and made known.

So you have no need for anything outside of you,
Your consciousness is within you, though you do not know.
This poem would seem to imply that discovering the Divinity within is completely
bound up with transcending the limitations of ordinary religious belief. Actualizing
the spiritual reality of the Imam, who will rule every people according to their partic-
ular dispensation, involves unveiling the "greatest universe" that exists inside every
human being. For this reason, many Shi' a mystics (such as Mullâ Sadrâ) have argued
that Imâmate, rather than being an externalized dogmatic office, is the "secret" reality
of every human being (cf. Corbin 1983, pp. 127-128). But it would seem that, based
upon the teachings of the Imams and the later generations of Sufi mystics, that no one
may "reach" that reality without moving past the narrow-confines of ordinary belief.
Stephen Mitchell has found a similar teaching in as diverse sources as the teachings
of Christ, Zen Buddhism, and Hasidic mysticism. The primary teaching of these reli-
gious masters, he argues, is that of "Divine presence" and discovering the "Kingdom
of God" within (Mitchell 1991, p. 10).
How moving and at the same time how ridiculous is the story of the Hasidic
rabbi who, every morning, as soon as he woke up, would rush out his front door
to see if the Messiah had arrived. . .Another Hasidic story, about a more mature
stage of this consciousness, takes place at the Passover seder. The rabbi tells his
chief disciple to go outside and see if the Messiah has come. "But Rabbi, if the
Messiah came, would you know it in here?" the disciple says, pointing to his
heart. "Ah," says the rabbi, pointing to his own heart, "but in here, the Messiah
has already come" (Mitchell 1991, p. 1 1).
Yet anybody who makes such a "discovery" will inevitably be challenging the
orthodoxies of his or her time. By discovering the Imam within, he or she will have
discovered the Light of God within. The power of jurisprudents within the Muslim
world revolves around their role as the guardians of orthodoxy and their status as inter-
mediaries between the Muslim faithful and God; even in religious traditions where the
jurisprudent is not given any kind of "Divine status," his legal expertise is seen to be
critical for assisting the laity in deciphering the Law of a transcendent and basically
unreachable God. An individualized mysticism and an "interior" Imamate, however,
"transcends" this transcendence, and allows God to be reached within the heart. And
yet this internal experience of God, at least as the teaching of most Sufi mystics and
the Shi'a Imam's is concerned, does not lead towards a selfish individualism. Discov-
ering the Imam within entails discovering everything within, "the greatest universe"
that 'Alî says is contained within the human heart. In addition to challenging the need
for a body of clerics to mediate between God and man, such a mysticism will also
rebel against the authoritarianism that is latent in much of (though certainly not all)
the Muslim world's contemporary juristic discourse. As such, this kind of mysticism
cannot help but be anti-authoritarian, anti-dogmatic, and iconoclastic. As will be dis-
cussed, it seems that such mystical teachings have greatly contributed to the discourse
of anti-authoritarianism in many Islamic reform movements, especially in Iran.
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Bewilderment and anti-authoritarian discourse
This understanding of sainthood and spiritual wisdom ultimately precludes the type
of authoritarian closures that have come to characterize much of Islamic religious
discourse. The saint abandons the "will to a system," and exists in a state of bewilder-
ment before the ineffability and Infinity of the Divine reality. This bewilderment has
been admirably described in Ian Almond's "Honesty of the Perplexed": such bewilder-
ment is seen, not as the result of spiritual misguidance or delusion, but rather signifies
a state of spiritual maturity, even perfection (Almond 2002, pp. 527-528). This bewil-
derment seems to be preceded by a dissatisfaction and confusion with regards to one's
choice of belief system (cf. Almond Ibid.), and an ability to participate in a latent
(or explicit) authoritarianism that "binds" or "ties" God to a specific form. 'Abd ar-
Rahmân Jàmî presents one of the most succinct discussions of this process, where he
outlines three stages of bewilderment. The first is a basic agnosticism before setting
out on a path; here, the believer is attempting to discover which "knot" it is best to
fix upon God. Ordinary people are usually satisfied at this stage; but some proceed
to a second re-occurrence of bewilderment and confusion. This second stage occurs
when the believer witnesses the various other "knots" (i.e., belief systems) that people
have ascribed to God. His original determination is now held into question. This is not
the realm of agnosticism proper, but rather confusion when he finds himself unable to
ascribe an absolute Truth to his particular "knot." Perhaps this realization bears some
similarities to the Dark Night of the Soul of St. John of the Cross, where an immature
enjoyment of spiritual practice (at least immature in St. John's of the Cross vision) is
removed and replaced with aching sense of God's absence (St. John 1998, pp. 64-67,
Larkin 1974, 1 12). It would seem that, according to Jàmî's interpretation, a person's
knot is beginning to become undone at this stage. Jàmî argues that this bewilderment
can only be removed by an act of despair at fixing God according to such knots; then
he is said to advance to the stage of a true saint or gnostic ( 'ârif), the kind that Ibn
'Arabi described in the passage above. Such a person is seen to have transcended the
limitations of normal belief systems; he is able to see God in every form, while at
the same time holding God's transcendence above all forms. Concerning this final
bewilderment, Ibn 'Arabi writes in his Futûhât:
Arrival at bewilderment in the Real is itself arrival at God. Bewilderment is the

most magnificent thing that belongs to the folk of self-disclosure, because the
forms are diverse for them in the One Entity. The limits are diverse because of
the diversity of forms, but limit does not apply to the Entity.10 The Entity is not
witnessed, just as It is not known. Those who stop with the limits that follow
upon the forms are bewildered, but those who know that there is an Entity that
fluctuates through the forms in the eyes of the viewers but not in Itself know
that there is an Unknown Essence that is not known and not witnessed (Chittick
1998, p. 84).
10 Al-'Ayn. The word is notoriously difficult to translate (with dozens of different and disparate meanings),
but in this context we will rely upon Chittick's choice of the word "entity." See Qashâni 1991, pp. 87-88
[English section] p. 127 [Arabic section].
£} Springer
This experience of bewilderment, befo

can be seen as akin to the only God wh
he said: "I should only believe in a God
1969, p. 68), a "Dionysian" Deity that t
fines of ordinary belief. It is such an A
was hesitatingly willing to accept, the s
narrative) Abraham confronted in the d
son (Kierkegaard 1985, pp. 97-108). Ult
remain only a possibility within his thou
possibility is perhaps more telling than
the Transcendent Godhead, the Divine I
pure possibility, beyond any fixed determ
Nietzsche seen as the Antichrist has bec
not understand his atheism as a merely
rather, his refusal to commit to a the
of bewilderment than anything else. A
Nietzsche was opposed to but "monoto-t
(Kee 1999, pp. 162-163). The same Niet
also the same one who, in The Will to P
And how many new gods are still possib

that is to say god-forrning, instinct
times - how differently, how variously
time! (Qtd. in Kee 1999, p. 169).
Perhaps somewhere in Nietzsche's tort

was looming. Ultimately, one could say
"atheist" like Nietzsche and a mystic th
hesitate in affirming the reality of a "
a radical and unique theology. To Ibn '
the will to a system is nothing but a la
a refusal to confront the Absolute and
with the attempt to abandon a system, a
God. It is to abandon the attempt to se
of bewilderment. In a very different co
Nietzsche's attack upon the quest for "p
Our attitude to the "internal enemy" i

alized hostility; here too we have com
fruitfulness is to be rich in internal o
as the soul does not stretch itself and
alien to us than that desideratum of for
desideratum; there is nothing we envy
happiness of the good conscience. On
renounces war (Nietzsche 1998, pp. 22
Returning to the context of Islamic m

doned such a quest, dispensing with and
4y Springer
Int J Philos Relig (2008) 64:1-20 15
on to a higher level of faith. Such fait

passes all the forms in which the Deity
gnostic is free from the tyranny of an
given 'AfîfTs interpretation, seems to b
from the limitations of beliefs) has an
writes:
The gnostic unravels the knots of all t

theophanic vision of his Lord. For this v
of this or that faith prescribed and im
(Corbin 1997, p. 198).
Such a person, then, is fundamentally

not motivated by a spirit of sectarian ha
tinguished between the gnostic and tho
religious dispensation. Rather, this icono
love (hayman, 'ishq) for God, which puri
idols and allows him to gaze upon no on
the only being ever beheld is God Himse
tion of faith and monotheism, and the
the ritual purification of the true gno
heart (or one's "secret," one's inner real
('Amûlî 1982, p. 138). As we have seen,
with transcending the "gods created in
self-disclosure in religious forms unless
Him.
It is probably no coincidence that, in I
human being and "the wisdom of ecsta
was none other than Abraham (Corbin
Qur'anic narrative (21:51-71). In his dis
is a pluralist insofar as the Ineffable D
his or her heart; but transcending the re
cannot help but undo the knots tied by s
This is the realm of a more genuine conf
worth remembering that Kierkegaard s
one who transcends the Universal for t
in the realm of the absurd. The link be
spirit of religious pluralism becomes cl
Ibn 'Arabî's words, where he understan
universal to all saints. He writes:
The word muhayyamîyah is derived f

refers to an extreme ardor in love ('is
Ibn 4Arabî) because Allah the Exalted
Ibrahim as his intimate friend (khalîl
as a khalîl. The khalîl is a lover, who
his beloved... But there is no doubt th
© Springer
Abraham to refer merely to the famous p

a cipher to depict a the species (nau *)of
the prophets, messengers and saints. ('A
the school of our author, is the most co
of all the Divine Names and Attributes
Ibn 'Arab! does not deal with Abraham'

cussion on the "Abraharnic wisdom." But
a genuine love of the Divine (i.e., a love t
pitfalls of authoritarianism) and that of
who not only perceives the Divine in the
all of those faiths within his or her own
as he or she is the supreme theophany an
then so all the Names that are ascribed
passed by his soul. But this "universality"
mystic is in a somewhat paradoxical relat
he or she witnesses the Divine in the fai
latent authoritarianism of those faiths. By
Human cannot help but be an iconoclast.
Here we see a mysticism that is "rebelli
the task of breaking easily held social co
the "God created in faiths." Given the w
'Afïfî's understanding of the mystic, one
ian praxis that underlies the mystic dev
often counter-posed to the praxis of pol
dried as they may seem. For the mystic
almost Socratic attempt to untie the reli
believers will always present a challenge
authoritarianism is often justified in the
this would be the most famous Sufi mar
earned him a brutal death-sentence at th
1982, p. 38). Perhaps Hallaj embodies the
anybody else. Hallaj challenged the nomian
have once said that a sincere prayer in on
obligation of the hajj (Mason 1999, p. 73)
orthodox bipolar dichotomy of God and c
Real (and al-haqq)" Such a statement was
when uttered by Hallaj it was as meant
"The Kingdom of God is within you." An
also a pluralist, famously writing: "I med
understand them, and I came to realize th
ramifications" (Qtd. in Nasr 1980, p. 280
iconoclastic spirits were united.
The "iconoclasm" of mystic, Divine Lov
of Abdolkarim Soroush. For him, a spirit
to a dolorous passivity or the kind of leth
^y Springer
Int J Philos Relig (2008) 64: 1-20 1 7
icizes. This is a religion that is based on lo

senses: it is a wild Divine love, at one mom
spiritual production and synthesis (and it
ecstatic or rapturous love, 'ishq and haym
Perhaps this was the love of which Nietzsc
is always a certain madness in love. But
(Nietzsche 1969, p. 68). Soroush writes:
Surely, the faith of the emulators,1 1 not

uniform, tame, and suggestible. But how a
And which is nobler? A religious societ
more free and freedom loving, as it trade
as it favours inner plurality over outer m
favours voluntary submission to involunta
breaks the tyrannical arm of religious d
faith in the body of power. Verily, the re
a society of imitators is as remote from
patience and the devil from the Qur'an
Much of the contemporary Iranian intelle

to be motivated by a famous hadxth of th
God as there are breaths of the human b
been meditated upon by many Sufis. Such
authoritarian interpretive closure, and op
ralism that does more than "tolerate" the
attack on "emulation" (taqlîd) is also of gr
to an iconoclastic attack upon authoritari
often been used to justify terrible acts of
closures are contrasted to a spirit of love
that these two spirits are about as diame
iconoclastic and pluralistic spirit is, of cou
As we have seen, the mystics of Islam h
light, as a prelude to Enlightenment. For
stands in marked contrast to the "lover"
Divine; here it is perhaps worth rememb
the priestly class precisely in the attempt t
strictures of ordinary belief and ethics (c
sified as being a merely imaginary attemp
pain and suffering is seen as Divine retribu
and the working of righteous deeds, and
belief systems may provide a great deal o
Nietzsche (his atheism is so theological t
and the "bewildered mystic" alike, the ques
1 1 i.e., the people who do taqlîd.
â Springer
It would seem that many pluralistically

ing a kind of Zarathustran "wake-up" ca
never be able to accept the proclamatio
of the Nietzschean claim seems to be at
announcement that the time for a comf
sometimes authoritarian tendencies) sh
"deconstruction" of God, by acknowledgin
is no end to exploring the infinity of Go
call couched within Qur'anic terms (Ta H
dead for a faithful Islamic scholar like Ta
God that underlies much authoritarian r
to have been quite dead for him, destroy
is not a purely atheistic construct; it sign
Kee has admirably put it, "Only those w
experience the death of God" (Kee 1999, p
poses to the authoritarian finite, it is not
orthodoxy would come down on such pe
Such battles have been commonplace th
castigated by many of the jurisprudents
in Egypt mainly on their account (Corb
manifest in iconoclasts of other tradition
emulation and conformity he found roote
off by the Tsar to crush peasant uprising
he challenged such soldiers to justify th
human beings even though God has wr
One soldier's response mirrors the attitu
who blindly follow the clergy in all ma
exile, and killing. When Tolstoy asked ho
"They [the government] must have fou

much about it as we do, I should hope."
set his mind at rest, in the full convictio
which authorized his ancestors, and the t
of men, to serve as he was doing hims
was a kind of hoax or conundrum on m
The argument in favor of blindly fol

nearly identical to the "rational" proofs
knowledgeable about Islam, and so theref
never dispute with them on any issue, a
given for As-Sistânî's fatwâ cited above
presently in an intellectual dark age (Ab
pluralistic/universalistic strands of gnos
the work of current liberal and pluralist
enment which is both thoroughly Islam
be necessary now is an increasingly icon
its core. We can close with Nietzsche's
£) Springer
Abraham) he sets himself the task of the

and smashing the idols of the age:
Another mode of convalescence (in cert

is sounding out idols. There are more idol
"evil eye" upon this world; that is also
with a hammer, and sometimes to hear a
can only come from bloated entrails - w
behind his ears, for me, an old psychol
that which would remain silent must fi
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Twilight of the Idols?

Pluralism and Mystical Praxis in Islam

Twilight of the idols? pluralism and mystical praxis

'Abd al-Hakeem Carney

Abstract In this article, we discuss the current trend of authoritarianism in the

Keywords Islam • Pluralism • Mysticism • Nietzche

Maintaining cheerfulness in the midst of a gloomy task, fraught with immeasur-

'Abd al-Hakeem Carney is deceased.

'A. al-H. Carney (El)

as well as the early esoteric Shî'ite tra

Idols and authoritarianism

The verb jagâ is specifically used in condemnation of the arch-dictator in the

1 2:256, 2:257, 4:51, 4:60; 4:76, 5:60, 16:36; 39:17.

and spiritual closure, as a material examp

2 Specifically the disciplines of tafsîr (Qur'ani

fallible human authorities can only be a

. . .parents, patriarchs, priests, kings, n

Pluralism and "rebellious" mysticism

Pluralism, in this context, should be di

a very different set of premises; it ack

Indeed, those who believe, and those

Sachedina argues that this verse is on

Ifyour Lord had willed, He would hav

Though the Qur'anic text is not clear a

God and affirm an at least tentative th

he or she perceives Divinity in every fo

The Qur'an can never be finally and c

This idea of seeing God manifest in eve

My heart can take on any form:

6 Al-Haqq, the Truth: one of the Ninety-Nine Nam

I profess the religion of love.

9 i.e., before Adam was created.

"his" religion is; and another body of n

Indeed, the Mahdî is called the Mahdi

The universal aspect of the Imam, as t

Truly, anyone who wishes to see Ada

know that I am those pure Imams. Accep

Similar ecstatic utterances are attribute

I am the one who has the knowledge of

Similar statements are made in a numb

I swear by Allah that the Light is the Im

Here, the authoritative position of th

Your sickness is within you, though you do not realize,

All that is secret is revealed and made known.

Bewilderment and anti-authoritarian discourse

Arrival at bewilderment in the Real is itself arrival at God. Bewilderment is the

This experience of bewilderment, befo

And how many new gods are still possib

Perhaps somewhere in Nietzsche's tort

Our attitude to the "internal enemy" i

Returning to the context of Islamic m

on to a higher level of faith. Such fait

The gnostic unravels the knots of all t

Such a person, then, is fundamentally

The word muhayyamîyah is derived f

Abraham to refer merely to the famous p

Ibn 'Arab! does not deal with Abraham'

icizes. This is a religion that is based on lo