TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents
Table of Contents iii
Introduction v
Ack nowledgements vii

CHAPTER 1 ..
Functions 1
1.1 Sets of Numbers and Inequalities 2
1.2 Functions 13
1.3 Inverse Functions 30
1.4 Trigonometric Functions and Their Inverses 38

CHAPTER 2 .. Limits andContinuity 67

2.1 D 68
2.2 Limits Laws 82
2.3 Limits 106
2.4 Continuity of Functions 125

CHAPTER 3 .. 141
3.1 The Derivative and the Tangent Line Problem 142
3.2 160
3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 175
3.4 The Chain Rule 184
3.5 I 194
3.6 Higher Order D er ivatives 204
3.7 The Derivative of Inverse Functions 213

CHAPTER 4 .. Applications of 223

4.1 Extrema of Functions 224
4.2 The Mean Value Theorem 238
4.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions 248
4.4 Concavity 264
4.5 Cur ve Sk etching 283
4.6 Optimization Problems 298
4.7 Related Rates 307
Answers of Odd Exercises 3 19
References 337
Index 339
Important Formulas 345

III
CHAPTER 1
FUNCTIONS

INTRODUCTION

SECTION 1.1 SETS OF NUMBERS AND INEQUALITIES

SECTION 1.2 FUNCTIONS
SECTION 1.3 INVERSE FUNCTIONS
SECTION 1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES
SECTION 1.1 SETS OF NUMBERS AND INEQUALITIES

Section 1.1

SETS OF NUMBERS AND INEQUALITIES

In this section, we start be recalling the set operations and classify the sets of numbers. Then,
we show how to solve different kinds of inequalities.

SETOPERATIONS
SET OPERATIONS
We define the set as a collection of objects, and theses object are called the elements of the set.
The notation { } are used to group of elements of the set. If N is a set, the notation a N
means that a is an element of the set N , and a N means that a is not an element of the
set N .

The intersection of two sets N and M , written N M , is the set of all elements common to
both sets N and M . The union of two sets N and M , written N M , is the set of all
elements that are in either set. For example, If N {a, b, c} and M {a, b, e} , then
N M {a, b} and N M {a, b, c, e} .

SETSOF
SETS OFNUMBERS
NUMBERS
People need to count, so they construct the set of Natural Numbers which is denoted by ,
{1, 2, 3, }

If we add 0 , we get the set of Whole Numbers which is denoted by W ,

W {0,1, 2, 3, }

However, in this set, we cannot always solve the equations of the form
x a b
where a, b in W , therefore, we extend the set to solve such equations. This leads to the Integers
Numbers which is denoted by ,
{ , 2, 1, 0,1, 2, }

It is clear that W . In this set, the equations of the form

ax b
where a, b in cannot be always solved. Therefore, we extend the set to solve such equations.
This leads to the Rational Numbers which is denoted by ,
a
| a, b ,b 0
b

2
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

The set of rational numbers is the set of all numbers that can be expressed as a quotient of
two integers, where the denominator is not 0 . Rational numbers can be expressed as
1 1
termination or repeating decimals, e.g. 0.25 , 0.3333 0.3 . Note that if we put
4 3
b 1 , we obtain the set , therefore, .

a
Not all numbers can be written in the form . For example, the numbers 2, are not
b
rational numbers; such numbers are called Irrational numbers and denoted by I .

The union of the sets of rational numbers and irrational numbers is the Real Numbers
I . The relations between the sets of numbers are summarized in Figure 1.1.1.
Real Numbers
5 , 0.74, 0.53
7 I
, -1, 0,1, 2, 8

0,1,2,3,
0.2347
1,2,3,

Figure 1.1.1

The set of real numbers can be represented graphically by the real number line. The real line
Move 7 units to the left
has a point called the origin and labeled 0 , and another point to the right labeled 1 , and the
distance from 0 to. . .1 is−4the −3
unit −2 −1 Numbers
distance. 0 . . . origin are positive and
1 to2 the 3right4of the
Real numbers
End Start
numbers to the left are negative as shown in Figure 1.1.2 Rational Irrational
1 √
numbers numbers
2 2 Integers
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 Whole
5 6 7
numbers
Figure 1.1.2: Real Line
a Natural
b numbers
INEQUALITIES
INEQUALITIES
a b
We study how to solve inequalities which is the process of finding the set of numbers that
makes the inequality a true statement. The solution of an inequality can be represented in
a b
interval notation.
a b
Intervals
An interval is a subset of b plays an important role in inequalities. Suppose that a, b in
that
and a b , then we have the following different type of intervals:
b

a 3

a
 End Start
Move 7 units to the left
1 √
... −4 −3Move 2 to
−22 7 −1
units Move 7 units to 3the left
0 the1 left 2 4 ...
MoveEnd
7 units to the left Start
SECTION 1.1 SETS OF NUMBERS AND. . . 7INEQUALITIES
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 . .0. −4 1 2 3 −2 47 −1
5 60 the
7 ...
Move −4 −3to the
units −1 −3 0Move
−2 left 1 units
2 to 3 1 left
4 2. . . 3 4

. . . −4 End √ Start
−3 −2End −1 0 3 1 4 2 . . Start
.
. . . 1−4 2−3 Move
−22 7−1 ...
. . . a End b units
... 0to the
1 left 2 3 4
1 √
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 Start
3 4
End−2 −1 0 1
√ 3 24 25 Start
1. The open interval (a, b)End {x | a−7 −6
x −5b} −4. . −3
. −4 Start 1 2 2 6 7
...
−3 −22 −1 0 1 2 3 4
a 1 √ √ 2 3 4 5
b−7 −6 −5 −4−7 −3 −6 2 −1
√−5 −4 0−3 1−2 2−1 3 0 14 1 2 6Start 6 7
1End
2 −2 5 7
a b 2 2 2
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−7 a−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 1 √ 2 3 4 5 6 7
−7 a−6 −5 −4 b −3 b 2
2. The closed interval [a, b ] {x | a a x b} b
−2 −1 0
a
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2
b
a b −7 a−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
aa bb a b
a bb
a b
a b a b
3. The half-open intervala (a, b ] {bbx | aa x aa [a, b)
bb} or bb{x | a x b}
a b
a b a b
a bb a aa bb
b
b
a a
4. The infinite-open interval
aa (a, )b {x | x a} aor ( , b)bbb {x | x b}
b b
b
b a b
a
b b bb
a
5. The infinite-closed interval [a, b) {x | x a} or ( , bb] {x | x b}
−2 −1 0 1 b 2a 3 4 a b
a
a b
a - 23 a aa

Properties of Inequalities−2 a −1 0 −2 −1
1 0 2 1 23
a
3 4
a
a
The following properties are used to create
−2equivalent
−1 -02 1−2 inequalities;
2−1 3 0 4 1 2 3 4
3
−2 −2
−3 −1 −10 01 12 23 34 4
a5 6
If a, b, c in , then −2 −1 0 1−2 2 −1
2
3- 3 4 0
−2 −1 2
1 - 03 2 1 23 3 4

24
1. If a b then a c b c -and
- a c −1 b 0c−2 −2 −1
8
1−13- 20 2 01 31 3
2 24 3
2 3 −2
3
-3 3
−2 −2
−3 −1 −10−3 −2
01 −1 120 123 2 3 3 44 5 6
2. If a b and b c then
−2
a −1
c 0 1 2
−2
3
−1 2 0
- 2 1 3
−3 −2 −13 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
−3 −2 −1- 4 0 8 1 2 3 4 5 8 6
- 45 3
1 3
−3 −2 a b −2
5 −1 0 2 3
3. If a b and c 0 then a c−1 b 0c−3and
1
−2
2 3
4−1
4
−3 −2 0
5 6
−1- 41 0 12 28 3 3 44 5 8 6
−3 −2
−3 −2 −1 −1
0 1 0 c2 -133
c 4 2 5 36 3 4 3
3

- 43 −3 −2 −3 0−283−1 −1
8
0 1 4 2 5 8 36 4
4 a
−1−3
4
b -5
−2 - 431 0 8 12 2 3 3 3
4. If a b and c −a a c0 - 3b a
0 then c and0 5
3
−3 −2 −1
c c1 −3 2
−2
3 4 4
- 8 0
4−1 31
8 2
83 4
−3 −2−3 −2−1 0 1−1- 45 20 3-13 55 4 2 54
3
1 1 −a 0- 4 a −3
8
5. If 0 a b then −34
5 −2 −1−3
5
8 0−2
−2 1−1
-4
−1 2 00 3 11 8 4 22 33 44
- 5 −a 0 a5 5 5
a −3 b −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−3−a −2 −1
a- 45 4 0 1 8 2 3 4
−3 −2 −1 −a0 0 1 a 2 0 3 5
1 1 −a 0 a
6. If a b 0 then −a 0 a −3
a b −a −2 0
−1
a 0 1 2 3 4
−a 0 a −a 0 a −a 0 a
1
We use these properties to solve different
−a 0kindsa of inequalities.
−a −a0 a
0 a
−a 0 a
LINEAR
LINEARINEQUALITIES
INEQUALITIES −a 0 a 1
If a 0 , then a linear equation can be expressed as ax b 0 , and a linear inequality can 1
1
be written in one of the following forms ax b 0 , ax b ,
0 ax b or
01 ax b 0.
1
1
1
4
 End Start

1 √
2 2
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 CHAPTER
1 2 3 14 FUNCTIONS
5 6 7

a b
Move 7 units to the left
EXAMPLE 1.1.1: Solve the following inequalities:
a. 6 2x 3x 4 . . . −4a −3 −2b −1 0 1 2 3 4 ...
b. 4(x 3) 2x 16 End Start
a b
c. 3 5 2x 7 1 √
2 2
Solution: a b
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
a.
b
a 6 2bx 3x 4
6 3x 2x 4
b
a 6 b4 5x
Move 7 units to the left
a 10 5x
... a
−4 −3 −2b2 −1x 0 1 2 3 4 ...
End a(
The solution set is the interval , 2] as shown in FigureStart
1.1.3
a b 1 √
2 2
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure b 1.1.3
- 23
a b
b. −2 −1 b 0 1 2 3

a 4(x 3) 2x 16
b
a
−3 −24x−1 12
0 1 2x2 16
3 4 5 6

a 6x 4
a b
- 43 2
8
3
x
a −3 −2b −1 03 1 2 3 4
2
The solution set is the interval
−2 −1 0
3
,1 2 as 3shown
4 in Figure 1.1.4
- 45 8
5
b
−3
- 23−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−2 −1 b 0 1 2 3
−a Figure
0 a
1.1.4
a
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. −a 0 a
a
- 43 3 5 2x 7 8
3
8 2x 2
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−2 −1 0 1 82 3 2x4 2
24 2 28
- 23 4 -5x 1 5 1

−2 −1 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
The solution set is the interval [ 01, 4) as
1 2
shown in3Figure 1.1.5

−a 0 a
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 1.1.5
-−a
4
3
0 a 8
3

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
5
- 45 8
5

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
1
SECTION 1.1 SETS OF NUMBERS AND INEQUALITIES

RELATED PROBLEM 1
Solve the following inequalities:
a. 4 x 3x 2 b. 3(2x 1) 4x 11
c. 1 5 2x 4
Answers
1 b. ( 4, ) 1
a. 2
, c. [ 2, 2
)

INEQUALITIES
INEQUALITIES WITH
WITH ABSOLUTE
ABSOLUTE VALUES
VALUES
The absolute value of a real number a , denoted by a , is the distance from 0 to a on the
number line, which is nonnegative. For example 4 4 and 2 2 . We can define the
absolute value of a real number as follows:

DEFINITION 1.1.1 (Absolute value)

The absolute value of a real number a is defined by
a if a 0
a
a if a 0

EXAMPLE 1.1.2: Rewrite each expression without absolute value:

2 1 ,| 3 |,| 3x 1|
Solution
Since 2 1, 2 1 2 1

Since 3, 3 (3 ) 3

1
3x 1, if 3x 1 0 3x 1, if x
3x 1 3
1 3x , if 3x 1 0 1
1 3x , if x
3

Properties of Absolute Value

For all real numbers a and b
1. a 0.

2. ab a b

a a
3. , b 0
b b

4. a b a b (Triangle Inequality)

6
 - 23
Move 7 units to the left
−2 −1 −2 0−1
−3 01 1 22 33 4 5 6
... −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 ...
End CHAPTER 18
Start FUNCTIONS
- 43 3
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 √3 4 5 6
1
−3 −2 −1 2 02 1 2 3 4
2
5. a a - 43 −2 −1
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 0 1 2 3
8
43 5 6 7
4 8
6. If a 0 , then x only if −1a
a if and −2
-
x 05 a . (similar
a −3 1 2argument
5 3 if <4is replaced
b
by ). −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
a - 4 to the left
Move 7 units
5
8
5
b
−4 −3−2−a
. . . −3 −2 −1−10 a 1
00 12 32 4 3. . . 4
aEnd Start
7. If a 0 , then x a if andbonly if x a or x a . (similar argument if > is
replaced by ) −a 0 −a
a 0 1 √a
a 2 2
b
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

b−a 0 a
a b
8. a b if and only if a 2 b2 .
b
a b 1
EXAMPLE 1.1.3: Solve the following inequalities:
a
a. 3x 2 6 a bb. 2 5x 6 c. 4x 3 2
a 1
Solution
a b
a.
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
3x 2 6
b
- 23 6 3x 2 6
4 3x 8
−2 −1 0b 1 2 3
4 8
x
a 3 3
−3 −2 −1 0 41 8 2 3 4 5 6
The solution set is the interval ( 3 3
, ) as shown in Figure 1.1.6
a
- 34 8
3

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Figure 1.1.6
- 23 - 45 8
5
b.
−3
−2 −2
−1 −1
0 0
1 21 32 3 4
2 5x 6
−a0 a5x
2 6 or 2 5x 6
−3 −2 −1 0 5x 1 42 3or 4 5 5x6 8
−a 4 0x a 4 or 8x
8
-3
5 3 5
4 1 8
The solution set is−3 −2 −1
the interval ( 0
, 5
] [5 , 2 3
) as shown4
in Figure 1.1.7

- 45 8
5

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 1
Figure 1.1.7
−a 0 a
7
−a 0 a
SECTION 1.1 SETS OF NUMBERS AND INEQUALITIES

c. 4x 3 2
The absolute value can not be negative, therefore, no real number satisfies this
inequality, thus the solution is the empty set .

RELATED PROBLEM 2
Solve the following inequalities:
a. 2x 3 2 b. 4 2x 8 c. 5x 8 1
Answers
5 1
a. , b. ( , 2] [6, ) c.
2 2

QUADRATIC
QUADRATIC AND
AND RATIONAL
RATIONAL INEQUALITIES
INEQUALITIES
If a, b, c are real numbers, and a 0 , then a quadratic equation can be expressed as
a x2 bx c 0 , and a quadratic inequality can be written in the form a x 2 bx c 0,
(< can be replaced by , or ).

p(x )
The rational inequality is of the form 0 , (< can be replaced by , or ), where p(x )
q(x )
and q(x ) are polynomials of degree n and m respectively, i.e.,
p(x ) an x n an 1x n 1
a1x a0
m m 1
q (x ) bm x bm 1x b1x b0

To solve quadratic inequality, we factor the quadratic function, then we study the sign of each
factor while for rational inequalities, we factor the numerator and the denominator, then we
study the sign of each factor then we choose the resulting factorization that satisfy the
inequality.

Another general way to solve inequalities, we should find the zeros of polynomials. Remember
b b2 4ac
that the zeros of a quadratic polynomial ax 2 bx c 0 are x . For
2a
4 42 12 4 2
example, the zeros of x 2 4x 3 0 are x , thus x 3 or x 1.
2 2

EXAMPLE 1.1.4: Solve the following inequalities:

4 x 2
a. x2 5x 6 b. 0 c. 1
3x 1 1 3x
3 2 1
d. x 3 2x 1 e. f. 0
x 9 x 2 2
x 1

8
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

Solution:
a.
x2 5x 6
x2 5x 6 0
(x 2)(x 3) 0
We study the sign of (x 2)(x 3) by finding the solution of (x 2)(x 3) 0 , that
is x 2, x 3 then checking the sign of each factor.

Interval ( , 2) (2, 3) (3, )

Sign of (x 2)
Sign of (x 3)
Sign of (x 2)(x 3)

The solution set is the interval where the sign of (x 2)(x 3) is negative, that is the
interval (2, 3) is the solution set as shown in Figure 1.1.8

−1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure
1 1.1.8
3

b. Since the numerator and

−2 denominator
−1 0 1are polynomials
2 3 4 of degree
5 6 1, we can directly
check the sign of each of them and exclude the zero of the denominator.
− 23
Interval , 13 1
3
,4 (4, )
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sign of (4 x)
-24 9
Sign of (3x 1)
−27 −22 −17 −12 −7 −2 3 8 13
4 x
Sign of
3x 1 − 13 1
3
4 x
The solution set is the −2
interval where
−1 the sign
0 of 1 is negative
2 or zero, that is
3x 1
1
( , 13 ) [4, ) . Note that x
is excluded because it is the zero of the denominator.
3
The solution set is−1 0
illustrated 1 Figure
in 2 3
1.1.9 4

1
3

−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 1.1.9
− 23
c. In this inequality, −3
we can
−2 not−1
multiply
0 both 2 by 31
1 sides 3x4 because
5 we
6 do not know
if 1 3x is positive or negative. To solve this inequality, we subtract 1, and we obtain
-24 9
2
−27 −22 −17 −12 −71 0
−2 3 8 13
1 3x

− 13 1
3
9
−2 −1 0 1 2
SECTION 1.1 SETS OF NUMBERS AND INEQUALITIES

2 (1 3x )
0
1 3x 1 3x

1 3x
0
1 3x
1 3x
We study the sign of−1 0 by1checking
2 the
3 sing
4 of the numerator and denominator.
1 3x
1
1 1 1 1
Interval 3 , 3
,
3 3 3
,
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sign of (1 3x )
Sign of (1 3x ) − 23

1 3x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sign of
1 3x -24 9

−22 [ −17 1 1
The solution set is the
−27interval , ) .−12
3 3
The solution
−7 −2set is3illustrated
8 in Figure 1.1.10
13

− 13 1
3

−2 −1 0 1 2

Figure 1.1.10

d.
x 3 2x 1
(x 3)2 (2x 1)2
(x 3)2 (2x 1)2 0

Now, we use the identity a 2 b 2 (a b)(a b ) , and we obtain

[(x 3) (2x 1)][(x 3) (2x 1)] 0
( x 4)(3x 2) 0

We study the sign of ( x 4)(3x 2) by checking the sign of each factor.

2 2
Interval , 3 3
,4 4,

Sign of ( x 4)
x
Sign of (3−1 2)0 1 2 3 4

Sign of ( x 4)(3x 12)

3
21
set is−1(
The solution−2 0,
3
] [4, 2 ) as
3 shown
4 in5 Figure
6 1.1.11

− 23
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

-24 Figure 1.1.11 9

−27 −22 −17 −12 −7 −2 3 8 13

10 − 13 1
3

−2 −1 0 1 2
2
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

3 2 2
e. To solve the rational inequality , we subtract from both sides:
x 9 x 2 x 2
3 2
x 9 x 2
3 2
0
x 9 x 2
3(x 2) 2(x 9)
0
(x 2)(x 9)
x 24
0
(x 2)(x 9)
x 24
We study the sign of by checking the sign of each factor.
(x 2)(x 9)

Interval , 24 24, 2 2, 9 9,
−1 0 1 2 3 4
Sign of (x 24)
Sign of (x 2) 1
3
Sign of (x −2
9) −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x 24
Sign of
(x 2)(x 9) − 23
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
The solution set is [ 24, 2) (9, ) as shown in Figure 1.1.12
-24 9

−27 −22 −17 −12 −7 −2 3 8 13

− 13 Figure
1 1.1.12
3

1 −2 −1 0 1 2
f. 0
x2 1

Since x 2 1 is always positive, therefore, the solution set is .

RELATED PROBLEM 3
Solve the following inequalities:
2x 3 c. | 3x 4| |x 2|
a. x2 2x 3 b. 0
x 2
2 1
d. e. x2 4 0
x 3 x 1
Answers
a. 1, 3 b. ( , 23 ] (2, ) c. 3,
1
2

d. [ 5, 1) (3, ) e.

11
SECTION 1.1 SETS OF NUMBERS AND INEQUALITIES

EXERCISES 1.1
EXERCISES 1.1
In Exercises 1 – 8, solve the inequalities

1. 3x 4 8
2. 1 2x 4
3. 3x 4 4
4. 4 5x 2x 7
5. 3(x 4) 2 2(x 7) .
6. 3 2x 4 7
2x 7
7. 2 4
3
8. 3(2x 4) 2(x 7) 7 3(x 5) .

In Exercises 9 – 15, solve the inequalities

9. | 2x 4| 3
2x 5
10. 4
3
11. | 3x 2| 5
12. | 2x 4| 4 3
13. 2 | 5x 2| 4 3
14. | x | | x 5|
15. | 3x 2 | | 2x 5 |.

In Exercises 16 – 23, solve the inequalities

16. x(x 4) 0
17. x 2 3x 4
2
18. x x
19. x 2 4x 4 0
2
20. 0
x 3
2x 4
21. 0
x 3
1
22. 4
x 3
3 2
23.
x x 1

12
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

Section 1.2

FUNCTIONS
The notion of correspondence is frequently used in everyday life. For example, for each student
in the university, there is a corresponding birthdate. As another example, each book in the
university library corresponds to the number of pages in the book. It is clear that these
examples of correspondence involve two sets, A and B . In our first example, A denotes the
set of students and B is the set of positive integers. To each student x in A , there corresponds
a positive integer y , namely the birthdate of the student.

Our examples indicate that to each x in A there corresponds one and only one y in B , that
is, no two elements of B correspond to the same x . However, the same element of B may
corresponds to different elements of A . For example, two students or more may have the same
birthdate, two books or more may have the same number of pages.

We start this section be inducting the basics definitions of function. After that, we look at
some types of functions and study the domain and the range of that functions. Moreover, we
give some properties of functions and study the combination of functions and the domain of
the resulting function.

DEFINITION 1.2.1
A function f from a set A to a set B , is a correspondence which assigns to each
element x in A exactly one element y in B , we write f : A B.

The set A is called the domain of f , denoted by D f , and the set B is called the codomain of
f , denoted by C f , while the set of all images of elements of A is called the range of the function
Rf { f (x ) : x A} .

The element y is called the image of x under f and denoted by f (x ) . In this book, the
domain is the set of real numbers or a subset of the real numbers.

In Figure 1.2.1(a), we notice that each element of A a, b, c, d is assigned to exactly one

element in B x , y, z, w . Therefore, f represents a function and the set A is the domain of
f and the set B is the codomain of f . While in Figure 1.2.1(b), f is not a function since the
element 4 in C assigned to two elements 7 and 8 in D .
13
SECTION 1.2 FUNCTIONS

C C
A A
B B

y (a) y
y y (b)
Figure 1.2.1

x
We should not be confused
x by the symbols f and f (x ) in Definition 2.1.1, f is used to
x x
represent the function, it is neither in A nor in B . But f (x ) is an element in B , namely, the
element that f assigns to x .
y y
y y

We can define a function in terms of ordered pairs rather than a correspondence.

DEFINITION 1.2.2 (Function as an Order Pairs)

x x
x x
A function is a set of ordered pairs (x , y ) in which no two distinct ordered pairs have
the same number x . The set of all admissible values of x is called the domain of the
3
33
function, and the set of all resulting values83of y is10called the range of the function.
8 10
66 5 5 69 6 55
1
9 1 99 66
9 9 6 10
26 1212 sets 2is a function. If it is a function, what is
EXAMPLE 1.2.1 Determine which10of the following
1212 73 7
73 7
its domain and range? -2 y
y -2 y
y
3
a. ƒ 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 1, 5 , 2, 0 , 0, 0 3
2
Range y=Ï 2
1 y=Ï
Range y=Ï 1 y=Ï
b. g 5, 3 , 1, 4 , 5,2 , 1, 0 , 0, 0 –4 –3 –2 –1
x
–1
1 2 3 4
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
Solution 0 Domain x
–2
–3
0 –3
Domain x
a. f is a function with domain D f 1, 3, 1, 2, 0 and range R 2, 4, 5, 0 .

b. g is not a function since the order pairs 1, 4 and 1, 0 have the same x coordinate.

RELATED PROBLEM 1 Determine which of the following sets is a function. If it is a function,

what is its domain and range?
a. ƒ 3, 3 , 2, 7 , 1, 0 , 0, 3

b. g 2, 3 , 1, 6 , 3, 2 , 2, 0

Answer
a. f is a function with domain D f 3, 2,1, 0 and range R 3, 7, 0 .
b. g is not a function since the order pairs 2, 3 and 2, 0 have the same x coordinate.

14
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

We can define the function f in terms of equations rather than a set of order pairs, e.g.
y x 2
or we can write
f (x ) x 2.

Here x and y are variables. Because values are assigned to x from the domain and the value
of y depends on the choice of x , the variable x is the independent variable and y is the
dependent variable. To evaluate a function at a given value of x , we substitute the value of
x in the function.

EXAMPLE 1.2.2 If . ƒ x x2 2x , evaluate each of the following:

a. f (2) b. f ( 4)
Solution
a. ƒ 2 22 2(2) 0
b. ƒ 4 ( 4)2 2( 4) 24

As we saw in Example 1.2.1, not every set of ordered pairs defines a function, similarly, not all
equations define a function.
C C
A A
THE
THE VERTICAL
VERTICAL LINE
LINE TEST
TEST OF OF ABFUNCTION
A FUNCTION B

Not every graph is ya graph of a function.

y If the graph
y contains two or more different points
y
with the same x cordinate then the graph is not a function. That is if any vertical line
intersects a graph in more than one point then the graph is not a function. In Figure 1.2.2 (a),
any vertical line intersects the graph
x of f in one point,
x therefore, f is a function. However, in
Figure 1.2.2 (b), the vertical line intersects the graph in more xthan one point, therefore,
x
f is
not a function.
y y y y

x x x x

(a) (b)
Figure 1.2.2
33 33
8 10 8 10
66 55 66 55
SOME
SOME TYPES
TYPES OFOF FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS 9 1
9 1 99
9 6as
There are some kinds of functions that 10 9has 6
special
26
10
properties such 26 polynomials, rational
1212functions. 12 12 73 7
functions, radical functions and piecewise 73 7
-2 -2 y y
y
y
3 15
3
2
y=Ï 2
y=Ï
Range 1 y=Ï
Range 1 y=Ï
x
–4 x–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 –1
–1
SECTION 1.2 FUNCTIONS

POLYNOMIALS
A function p is a polynomial if
p(x ) an x n an 1x n 1
a1x a0

where n is a nonnegative integer and the numbers a 0, a1, a2 , , an are real constants (called the
coefficients of the polynomial). All polynomials have domain .

If the leading coefficient an 0 and n 0 then n is called the degree of the polynomial.
Linear functions are polynomials of degree 1. Polynomials of degree 2, usually written as
p(x ) ax 2 bx c , are called quadratic functions. Likewise, cubic functions are
polynomials p(x ) ax 3 bx 2 cx d of degree 3.

5 2
For example, the function ƒ x 2x 3 x5 x 1 is a polynomial of degree 5 and
2
leading coefficient is 1, while the function g x 5x 2 x3 x 7 is not a polynomial because
its first term has a negative power.

RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
A rational function is a quotient of two polynomials, f (x ) p(x ) q(x ) . The domain of a
rational function is the set of all real numbers x for which q(x ) 0.

3x 3 1
For example, the function f (x ) is a rational function, while the function
2
x x
x2 1
f (x ) is not a rational function because the denominator is not a polynomial.
x x

RADICAL FUNCTIONS
If a and b are nonnegative numbers, and b 2 a then a b is the principal square root of
a . The radical function is a function in which the variable occurs in a square root, cube root
3
or any higher root. For example, the functions f (x ) x3 4 and g(x ) x2 2 are radical
functions.

PIECEWISE FUNCTIONS
A function that is defined by two or more equations over a specific domain is called a piecewise
function. For example, the function
2x 1 x 1
f (x )
x x 1

is a piecewise function.

16
 x x

x
x CHAPTER
33 1 FUNCTIONS
8 10
66 55
9 1
DOMAIN
DOMAIN AND
AND RANGE
RANGE OF OF
A A FUNCTION
FUNCTION 9 9 6
y 10
26
The domain of a function is the set of inputs and the range is the1212
set of outputs.
73 7 Figure 1.2.3
illustrates the domain and range of a function.
-2 y
y
3
2
x x Range y=Ï 1 y=Ï

–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1
–2

33 0 Domain x –3

8 10
66 55 Figure 1.2.3
9 1
9
109 66
2 1.2.4, the domain is the set {x | 3
For example, in Figure x 2} , and the range is the set
1212
{y | 1 y 2} 7 37
-2 y

3
2
y=Ï 1 y=Ï
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
–3
Domain x

Figure 1.2.4

To find the domain of a function, we exclude the real numbers that cause a division by zero or
that result in a square root of a negative number.

EXAMPLE 1.2.3 Find the domain of each of the following functions.

a. ƒ x x2 2x
3x 4
b. ƒ x
x 5
2x 3
c. ƒ x
2
x 4x 5
d. ƒ x 5x 2
3
e. ƒ x x2 4x

Solution
a. The polynomial function ƒ x x2 2x is defined for every real number. Thus, the
domain of ƒ is
Df .

17
SECTION 1.2 FUNCTIONS

3x 4
b. The rational function ƒ x is not defined when the denominator is 0 ,
x 5
x 5 0
x 5
Thus, we exclude 5 from the domain, and we have
Df x :x 5 ( , 5) (5, )

2x 3
c. The rational function ƒ x is not defined when the denominator is 0 ,
2
x 4x 5
x2 4x 5 0
(x 5)(x 1) 0
x 5 or x 1
Therefore, we exclude 1 and 5 from the domain, and we obtain
Df x :x 1, x 5 ( , 1) ( 1, 5) (5, )

d. The square root function ƒ x 5x 2 is defined for nonnegative real numbers.

Thus, the quantity under the radical sign must be nonnegative,
5x 2 0
2
x 5
so, the domain of f is
2 2
Df x :x 5 5
, .

3
e. The cubic root function ƒ x x2 4x is defined for any real number because the
third square root exists for any real number. Thus, the domain of ƒ is
Df .

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Find the domain of each of the following functions.

a. ƒ x x3 x2 3
x 2
b. ƒ x
x 4
4x 5
c. ƒ x
2
x x 30
d. ƒ x 4 3x
5
e. ƒ x x 8
Answer
a. D f
b. D f x :x 4

18
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

c. Df x :x 5, x 6
4
d. Df x :x 3

e. D f

DEFINITION 1.2.4
The two functions f and g are equal, if f and g have the same domain and
f (x ) g(x ) for each x in the common domain.

Notice that for any two equal functions the domain must be the same, as seen in the following
example.

EXAMPLE 1.2.4 Let

1
ƒ (x ) x 1 and g (x ) 2 x 2 .
2
a. Find domain of f and g . b. Determine whether f and g are the same.
Solution
a. The functions f and g are defined for nonnegative real value (that is x 0) . So, the
domains of f and g are equal. Hence
Df Dg x :x 0 [0, )

b. Notice that the function g can be written as follows

1
g(x )
2 x 2 x 1 f (x )
2
Thus, f and g are equal functions.

x2 4
EXAMPLE 1.2.5 Determine whether the functions ƒ (x ) and g(x ) x 2 are the
x 2
same or not.

Solution
The domain of the function f is:
Df x :x 2 ( , 2) (2, ),

while the domain of the function g is all real numbers because it is a polynomial.

Since D f Dg , the f and g are not the same.

At the end of this section, we plot the graphs of some functions as illustrated in Table 1.2.1.

19
 y y

SECTION 1.2 FUNCTIONS x x

Ï=|x| Ï=|x|

y y y y

b b
Linear Functions b b
x x x x
Ï=b Ï=b Ï=mx+bÏ=mx+b

y y y yy y y yy y y yy y
y y y y y y y y y y y y

Power Functions x x xx x x
x x x x x
x x xx x xx xx
x x3 x 4x 5 x
Ï=≈ Ï=≈
Ï=x
Ï=≈ Ï=≈ Ï=≈ Ï=x
Ï=≈ Ï=x Ï=x
3
3 4
Ï=x33 Ï=x
Ï=x Ï=xÏ=x
4 Ï=x44 Ï=x
Ï=x Ï=x 5
5
Ï
Ï
Ï=≈ Ï=x3 Ï=x3 Ï=x 4 Ï=x4 Ï=x 5 Ï=
y y y y y y y y y y y
y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y

x x x x x x x x x x x
Root Functions x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

Ï= x Ï=Ï= x £ xÏ= Ï=
Ï=
Ï= xx Ï= £ x ¢ x Ï=££ x Ï=
Ï= ¢ x ∞ x Ï=¢¢ x Ï=∞ ∞ x Ï
Ï=
Ï= x x Ï= x Ï= £ x £ x Ï= Ï= £ x xÏ=
Ï=¢ x ¢ x Ï= Ï= x Ï=
¢ x Ï= Ï
∞ x x Ï=
y y y y y y y y y y y
y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y

x x x x xx x x x x x
Reciprocal Functions x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

1 1 1 1 Ï=11 1 1 Ï=11 1 11
Ï= 1 1x Ï=
Ï=
Ï=
Ï= 1 1x Ï=
Ï= Ï=
1 ≈x£ 1 1≈Ï=
Ï= Ï=
1 Ï= 11 Ï=
1 x£ Ï=
1
x Ï= x ≈ Ï= Ï=
Ï= ≈ x£ x¢Ï=
Ï= x£Ï= x¢x¢ Ï
x x x Ï= ≈ ≈ ≈ Ï= x£ x£ x£ x¢

y y y
y y y y

Absolute Value Function

x x x
x x x x
Ï=|x| Ï=|x| Ï=|x|
Ï=|x|
Ï=|x| Ï=|x|
Ï=|x|
y y y
Table 1.2.1y y y y y
y
y y
y
y y
b b b
b b b b
INTERCEPTS
INTERCEPTS b b b
b b b b
The intercepts of a graph determine the points where the graph intercepts the axis. The
x x
x xx x x x x x
x
x x xx
Ï=b Ï=b
Ï=mx+b
Ï=b Ï=b Ï=mx+b
Ï=mx+b Ï=mx+b
intercept is the x coordinate of any point where the graph intercepts
Ï=b the x Ï=b
axis.
Ï=b To find the
Ï=mx+b Ï=mx+b
Ï=mx+b
x intercepts, set y 0 in the equation and solve for x .

Similarly for y intercepts, we mean the y coordinate of any point where the graph intercepts
the y axis. To find y intercepts, set x 0 in the equation and solve for y .

20
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

EXAMPLE 1.2.6 Find the x and y intercepts of the graph of the function y x2 7.
y
Solution To find the x intercept, we set y 0 and solve
10
for x . 8
6
7 x2 4
2
We obtain that x 7. −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x
−2
−4
f(x) = x2 − 7 −6
Similarly, to find the y intercepts, we set x 0 . This gives −8
−10
y 7.
Figure 1.2.5

RELATED PROBLEM 3 Find the x and y intercepts of the graph of the function
y x2 5x 6
Answer x intercepts: x 3, x 2. y intercepts: y 6.

SYMMETRY
SYMMETRY

DEFINITION 1.2.5 (Symmetry)

a. A graph is said to be symmetric with respect to x axis provided that whenever
(x , y ) is on the graph, then (x, y ) is also on the graph.
5 y y
4 (x, y)
b. A graph is said to be symmetric with respect to y axis provided
3 that whenever
2
(x , y ) is on the graph, then ( x , y ) is also on the graph. 1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
c. A graph is said to be symmetric with respect to the origin provided that whenever
−1
−2
(x , y ) is on the graph, then ( x , y ) is also on the graph. −3
(x, −y
−4
−5

The following figures 1.2.6 illustrate examples of the different types of symmetry.
y
y y B(x
5 y y y
y
4y (x, y)
(x, y) (x, y)
3 A(x1 , y1 )
2
1
(−x, y) (x, y) x
x x (−x, y) (x, y)
x x1 x2
1 1 2 3x4
−1 1 2 3 4
(−x, −y)
−2 x
−3 x
−4 (x, −y)
(x, −y)
−5
a. Symmetry with Respect to x-axis b. Symmetry with Respect to y-axis c. Symmetry with Respect to Origin

y Figure 1.2.6 6 y
y y B(x2 , y2 )
y D(x4 , y4) 5
B(x2 , y2 ) D(x4 , y4)
(x, y) 4 y = x2
(x, y) A(x1 , y1 ) 21
A(x1 , y1 ) 3
x x
x x
x1 x2 x3 x4 2
x1 x2 x3 x4
Decreasing 1 Increasing
SECTION 1.2 FUNCTIONS

EVEN
EVEN AND
AND ODD
ODD FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS

DEFINITION 1.2.6 (Even and Odd Functions)

a. A function f is even if its graph is symmetric with respect to y axis; that is,
f( x) f (x ) for every x in the function’s domain.

b. A function f is odd if its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin; that is,
f ( x) f (x ) for every x in the function’s domain.

EXAMPLE 1.2.7 Determine algebraically whether the following functions are even, odd, or
neither.
a. f (x ) x4 3
x 2x 3
b. g (x )
x2 1
c. h(x ) x3 1.

Solution
a. f ( x ) ( x )4 3 x4 3 f (x ) .

So, f ( x ) f (x ) . Hence, f is even.

x 2( x )3 x 2x 3 x 2x 3
b. g( x ) g(x ) .
( x )2 1 x2 1 x2 1

So, g( x ) g (x ) . Hence, g is odd.

c. h( x ) ( x )3 1 x3 1 (x 3 1) h(x )

Since h ( x ) h(x ) and h( x ) h(x ) , then h is neither even nor odd.

RELATED PROBLEM 4 Determine algebraically whether the following functions are even, odd,
or neither.

2x x5
a. f (x ) x2 3 b. g (x ) c. h(x ) x3 x2 .
4
x 1
Answer
a. Even b. Odd c. Neither

COMBINING
COMBINING FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS
In calculus, many functions arise from simpler functions by combining them in various ways
such as using arithmetic operations and composition.

22
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

DEFINITION 1.2.7 (Basic Operations on Functions)

Let f and g be two functions. We define the sum f g , the difference f g , the product
f g , and the quotient f g as follows:

(f g )(x ) f (x ) g(x )
(f g )(x ) f (x ) g(x )

(f g )(x ) f (x )g (x )
f f (x )
(x ) , g(x ) 0
g g(x )

In the first three cases, the domain consists of those values of x for which both f (x ) and g(x )
are defined. In the case of f g , the domain consists of all numbers x in the domains of f and
g for which g(x ) 0

THEOREM 1.2.1
Let f and g be two functions, then
1. D f g Df Dg
2. D f g Df Dg
3. D f g Df Dg
4. Df g Df Dg , provided g(x ) 0

1
EXAMPLE 1.2.8 Let f (x ) x 1 and g(x ) . Find f g and its domain.
x 2
Solution
1
(f g )(x ) f (x ) g(x ) x 1
x 2

The domain of f ( D f ) consists of all real numbers greater than or equal to 1 (x 1 ) and

the domain of g ( Dg ) consists of all real numbers excluding 2 . The domain of the function
f g is the intersection of the doming of f and g.

Df g Df Dg [ 1, ) ( { 2}) [ 1, )

1
RELATED PROBLEM 5 Let f (x ) 2x 1 and g(x ) . Find the domain and the rule
x 3
of f g.
1 1
Answer Domain: ,3 (3, ) , Rule: f g (x ) 2x 1 .
2 x 3

23
SECTION 1.2 FUNCTIONS

f
EXAMPLE 1.2.9 Let f (x ) x 7 and g(x ) x2 16 . Find the domain and the rule of .
g
Solution The domain of f is the set of all real numbers, and the domain of g is the set of all
f
real numbers . Since g(x ) 0 , when x 4 and x 4 , thus the domain of is
g
Df g Df Dg ( { 4, 4}) { 4, 4} , where Dg Dg {x | g(x ) 0}

RELATED PROBLEM 6 Let f (x ) 2x 3 and g(x ) x2 5x 6 . Find the domain and rule
f
of .
g
f 2x 3
Answer Domain: 2, 3 , Rule: (x ) .
g 2
x 5x 6

Another way of combining functions is illustrated in the following formula. Let

F (x ) x2 8

To obtain F (x ) we first add 8 to x 2 and then take the square root of the result. We can do
this as follows:

We define
f (x ) x2 8 and g(x ) x
Then,
F (x ) x2 8 g(x 2 8) g (f (x ))

Thus F (x ) can be obtained by first applying f to x and then applying g to the resulting
value f (x ) . This is called the composition of functions.

DEFINITION 1.2.8
Let f and g be two functions, we define the composition f g of f and g as the
function
(f g )(x ) f (g(x ))

The domain of f g consists of all numbers x in the domain of g for which the number
g(x ) is in the domain of f .

The expression f g is read “ f of g ”, “ f composed with g ”, or “ f circle g ”. Thus, to

obtain f g we first perform g and then f .

We can picture f g using Figure 1.2.7.

24
 3
2
Decreasing 1 Increasing
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS
−1

f$g

g f

x g(x) fÓ˝Ô

Figure 1.2.7

1
EXAMPLE 1.2.10 Let f (x ) x 1 and g(x ) . Determine the functions g f, f g
x 2
1
and their domains, then find (g f )(3) and ( f g) .
2
1
Solution To find g f, g f g( f (x )) g( x 1) . The domain of f is
x 1 2
[ 1, ) , so the domain of g f consists of those numbers x in [ 1, ). for which x 1 is
in the domain of g , that is, for which x 1 2 . Since this does not exclude any number
in [ 1, ) , the domain of g f is the interval [ 1, ). Now, we find f g,

1
f (g(x )) f
x 2
x 3
x 2

The domain of g is the set of all numbers x such that x 2 , that is, ( , 2) ( 2, ),
1
so the domain of f g consists of those numbers x in ( , 2) ( 2, ) for which
x 2
x 3
is in the domain of f , that is, whenever 0 , so the domain of f g is the set
x 2
( , 3 ( 2, ).

Finally, we calculate
1 1
(g f )(3)
3 1 2 4
and
1 3
1 2 7
f g
2 1 2 5
2

1
RELATED PROBLEM 7 Let f (x ) 1 x and g(x ) . Determine the functions g f
2 x
1
and f g and their domains, and then find (g f )( 8) and ( f g) .
2

25
SECTION 1.2 FUNCTIONS

Answer
1
g f (x ) , Domain: ( ,1] 3 ,
2 1 x

1 1 x
f g (x ) 1 , Domain: ( ,1] (2, ),
2 x 2 x
(g f )( 8) 1,

1 3
(f g) .
2 3

26
 B
B
y y
y y

CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS
x
x
x
EXERCISES 1.2x
EXERCISES 1.2

In Exercises 1 – 2, determine which of the following sets is a function. If it is a function, what

y y
is its domain
y and range? y

1. ƒ 2, 3 , 3, 3 , 2, 3 , 1, 3 , 0, 3
2. g 5,1 , 2, 2 , 1.5,2 , 5, 3 , 1, 7 .

In Exercises 3 – 4, determine which of thex following diagrams represent

x
a function. Explain
x x
your reason for any that do not define a function.
3. 4.
33 33
8 10 8 10
66 55 66 55
9 1 9 1
9 66 9
109 66
109 2
2 1212
1212 73 7 73 7
-2 -2 y y
y y
C
A 3 C 3
In Exercises
A 5 –6 use the vertical line to B
test to identify if the graphs are functions or
2
not.
2
y=Ï B y=Ï 1 y=Ï
Range
5. Range
6. 1 y=Ï
y x x
y y –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 –4
4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
y –1 –1
–2 –2
0 0 –3 –3
Domain x Domain x
x
x
x
x

In Exercises
y 7 –8 find
y the numerical value of the
y
y function at the given value of x .
7. f (x ) 2x 3 3; x 0, 1

3x 2 4x 1
8. g(x ) ; x 1
2
2x 5x 3
x x
x x
In Exercises 9 – 19, find the domain of each function
3
9. f (x ) x3 4x 1 10. f (x ) 2x 2 3x 1
33 33
x2 2x 8 10 8 10
11. f (x ) 66 5 569 6 5 5 f (x )
12. 3x 9
9 19 1
x 4 9 9 66
109 6 610 2
1 212 2x 1
13. f (x ) 1212 73 712 7
37ƒ x
14.
x 5 x 2
-2 -2 y y
y xy 4x w 1
15. f x 16. g(w ) 3 2 3
x3 x w
2
w 62
Range
y=Ï y=Ï 1 y=Ï
Range 2
3x x 4 1 y=Ï 1 2x 5
17. f (x ) 18. f (x ) x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 3 1–4 2–3 32–2 4–1–1 1 2 3 4
x 2 x
–1 9x 20x
–2 –2
0 –3
0 xDomain x –3
Domain

27
SECTION 1.2 FUNCTIONS

x 3
19. f (x )
2
x 3x 2

x x
20. Determine whether the functions ƒ (x ) and g(x ) are the same or not.
x 1 x 1

In Exercises 21 – 32, find the domain of each function

21. f (x ) x3 4x 1 22. f (x ) 1 7x 23. f (x ) 3
2x 2 3x 1

1 2x 1 1
24. f (x ) 25. ƒ x 26. f (t ) 3
x 5 x 2 t2
2 2t 8 r 1
27. g (w ) 28. g (t ) 29. g(r )
2 2
w 1 t 16 r r 6
2x 4 3x 1 2x 5 3x 2 x 4
30. f (x ) 31. f (x ) 32. f (x )
2x 4 1 x 1 3 2x 4 3

In Exercises 33-41, determine all intercepts of the graph of the equation.

33. x 3y 2 2 34. x2 y2 1 35. x4 3y 3
1
36. x 2y 4 2x 4 1 37. y x 38. y 9 x2
x
1
39. y x 40. 2x y2 41. y x2 3
3

In Exercises 42-47, determine which of the following functions are odd, even, or neither
x
42. f (x ) 5x 2 3 43. f (x ) (x 2)2 44. f (x )
x2 4
x
45. f (x ) (x 2 2)3 46. y 47. f (x ) x (x 2 1)3
x

In Exercises 48-56, let f (x ) x2 4x 2 and g (x ) 2 x 2 . Find the specified values

48. (f g )( 1) 49. (f g )(2) 50. (f g )(a ), a

f
51. ( f g )(0) 52. (1) 53. (f g )(3)
g
54. (g f )(3) 55. (f f )( 2) 56. (g g )(2)

f
In Exercises 57-62, find f g, f g, and and their domains.
g
57. f (x ) 2x 1; g(x ) 3 x 58. f (x ) x 2; g(x ) x2 2
2 x 2 x 3
59. f (x ) ; g(x ) x 1 60. f (x ) ; g(x )
x 3 2
x 1 x 4
34
61. f (t ) t ; g(t ) t2 3 62. f (x ) 1 x 2 ; g(x ) 2 x x2

28
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

In Exercises 63-69, find the domains and rules of g f , and f g

63. f (x ) x2 2x 3; g(x ) x 1 64. f (x ) x 2 ; g(x ) x

34
65. f (x ) x 6 ; g (x ) x 66. f (x ) x ; g(x ) x2 5x 6

1 3 1
67. f (x ) ; g(x ) x2 3x 10 68. f (x ) ; g(x )
x 2 1x 1
x 3
2 1
69. f (x ) ; g(x )
x 1 x

29
SECTION 1.3 INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Section 1.3

1.3 INVERSE FUNCTIONS

A mathematical relationship can be expressed in terms of a function, for example, the
circumferences C of a circle is a function of its diameter d which is given by C d .
Sometimes, we are interested in reversing this relationship that is to write the diameter ( d ) as
C
a function of its circumference d . Without loss of generality reversing the relationship
between two quantities often generate a new function called the inverse function. One
important concept we have to discuss before going deeper in inverse functions is one-to-one
function.

ONETO
ONE TO ONE
ONE FUNCTION
FUNCTION

DEFINITION 1.3.1 (One-to-One Function)

A function f is said to be one-to-one (often written 1 1 ) if every element in its range
corresponds to exactly one element in its domain.

That is, for all x1 and x 2 in the domain of f

if x1 x 2 , then f (x1 ) f (x 2 ) ,

which is equivalent to, for all x1 and x 2 in the domain of f

if f (x1 ) f (x 2 ) , then x1 x2 .

We know that a vertical line can intersect the graph of a function in only one point. For a one
to one, it’s also true that any horizontal line can intersect the graph in only one point, as
seen in Figure 1.3.1.
8 y 6 y

6 5
4 4 f (x) = x2
f (x) = x3
2 3
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 2
−2
1 Not One-to-one
−4 One-to-one x
−6 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−8 −1

Figure 1.3.1
7 y
30 6 6
y
5 5 y
4 4 4
f = 2x + 5 3
3
2 2
f (x) = 2x + 5 2 1
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

EXAMPLE 1.3.1 Show that f (x ) 2x 5 is a one-to-one function.

Solution The domain of f is the set of real numbers. Suppose x1 and x 2 are two real numbers
and f (x1 ) f (x 2 ) ; then
6 y
2x1 5 2x 2
8 y
5
6 5
2x 1 4 2x 2 4 f (x) = x2
f (x) = x3
x1 2 x2 3
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 2
Because f (x1 ) f (x 2 ) implies that x1 x 2 , −2
it follows that f is one to one. A sketch
1 of One-to-one
Not the
−4 One-to-one x
graph of f is shown in Figure 1.3.2. Observe−6that any horizontal line intersects the graph
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3in 4 5 6
−1
only one point.
−8

7 y
6 y
6
5 5 y
4 4 4
f = 2x + 5 3
3
2 2
f (x) = 2x + 5 2 1
1 x x
x −6−5−4 −4 −3−2 −2 −1−1 2 1 4 2 63
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1−1 1 2 −2 −2
x−5
f (x) = x3 + 1 −3f
−1
=
−2
−4 −4 2
−3
−5
Figure 1.3.2
y y

RELATED PROBLEM 1 Use Definition 1.3.1 to determine whether the function f (x ) x4 2

0 x 0 x
is one-to-one or not.

Answer f is not one-to-one y y

0 x 0 x
REMARK
In fact all linear functions are one to one, because the linear function can be written in
y y
the form f (x ) ax b and if f (x1 ) f (x 2 ), then
ax 10 b x ax 2 b, 0 x

Simplifying the two terms, we have

x1 x2 .

EXAMPLE 1.3.2 Determine whether each of the following functions is one to one.
a. f (x ) 2x 2 1 b. f (x ) x2 1, x 0
3
c. f (x ) 2 2x 1

Solution
a. Suppose that x1 and x 2 are two real numbers and f (x1 ) f (x 2 ) ; then

31
SECTION 1.3 INVERSE FUNCTIONS

2x 12 1 2x 22 1
2x 12 2x 22
x 12 x 22
x1 x2
x1 x2

So, f is not a one-to-one function.

b. Suppose that x1 and x 2 are two positive real numbers and f (x1 ) f (x 2 ) ; then
x12 1 x 22 1
Subtract 1 from each side,
x12 x 22
Take the square root for both sides,
x1 x2

Since both x1 and x 2 are greater than or equal to 0, we have

x1 x2
This means that the function f is one-to-one.

c. Suppose that x1 and x 2 are two real numbers and f (x1 ) f (x 2 ) ; then

2 3 2x1 1 2 3 2x 2 1

Subtract 2 from both sides,

3 2x 1 1 3 2x 2 1
Cube both sides,
2x1 1 2x 2 1

Subtract 1 from both sides, then divide by 2,

x1 x2

This means that the function f is one-to-one.

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Determine whether each of the following functions is one to one.
5
a. f (x ) 1 3x 2 b. f (x ) x2 2x 1, x 1 c. f (x ) 6 7x 2

Answer
a. Not one-to-one b. One-to-one c. One-to-one

32
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

INVERSE
INVERSE FUNCTION
FUNCTION

DEFINITION 1.3.2 (Inverse Function)

1
If f is a one-to-one function, then there is a function f , called the inverse of f , such
1 1
that y f (x ) if and only if x f (y ) . The domain of f is the range of f and the
1
range of f is the domain of f .

THEOREM 1.3.1
1 1
If f is a one-to-one function and if f is its inverse function, then f is a one-to–one
having f as its inverse. Furthermore
1
f ( f (x )) x for x in the domain of f
and
1 1
f (f (x )) x for x in the domain of f

The two functions are symmetric with the line y x . See Figure 1.3.3

EXAMPLE 1.3.3 Determine whether the functions f and g are inverses of each other.
x 1
a. f (x ) 2x 1 and g (x ) .
2
b. f (x ) 2x and g(x ) x 1.
Solution
a. Since
x 1
(f g )(x ) f (g (x )) 2 1 x,
2
and
2x 1 1
(g f )(x ) g(f (x )) x,
2
Then f is the inverse of g and vice versa.

b. Since (f g )(x ) f (g (x )) 2(x 1) 2x 2 x , then f and g are not inverses of

each other.

x 9
RELATED PROBLEM 3 Determine whether the functions f (x ) 7x 9 and g (x ) are
7
inverses of each other
Answer f is the inverse of g and vice versa.

1
To obtain f , we follow the next procedure.

33
 SECTION 1.3 INVERSE FUNCTIONS

1
Step 1: We prove f is one - to – one. This proves that f exists.

Step 2: Substitute y for f (x ) and solve the resulting equation for x . This gives the equation
1
x f (y ) .
1 1
Step 3: We obtain f (x ) from the definition of f (y ) .

EXAMPLE 1.3.4 Find f 1

for the function f (x ) 2x 5.
1
Solution f (x ) 2x 5 is one-to-one (See Example 1.3.1). Therefore f exists. To find
1
f (x ) , we follow the three steps. We write the equation y 2x 5 and solve for x . We obtain
y 5
x .
2
Therefore,
1 y 5
f (y ) .
8 62 y
y
From that,
6
we have 5
4 1 x4 5 f (x) = x2
f (x) = x3 f (x ) .
2 32
x
−4
Note that,
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 2
(21x 2x
5) One-to-one
5
−2
1 1 Not
−4 One-to-one f (f (x )) f (2x 5) x x
2 2
−6 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 x 5 x −1 5
−8 f (f (x )) f =2 5 (x 5) 5 x
2 2
7 y
6 y
6
5 5 y
4 4 4
f = 2x + 5 3
3
2 2
f (x) = 2x + 5 2 1
1 x x
x −6−5−4 −4 −3−2 −2 −1−1 2 1 4 2 63
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1−1 1 2 −2 −2
x−5
f (x) = x3 + 1 −3f
−1
=
−2
−4 −4 2
−3
−5
Figure 1.3.3

y y
RELATED PROBLEM 4 Assume that the following two functions are 1 1 . Find their inverse
functions.
0 x 0 x
1/7 1 3x 5
a. f (x ) 2x 3 5 . b. f (x ) , x
2x 5 2
y y
Answer
x7 5 1 5x 1 3
0 a. xf 1
(x ) 3
0 x b. f (x ) , x
2 2x 3 2

y y
34
0 x 0 x
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

2x 1
EXAMPLE 1.3.5 Find the range of the function f (x ) , x 1.
x 1
1
Solution From Definition 1.3.2, we know that the range of f is the domain of f . Note that
the function f is one-to-one.

In order to find the range of f, we need to find the inverse function of f .

By replacing f (x ) with y, we get

2x 1
y
x 1
Solving for x, we obtain
y 1
x
y 2
Hence,
1 y 1
f (y ) .
y 2
From that, we have
1 x 1
f (x )
x 2

Therefore, the range of f is {2}

3x 2
RELATED PROBLEM 5 Find the range of the function f (x ) .
2x 5
3
Answer .
2

35
 f (x) = f2x
(x)+=5 2x + 5 72 27 y 1 1
y y y 1 x x x x −6 x −5−4
61 16 6
−4 −3−2 −2 −1−1 2 1 4
x x 6
5 −5 −4 −5
−3 −4 −3
−5
−2 −2
−4
−1 −1
−3 −2 2 1
−1
5 y −1 y1 542 2
2 1634 2 63 −2 −2
5 −6 −4 −6 −2−4 −1 −1
−2 x
−5 −4 −5 −3 −4 −2 −3 −1−2 −1 1
−14 2 1 2 4 −2 −2 4 4 4
−2x − 5 x − 5 f (x) = x3
+ 1 −3f
−1
=
4
−1 −2 −2
f= 2x=+
f (x) fxf35=+2x
(x) +
x3 5+
1=−3 31f −1 =
−3 −33f
−1
= −4 −4
SECTION 1.3f (x) INVERSE FUNCTIONS
3
−2 −23
2
−4 2 2
−4
−4 −42 2 2 −5
f (x) = 2x + 5= 2x + 5 −3 2 −32
1
−5 −51 x x
1 1 x x
x x −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 2 1 4 2 63
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 −1 2 1−14 2 6
3
−6 −4 −2
y
−6 −4 −2
y
−5 −4−5−3−4−2−3−1−2
y y
−1 1
−1−1
EXERCISES
EXERCISES 1.3
2
y
1 2
y
1.3 −2 −2 −2 −2x− −15 x−5
f (x) = x 3f (x) = x3 +f1−1 =−3f
+ 1 −3 =
−2 2 2
In Exercises 1-5, Use the horizontal line test to determine whether the given function is one-
−2
−4 −4−4 −4
0 x 0 x
−3 −3
−5 −5
to-one. 0 0x x
0 0x x
1. 2. 3.
y y y y y y
y y y y

0 0x x 0 0x 0 x x 0 x
0 0x x 0 0x x

4. y y 5. y y y y
y y y y

0 0x x 0 0x 0 x x 0 x
0 0x x 0 0x x

y y y y

In Exercises 6-16, Determine whether the given function is one-to-one. If it is one-to-one, find
its inverse. 0 0x x 0 0x x

6. f 12, 2 , 15, 4 , 19, 1 , 25, 6 , 78, 0

7. g 1, 2 , 0, 4 , 9, 4 , 18, 6 , 23, 4
8. h(x ) x2 2.
1
9. I x , x 2 .
2x 4
5
10. J x 5x .
3
11. K (x ) 5x 4 .
11
12. f (x ) , x 3 .
x 3
13. f (x ) x 5.

14. f (x ) x 9 x2 .
3
15. g(x ) x 4
1/5
16. g(x ) 2 3 x

In Exercises 17-22, Assume the functions are one-to-one. Find the requested inverse.
1
17. If f (4) 3 , find f (3).
1
18. If f (2) 4 , find f (4).

19. If g( 5) 6 , find g 1(6).

1
20. Find ( f f )( 5) .

36
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

1
21. Find ( f f )(0) .
1
22. Find (g g )( 1) .

1
In Exercises 23-26, The graph of f is given. On the same axis, sketch the graph of f
23. 24.
"" " " " "
""
5 5
55 5 5
55

yy""f (x)
f(x) y "y f"
(x)f (x)

!5 !5 5 5
!5
!5 55 !5 !5 5 5
!5
!5 55

yy""f (x)
f (x) y "y f"
(x)f(x)
!5 !5
!5
!5
!5
!5 !5 !5

25. 26.
"" " " " "
""
5 5 5
55 55 5

!5 !5 5 5 5
55 !5 !5 5
y "y f"
(x)f (x)
!5
!5 !5 55
!5
yy""f(x)
f (x)
yy""f (x)
f (x) y "y f(x)
" f (x)

!5
!5 !5 !5 !5 !5
!5
!5

In Exercises 27-31, Show that f and g are inverses of each other.

x
27. f (x ) 3x , g(x ) .
3
x 2
28. f (x ) , g(x ) 6x 2.
6
29. f (x ) x , g(x ) x 2 ; x 0.

30. f (x ) 6 x , g(x ) 6 x 2; x 6.

3
31. f (x ) x3 2, g(x ) x 2.

In Exercises 32-42, Find the inverses of the function f .

32. f (x ) (x 2)3 33. f (x ) 7x 11
2 2
34. f x x 2, x 0 35. f x x 2, x 0
2 x 1
36. f x , x 0 37. f x , x 1
x x 1
1/3
38. f x x 7 39. f x x 1
2x 3
40. f x 3x 9 41. f x
5
5
42. f x x 3

37
 SECTION 1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES

Section 1.4

1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES

The word trigonometry comes from two words; The first word is trigonon which means
“triangle” and the second word is metria which means “measure”. In this section, we are going
toy study the trigonometric functions by introducing their definitions, properties, and their
initial side
B
graphs. Then we are going to explore if we have an output of a trigonometric function how to
find the angle associated with it.terminal
This side
is the same as finding the invers of a function which has
A x
been introduced in Section 1.3. Particularly, in order to obtain the invers of the trigonometric
terminal
functions, we need the trigonometric function to be a side
one-to-one function.

We start this section by recalling the definition of an angle andsidethe two popular systems of
initial
y angle measurement which are degrees and radians.

ANGLES
ANGLES
A x
y
We define the angle as the joining of two rays or half lines at a common endpoint. The two
B rays form the sides of theBangle and the common endpoint called the vertex. An angle can be
generated by rotating the ray R1 about the
x vertex O with the ray R2 remaining fixed, as it
A
can be seen in Figure 1.4.1. The ray R1 is called initial side and the ray R2 is called terminal
side. We can name the angle by a single letter at the vertex O , the letters from the rays
y
forming the sides AOB , or by lowercase Greek letter such as , , and .
P(x, y)
R¤
¨
0 r x B
nal
termi e
sid A R⁄

l side
initia
y O
Figure 1.4.1
Quadrant II Quadrant I
Sine and All
cosecant We say that
functions the angle is a positive angle if it is formed by a counterclockwise rotation, so
positive positive
we have that
x 0 . Likewise, we say that the angle is a negative angle if it is formed by
Quadrant III Quadrant IV
a clockwise rotation, so we have that 0 , as shown in Figure 1.4.2.
Tangent and Cosine
cotangent and secant
positive
38positive
 initial side
CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

terminal side
y
initial side
B
terminal
side
terminal side
A x
initial side terminal
Positive angle Negative angle side

Figure 1.4.2
initial side
y In the xy -plane, if an angle yis drawn so that its vertex is the origin and its initial side is on
B the positive x -axis, then such angle is said to be in standard position, see Figure 1.4.3

x A x y
y initial side
A B

B B
terminal side
x x
A
A
terminal
R¤
side
Figure 1.4.3: Standard Position
B y
nal
termi e P(x, y) initial side
sid ANGLE
ANGLE A
MEASURE
MEASURE R⁄ R¤
y
Angles can ¨
sideusually be measured by two common measures which are degrees and radians.
nitial
i 0 r B
x
O i n a l
However, in calculus we are dealing with functions of real numbers,
ter m and these functions are
A x side A R⁄
defined in terms of radian measure. The length of an arc of a circle is used to ydefine the radian
l side
initia
measure of an angle. Following is the precise
B definition. O B
y
x
Quadrant II Quadrant I A
Let us first define an angle measuring 1 radian. We use a circle of radius r . One radian is
Sine and All
cosecant functions
the measure of the central
positive anglepositive
of a circle that intercepts an arc equal in length to the
yx
radius of the circle as shown in Figure 1.4.4.
Quadrant III Quadrant IV P(x, y)
Tangent and Cosine R¤
cotangent and secant
positive positive ¨
B 0 r x B
i nal 45*
t Ϸ
e r m
2 de
si 1 A R⁄
r r
30* l side
2 Ϸ3 2 45* initia
y r O
60* 1
A C
1 D Quadrant II Quadrant I
Sine and All
cosecant functions
Figure 1.4.4: For a 1-radian angle, the
positive intercepted
positive arc and the radius are equal.
x
Quadrant III Quadrant IV
Tangent and Cosine
cotangent and secant c
c positive positive 90! − u
a
a 39
u u

b b
 SECTION 1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES
y
initial side
DEFINITION 1.4.1 (Radian Measured)
Consider a circle of radius r and let AOB be an angle in standard position. If s units
terminal side y
A xis the length of the arc of the circle corresponding to the angle AOB, then the radian
B
measure of angle AOB is given by terminal
side
s terminal sid
if the rotation is counterclockwise.
r A x
s initial side
if the rotation is clockwise.
y r

Figure 1.4.5 illustrates both cases in Definition 1.4.1.

A x y
y

x A x
y
A
B B

y
s s
P(x, y) s length of arc, s length of arc,
r R¤ r
¨ Figure 1.4.5 y
0 r x B
nal P(x, y)
termiradius
Note that if the circle has 1 (unit circle),
side A then
R⁄ the circumference of the circle is 2 .
Therefore, a complete revolution has measure 2 . ¨
l side
initia 0 r x
It is well known that the Odegree of a full circle is 360 . Hence, from the fact that the measure nal
y termi e
sid
of the unit circle has circumference 2 radians. Thus
II Quadrant I
d All 2 radians = 360 degrees.
t functions O
e positive So, y

x radians = 180 degrees.

Quadrant II Quadrant I
III Quadrant IV Sine and All
and Cosine cosecant functions
nt and secant DEGREES/RADIANS
DEGREES/RADIANS CONVERSION
CONVERSION FACTORS
FACTORS positive positive
e positive
180 x
a. To convert from radians to degrees, we have 1 radian degrees. Hence,
Quadrant III Quadrant IV
Tangent and Cosine
180
multipy by . cotangent and secant
positive positive

b. To convert from degrees to radians, we have 1 degree radian. Hence,

180

multipy by .
180

40
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

EXAMPLE 1.4.1 Convert the following degree measures to radians.

a. 75 b. 225
Solution
5
a. 75 75 radians.
180 12
5
b. 225 225 radians.
180 4

RELATED PROBLEM 1 Convert the following degree measures to radians.

a. 60 b. 200
Answers
10
a. b.
3 9

EXAMPLE 1.4.2 Convert the following radian measures to degrees.

5 17
a. b.
9 36
Solution
5 5 180 17 17 180
a. radian 100 . b. radian 85 .
9 9 36 36

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Convert the following radian measures to degrees.

13
a. b.
10 12
Answers
a. 18 b. 195

Table 1.4.1 describes the conversion for some common angles.

Degrees 0 300 450 600 900 1200 1350 1500 1800 2700 3600
2 3 5 3
Radians 0 2
6 4 3 2 3 4 6 2
Table 1.4.1

TRIGONOMETRIC
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS
We discuss the six trigonometric functions sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and
cosecant, denoted by sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, and csc, respectively. In order to define the
trigonometric functions, we have two standard methods to do that, the first is by using the
right triangle and the second is by using the unit circle. We are going to start with defining
the trigonometric functions by using the right triangle.

41
 SECTION 1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES

DEFINITION 1.4.2 (Trigonometric Functions)

If is an acute angle 0 , we may use the right triangle below to define

2
the six trigonometric functions as
opp hyp
sin csc
hyp opp
adj hyp
cos sec
hyp adj
opp adj
tan cot
adj opp

Figure 1.4.6

α
The following example shows how to find the values of the trigonometric functions using
Definition 1.4.2. 3 α
y
θ
EXAMPLE 1.4.3 For the right triangle shown in Figure 1.4.7 whose opposite and
Quadrant 2 hypotenuse
Quadrant 1
Sine and All
sides of have measures 3 and 5 units respectively, find the values of all six trigonometric
cosecant
positive
functions
positive θ
x
functions of both angles and . α
Quadrant 3 Quadrant
Tangent and Cosine
2 cotangent and secant
α positive positive
θ
3 3
y
θ y

r = Quadrant
13 2 Quadrant 1
(12, 5)
Figure 1.4.7 Sine and All
cosecant y = 5 functions
Solution First, we need to find the measure of the adjacent side of upositive
which we can denote positive
x
α x
x 2= 12
by x . By using the Pythagorean Theorem, the adjacent side will be 32 x 3
Quadrant 52 Quadrant
. So,
Tangent and Cosine
x 25 9 4. 2 cotangent and secant
positive positive

α θ
3

θ r = 13
(12, 5)

y=5
Figure 1.4.8 u x

x = 12
α
42
3
y
θ
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

Therefore, using Definition 1.4.2 and Figure 1.4.8, we can find the values of the six
trigonometric functions for and .

For :

4 3 4
sin , cos , tan ,
5 5 3

5 5 3
csc , sec , cot ,
4 3 4 α
For
3 4 3
sin , cos , tan ,
5 5 4 θ

5 5 4
csc , sec , cot .
3 4 3
α

RELATED PROBLEM 3 For the 3right triangle shown in Figure 1.4.9 whose opposite and
adjacent sides have measures 2 and 3 units respectively, find the values of all six trigonometric
y
θ
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
functions of both angles and . Sine and All
cosecant functions
positive positive
α x
Quadrant 3 Quadrant
Tangent and Cosine
2 cotangent and secant
positive positive
θ
3
Figure 1.4.9
y
Answers
r = 13
(12, 5)
sin cos tan cot csc sec y=5
u x
3 2 3 2 13 13
x = 12
13 13 2 3 3 2
2 3 2 3 13 13
13 13 3 2 2 3
Table 1.4.2

Notice that
1 1 1
cot , sec and csc ;
tan cos sin

Therefore, we focus most of our examples on the functions sin , cos and tan .

43
 SECTION 1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
TRIGONOMETRIC WITH
FUNCTIONS TWO
WITH FAMILIAR
TWO TRIANGLES
FAMILIAR TRIANGLES
30o-60 o-90 o Triangle
To obtain such triangle, we start with an equilateral triangle ABC of side 2 and draw the
perpendicular bisector DB on the base, as shown in Figure 1.4.10. By the Pythagorean
Theorem, the length of DB is 3 . Since DB bisects angle ABC , we obtain a triangle with

angles 30o, 60 o, and 90 o , , and .

6 3 2
B

r r
30*
2 Ϸ3 2
r
60*
A C
1 D
Figure 1.4.10

We can now use the special triangle in Figures 1.4.10 and Definition 1.4.2 to calculate the
values of the three trigonometric functions for angles measures 30o and 60o 6 and 3
c c 90! − u
respectively as follows a
]]]
a
sin u cos tan u

1 b 3 1 b
30
2 2 3
3 1
60 3
2 2
y y y
Table 1.4.3

45o-45o-90 o Triangle u u
u# u
x
Such triangle can be obtained by drawing a diagonal in a square x
of side 1, see Figure 1.4.11.
u#
By the Pythagorean Theorem, this diagonal has length 2 . The resulting triangle has angles

45o, 45o, and 90 o , , and .

4 4 2 If 90! " u " 180!, If 180! " u " 270!, If 270! " u " 3
then u# $ 180! % u. then u# $ u % 180!. then u# $ 360!

Ϸ2 45*
r r 1
y y
45*
r u! 6
5p
u ! 345"
1 p
u# ! 6 u# ! 3
p

C x x
Figure
u# !1.4.11
15"

44
y y
P(x, y)
P(x, y)
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

Now, we can use the special triangle in Figures 1.4.11 and Definition 1.4.2 to calculate the

values of three trigonometric functions for the angle measure 45o as follows
4
B
sin cos tan
r r
1 1
45 30* 1
2 2 Ϸ3 22
r
60*Table 1.4.4
A C
1 D
One of the important relationships among trigonometric functions follows from Pythagorean
theorem. Using Figure 1.4.12, the Pythagorean theorem states that
a2 b2 c2

c c 90! − u
a
a
u u

b b

Figure 1.4.12

Divide both sides of this equation by c 2 ,

y y y
2 2
a2 b2 a b
1 or 1
c2 c2 c c
u u
Thus, we get u# u
x x
2 2 u#
sin cos 1 u#
B
Ϸ2 45*
Pythagorean Identities 1
r r
2 2 If 90!2 " u " 180!, 2If
180! " u2 " 270!, If 270! " u " 360!
30* sin cos 1, 1 sec2% u.,
tan u# $ 180!
then 1 cot then u#csc
$ u % 180!. then u# $ 360! %
2 Ϸ3 2 45*
r
60* 1
A Two positive
C angles are complements if their sum is 90 or . For example, angles of 70
1 D 2
y y
and 20 are complements because 70 20 90 .
5p
u! 6 p u
Let’s use Figure 1.4.13 uto
! compare
345" sin and cos(90 ). u# ! 6
p u# ! 3
x x
u# ! 15"

c c 90! − u
a
a
u u y y
b P(x, y)
b P(x, y)
Figure 1.4.13
y y ¨
¨
0 x r x 0 r x
x
y y y 45

u u
 SECTION 1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES

a
sin
c
a
cos(90 )
c

Thus, sin B cos(90 ) . We have similar relations for the remaining trigonometric
Ϸ2 45*
functions. 1
r r
30*
2 Ϸ3sin 2 cos(90 ) cos sin(90 ) 45*
r
60* tan cot(90 ) cot tan(90 ) 1
A C
1 D sec csc(90 ) csc sec(90 )

Definition 1.4.2 helps us to calculate the trigonometric functions for acute angles only. However,
our main task is to define the trigonometric functions for any angle. In order to do that, we
introduce the reference angle.
c c 90! − u
a
a
DEFINITION 1.4.3 (Reference Angle) u
u
Let be a non-acute angle in standard position that lies
b in a quadrant and does not
b
lie on the x-axis or y-axis. Its reference angle is the positive acute angle formed
by the terminal side of and the x-axis.

y y y

u u
u# u
x x x
u#
u#

If 90! " u " 180!, If 180! " u " 270!, If 270! " u " 360!,
then u# $ 180! % u. then u# $ u % 180!. then u# $ 360! % u.

Figure 1.4.14

y y
EXAMPLE 1.4.4 Find the reference angle, , for each of the following angles
5p
5u! p8 u ! 2p
u ! 345" a. 345 u# ! b.
6
p 6 c. u# ! 3 3
x 6 x 3 x
Solution u# ! 15"

a. A 345 angle in standard position is shown in Figure 1.4.15 . Because 345° lies in
quadrant 4, the reference angle is
y y
P(x, y) 345
360 15
P(x, y)

46 y y ¨
¨
0 x r x 0 r x
x
 c c 90! − u
a
a
If 90! " u " 180!, If 180! " u " 270!, If 270! "
u u
then u # $ 180! % u. then u # $ u % 180!. then u # $
b b
CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

y y

y y
Ϸ2 45* y 5p
p u! 6 p
u# ! 3
r r u ! 345" 1 u# ! 6
x x
u# ! 15"
Ϸ3 2 u u 45*
u# r u
x 1 x x
Figure u#
C u# 1.4.15
D y y
5 3 6 5 P(x, y) P(x, y)
b. Because lies between and , lies in quadrant 2. The angle
If 90! "6 u " 180!, 2 6If 180! " u " 270!,
6 6 If 270! " u " 360!,
is shown
then uin
# $Figure 1.4.16 . The reference
180! % u. then u # $ angle is
u % 180!. y then u # $ 360! % u. y ¨
¨
50 x r x 0 r x
5 6 x
c 90! − u
c
a
6 6 6 6
a y y
u
5p
b b p u! 6 u# ! 3
p u ! 2p
3
u ! 345" u# ! 6
x x x
u# ! 15"

Figure 1.4.16
y y y
y y
8 2
c. For an , or 2 angle, subtract 2 P(x, y) a positive angle less than 2 .
to find
3 3 P(x, y)
u u
8u 8 6 2
x x y 2 yx ¨
¨ 3 u# 3 3 3
u#
0 x r2 x 0 r x
x
Figure 1.4.17 shows in standard position.
3

" u " 180!, If 180! 2

" u " 270!, If 270! 360!,
Because lies in quadrant 2, the
"u"reference angle is
# $ 180! % u. then u # $ u % 180!.
3 then u # $ 360! % u.
2 3 2
3 3 3 3
y

5p
p u! 6 u# ! 3
p u ! 2p
3
u# ! 6
x x x
! 15"

Figure 1.4.17

y y
RELATED PROBLEM 4 Find the reference angle, , for each of the following angles
P(x, y)
P(x, y) 3 11
a. 210 b. c.
y y ¨ 4 3
¨
0 x r Answers a. x 030 r b.
x c.
x 4 3

47
 u u u u

b b b b

SECTION 1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES

y y y y y y
Now we introduce the second method, which defines the trigonometric functions using the unit
circle in the following
u definition.
u u u
u# u# u u
x x x x x x
u# u#
DEFINITION 1.4.4 u# u#

a. Let x 2 y2 r 2 be a circle centered at the origin and is an angle in standard

form. If P is the point (x, y) as shown in Figure 1.4.18, then the trigonometric
If 90! " u "If180!,
90! " u " 180!, If 180! " u " 270!," u " 270!,
If 180! If 270! " u " 360!," u " 360!,
If 270!
functions
then are
u # $defined
180! # by:
then%uu.$ 180! % u. then u # $ u then
% 180!.
u # $ u % 180!. then u # $ 360!
then%u u.
# $ 360! % u.

y r
sin csc ,y 0
r y
y y x y y r
cos sec ,x 0
r x
5p 5p
up! 6 u ! 6x p u! 3 p 2p u ! 2p
u ! 345" u ! 345" y !
p
u# ! 6 u# ! 3 u# ! 3
tan x , x u#
x0
6 cot x ,y 0x 3
x y x x
u# ! 15" u# ! 15"
where x and y are the first and the second coordinates, respectively, of the point
p (x, y) on the circle and r is the radius of the circle, see Figure 1.4.18.
y y y y
P(x, y) P(x, y)
P(x, y) P(x, y)

y y y ¨y ¨
¨ ¨
0 x 0r x x r x 0 x 0r x r x
x

(a) (b)
Figure 1.4.18

b. If the circle is the unit circle x 2 y2 1 , then the trigonometric functions are
defined by replacing the radius r with 1 .

c. If t is a real number, then the value of a trigonometric function at t is its value at

an angle of t radians, see Figure 1.4.19.
y

α
P(cos t, sin t) t

x
θ 1

y
Figure 1.4.19
Figure 5.2.2
3 3
a– 1 , b (0, 1) a 1, b
2 2 2 2
2 2 π 2 2
α
a– , b 90° a , b
48
2
2 2 2π π 2 2
3 3
3π 120° 60° π 3
3 1 4 4 3 1
a– , b a , b
2 2 5π 135° 45° π 2 2
6 6
150° 30° θ
(–1, 0) 180° 0° 0 (1, 0)
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

REMARK
It can be seen form Definition 1.4.4 that the domain of sine and cosine functions is the
set of all real numbers . However, the tangent and secant functions are undefined
when x 0 (that appears only when the terminal side of is on the y -axis ).
Therefore, the domain of the tangent and secant functions is the set of all real numbers
except numbers of the form n 2
, n . Similarly, because cotangent and cosecant
α
functions are not defined when y 0 (that appears only when the terminal side of
is on the x -axis ). Hence, the domain of the cotangent and cosecant functions is the set
of all real numbers except numbers of the form n , n .
θ
THE
THE SIGN
SIGN OFOF TRIGONOMETRIC
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS
The sign of the values of trigonometric function depends on the quadrant containing the
α terminal side of the angle . In particular, if is in standard position and Q(x, y) is on the
terminal side of , then the sign of the values of trigonometric function depends on the sign of
3 x and y . Figure 1.4.20 illustrates the sign of the values of trigonometric function.
y
θ
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
Sine and All
cosecant functions
positive positive
α x
Quadrant 3 Quadrant
Tangent and Cosine
2 cotangent and secant
positive positive
θ
Figure 1.4.20
3
There is an easy way to remember the sign of the values of trigonometric function which is
“All Students Take Calculus”. y

r = 13
(12, 5)
VALUES
VALUES OFOF SINE
SINE AND
AND COSINE
COSINE y=5
u x from Figure 1.4.21 and Table
For certain values of , the sine and cosine are easily obtained
1.4.5. x = 12

3
0 2
6 4 3 2 2
1 1 3
sin sin 0 1 0 1 0
2 2 2
3 1 1
cos cos 1 0 1 0 1
2 2 2
(a) (b)
Table 1.4.5

49
 SECTION 1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES

Table 1.4.5(a) can obtained from the triangles

y

4
x 3
u √2 1 2 4
5 !3
Q 4, !3 1
3 2
y
1 √3
α
P(cos t, sin t) t
Figure 1.4.21 (a)
t
y y
and Table 1.4.5(b) can be obtained from Figure
θ 1.4.21 (b) and noticing
1
that x sin
x and
4p
y sin are on the unit circle. 3
1
22 y x
3p
1 p 4 p Figure 5.2.2
4 3
x –23 a– 1 ,
3
b (0, 1) a 1,
3
b
–1 2 2 2 2 2
α
2 2 π 2 2
a– , b 90° a , b
2
2 2 2π π 2 2
3 3
3π 120° 60° π 3
3 1 4 4 3 1
a– , b a , b
2 2 5π 135° 45° π 2 2
6 6
150° 30° θ
y (–1, 0) 180° y 0°0 (1, 0)
x
π 360° 2π

210° 330°11π
!3 3
7π
3 α
x a– , –1b 6 225° 315° 6 a , –1b
5π 7π
¨
2 2 2 2
4 240° 300° 4
4π 5π
2 2 3 3 2 2
!1 a– ,– b 2 3π a ,– b 2
¨
2 2 270° 2 2 2
2 1 3
a– 1, – b (0, –1) a 1, – 3 b
2 2 2 2 θ
x
!!3 3
Figure 1.4.21 (b)
y
y 2 y " sin x
The way that reference angles are defined makes them useful in evaluating1 trigonometric
Ϸ2 45*
functions. 1
x
!2p !w !p !q q p w 2p
2 y !1
1. If is acute, it can be found45*from the triangle.
!2 1 !2

¨ 3 !3
2. Ifx 0, , , , 2 , it can be found from tablex 1.4.5(b).
2 2 B ¨ y
!2 2 y " cos x
!1
32
3. If 2 , and nor
30*
then the value of a trigonometric function
1
can be
2 2 Ϸ3 2 2
!2p !w !p !q q p w 2p x
found as follows: A
60*
C !1
1 D
!2
a. Find the associated reference angle, .
b. Find the trigonometric function taking in consideration the sign of x and y.

EXAMPLE 1.4.5 Use reference angles to find the exact value of each of the following
trigonometric functions:
3 4
a. cos b. sin
4 3

50
 y
CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS
4
x 3
u √2 1 2
5 !3
Solution Q 4, !3
3 2
a. Using Figure 1.4.22, we find that
1 √3
3 1
cos
4 2
y y

4p
3
1
22 x
3p
y 1 p 4 p
4 3
x –23
–1 2
4
x 3
u √2 1 2 4
5 !3 Figure 1.4.22 1
Q 4, !3
3 2
b. Using Figure 1.4.23, we findy that y
1 √3
4 3
sin
!3
3 2 x
¨
y y !1 2
2 1 ¨
4p
3 x
1
22 x !!3
3p
1 p 4 p
4 y 3
x –23
–1 2

2
Figure 1.4.23 y
!2
y
y ¨ !3
RELATED PROBLEM 5 Use reference angles to find the exact
x value of each of the following x
¨
trigonometric
!3 functions: !2
x !1
¨ 2
2 7
a. sin b. tan
!1 3 24
2 1 ¨
3 x
Answers a. b. 1
2 !!3

y
EXAMPLE 1.4.6 If is in standard position and Q(4, 3) is on the terminal side of . Use
Definition 1.4.4 to find the values of the three trigonometric functions for .

Solution
2 Notice that the point is on a circle
y of radius r 16 9 5 . Thus, we obtain
!2
from figure 1.4.24
¨ !3
x x
3 ¨4 3
!2 sin , cos , tan
5 5 !14 ,
2

51
SECTION 1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES

4
x 3
u √2 1 2
5 !3
Q 4, !3
3 2

Figure 1.4.24 1 √3

RELATED PROBLEM 6 If is in standard position

y and Q( 5,12) is on the terminaly side of .
Use Definition 1.4.3 to find the values of the three trigonometric functions for . 4p
3
1
Answers 22 x
3p
1 4
12 p
5 12 p
sin , cos
4 , tan x , –23 3
13 –1 13 5 2

TRIGONOMETRIC
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
IDENTITIES
There are many equations, called trigonometric identities that describe relationships among
y y
the various trigonometric identities.
!3
The fundamental trigonometric identities¨ are as follows. x
!1 2
22 21
¨
Pythagorean Identities sin 2
cos 1 tan 2
1 sec 2
1 cot csc2
x
1 1 1
!!3
Reciprocal Identities sin cos tan
csc sec cot
y
sin cos
Ratio Identities tan cot
cos sin
Identities Due to Symmetry sin( ) sin cos( ) cos tan( ) tan
2 y
!2
Since we normally use x to represent points
¨ in the domain of a function, henceforth, we follow
!3
x x
that convention for the trigonometric functions and replace and t by x . ¨
!2
!1
2
Since an angle of x radians and one of x 2 have the same terminal side, we can write
sin x sin(x 2 ) and cos x cos(x 2 ) (1)

DEFINITION 1.4.5
A function f is said to be periodic if there exists a positive real number p such that
whenever x is in the domain of f , then x p is in the domain of f , and
f (x p) f (x )
The smallest positive number p is called the period of f .

52
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

From (1) and Definition 1.4.4, the sine and cosine functions are periodic, they both have period
2 . Consequently, for any integer n and any real number x ,
sin(x 2n ) sin x and cos(x 2n ) cos x

Furthermore, the tangent function is periodic with period ; that is,

tan(x ) tan x

Hence, for any integer n and any number x , we have

tan(x n ) tan x similarly cot(x n ) cot x ,

sec(x 2n ) sec x similarly csc(x 2n ) csc x .

Now, we are going to list some other important trigonometric identity as follows:
a. The sum and difference identities for sine, cosine and tangent are
sin(x y) sin x cos y cos x sin y
cos(x y) cos x cos y sin x sin y
tan x tan y
tan(x y) .
1 tan x tan y
b. If we have x y in the sum identity, then we obtain the double angle formula
sin(2x ) 2 sin x cos x
cos(2x ) cos2 x sin2 x 2 cos2 x 1 1 2 sin2 x
2 tan x
tan(2x ) .
1 tan2 x
c. The half-angle formula is
x 1 cos x
sin2
2 2
x 1 cos x
cos2
2 2
x sin x
tan
2 1 cos x
d. The product formula is
1
sin x cos y sin(x y ) sin(x y )
2
1
cos x sin y sin(x y ) sin(x y )
2
1
sin x sin y cos(x y ) cos(x y )
2
1
cos x cos y cos(x y ) cos(x y )
2
cos(x y ) cos(x y )
tan x tan y
cos(x y ) cos(x y )

53
 SECTION 1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES

Other
Other trigonometric trigonometric
identity identity
can be derived canthe
from be above
derivedidentities.
from the above identities.
etric identity can be derived from the above identities.
In the following
In the following example, example,
we are going we are
to prove going
some to prove
of the somementioned
identities of the identities
before.mentioned before.
example, we are going to prove some of the identities mentioned before.
EXAMPLE 1.4.7 Prove EXAMPLE 1.4.7 Prove
the following the following identities:
identities:
Prove the following identities: 1
1
tan2 x 1 a.sec2 tan b. sin x cos y b. sin(
2
a. x x 1 sec2 x x x cos
sin y ) y sin(xsin(yx) y ) sin(x y)
1 2
1 sec2 x b. sin x cos y sin(x y y ) sin(2x y )
Solution Solution 2 y
α
a. Dividing both a. sides Dividing both sides
of the identity of2 xthe
sinP(cos cos
t, sin t)
2
identity
x sin 2
1 byxt coscos2 2x 1 by cos2 x , we obtain
x , we obtain
α 2
th sides of the identity sin2 x cos2 x 2 1 P(cos by cos x , we2 obtaint 2
t, sin t)
sin x cos2 x sin 1 x t cos x 1
2 2 , ,
sin x cos x 1
cos x , cos x cos
2 2 22
cos xxt cos x
2
cos2 x
x
cos2 xHence,
θ cos2 x
using cos 2
x
trigonometric
1
identities inwe Definition x 1.4.4, we obtain
Hence, using trigonometric θ identities in Definition 1
1.4.4, obtain
g trigonometric identities in Definition 1.4.4, 2 we obtain 2 tan 2 x 1 sec2 x .
tan x 1 sec x .
2 2
tany x 1 sec x .
b. Using the sumb. andy Using the sum
difference and difference
identities for sine, identities
Figure 5.2.2 for sine, we obtain
we obtain
um and difference 3 identities for 1sine, we obtain
a– 1 ,
2 2
b 1) xa 2 , 2 yb
(0,sin
3
sin xsin cosxy Figure ycos x sin5.2.2
yx cos y cos (2) x sin y (2)
sin x 1 , yb
3
sin x cos y1, 3
cos
sin x2 2 y a 2 , sin x sin y (2)
sin x ycos x sin yx cos y cos α (3) x sin y (3)
b x cos y
a– π (0, a b
a–
2
,
2
b 2 2 90°1) 2
2
2
2 sin
2
2 x y2π
sin
π x cos yπ
cos 2
2 x 2
sin
2 y (3) α
a– , b 3 90° 3 a , b
3 By
2 2adding 3π 2π (2) 2
120°and By(3),adding
60° π (2)
πwe have 2 and2
3
(3), we have 3
a– , 1b 4 3
135° 345°
4 a , 1b
2) and 2
3 1 (3),
2 5we
π
6 4
3π have 120° 60° π
sin
4
π
6x
2
3y 1
2
sin(xsin yx ) y2 sin sin( 3
x cosx y. y ) 2 sin x cos y.
a– , b 150° a , b
2 2 5π 135° 45° 30° π 2 2 θ
sin x6 y sin(x30° 6y ) 2 sin x cos y.
0) 180° 150°
(–1,Therefore, Therefore, 0° 0 (1, 0)
x θ
π
(–1, 0) 180° 0° 20π (1, 0)
360°
1x 1
π 210°sin360°
330° π y
x 2cos sin( x x cos
sin y ) y sin(xsin(yx) . y ) sin(x y ) .
7π 1 11π
2α
a–
3
sin x cos y
, –1b 6
210°225°
7π 5π
sin(x y ) sin(2x y ) .
315°
330°
7π 11π
6 a
3
, –1b
3
2
1
2
2 240° 300°
2
3 α
2
a– ,– b 6 4225°
4π 315°
5π 4 6 a , –1b
GRAPHS OF THE GRAPHS
2
a–
22
,–
2 5π
b4
GRAPHS3OFOF
TRIGONOMETRIC THE THE TRIGONOMETRIC
TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS 7π
240° 270° 3π 300° 3 4 a 2 , – 2 b 2 FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS
2 2
4π 5π
E TRIGONOMETRICFor FUNCTIONS
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 3 3 2 2
For the sine and cosine
a–
2
,– b the sine and cosine functions:2
3π
functions:
2 a– 1, – 3 b 270° 2(0, –1) a 1, – 3 b2
a ,–
2
b
2 2 2 2 θ
ndThe cosine
graphfunctions:
of f (xThe graph
) sin x andof ff((xx)) sincosxx and
can fbe
(x )obtained
cos x can be obtained
by plotting by plotting a few points for
θa few points for
3 (0, –1) a 1, – 3 b
a– 1, – b
2 2 2 2 3
(x )0 sin x and f (x ) cos x can be obtained
and then using by plotting
of theperiodicity
sine and of a few points for
the function
sine
x 2 and 0thenx using 2 periodicity cosine 3 and as cosine function
mentioned in as mentioned in
d Definition
then using1.4.5
periodicity of the
toDefinition
complete the sine
1.4.5 andascosine
to complete
graphs, the function
shown graphs,
in Figure asas1.4.25.
mentioned
shown
y in 1.4.25.
in Figure
y " sin x
to complete the graphs, as shown in Figure 1.4.25. y 2

21 y " sin x
Ϸ2 45*
1 1
Ϸ2 45* !2p !w !p !q q p w 2p x
1 !1
45* !2p !w !p !q q p w 2p x

45* 1
!1
!2

1 !2
y
B
y " cos x
y2
B
21 y " cos x
30*
2 Ϸ3 2 1
q w x
30* !2p !w !p !q p 2p
2 60* Ϸ3 2 !1
A C !2p !w !p !q q p w 2p x
60*1 D
!2
!1
A C Figure 1.4.25 Figure 1.4.25
1 D
Figure
!2 1.4.25

54
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

y y " tan x
y " tan x
Notice that, the similarity of the two portions
2 y of the graphs of the sine and cosine functions on
2 y " tan x y
y y
the intervals [ 2 , 0] and [0, 2 ] shows 21the periodicity of the sine2 and cosine functions. y
21 4p
Moreover, we can see for both the sine and1 cosine functions the domain 3 4p is
21 is and the range 3 4p
!2p !w !p !q q p w 2p x 3
[ 1,1] which means !2p !w !p !q !1 1 q
!2p
p
!w
w
!p !q
2p 1 x
q p wπ 2p
0
x0
x
x
!1 x 3 π
!2p
andq q 1p p cos
!2p
!w
1 !psin
!w
w
!q
x 2p1.
!p x !q 1!2
w 2p
!1x 3 π
3
Figure 5.2.5
!2 (a)
!2p !w !p !1
!q q p w 2p x
Figure !1 5.2.5 (a) !2
Figure
!1 5.2.5 (a)
!2
For the other trigonometric functions: !2function
The tangent !2
The tangent function The tangent function
The graphs of the tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant appear in Figure 1.4.26 (a) – (d).
y " cot
y" x
y y" cottan
xx y y " cot x
2 y " sin x 2 y y
y " sin x 2 y " sinyx 2
y " cot x
y " cot x Figurey 15.2.5 (a) y " cot x Figurey 15.2.5 (a)
21 Figure 2 y 15.2.5 (a) 4p 2
2
3
1
!2p !w !p !q !2p !wq !p
p w
!q 212p 1 x q !2p p !w w!p !q x 21x
2p q p w 2p x
!2p !w !p !q 2 q p w 2p 0 x
!1 !1 π !1
12p!1 x 3
!2p !w !p !q !2p !wq p
!p w
!q 1 q !2p p!w w !p 2p
!q x1 q p w 2p x
!2 q p w 2p !2x
!1!2p !w
Figure 5.2.5 (a) !p !q !2
!1 !2 !1
!1 !q x q w x
!2p !w !p !q q !2p p!w w !p 2p p 2p
!2!2p !w !p !q !2 q p w 2p !1 x
!2
The tangent function !1
The cosecant function The cosecant function
!1!2
The cosecant function
!2
!2
(a) !2 (b)
y
y " cot x y The graphs of
y The graphs of cosecant and sineyFigure y " sec x
" sec x 5.2.5 (b)
y " sin x 2 y The functions are reciprocal functions,
The graphs of the values of
The cosecant and sine Figure
functions5.2.5 (b)
are reciprocal
(b) functions,
y "the
cos xvalues of
y " sec x
x Figure
functions5.2.5
y " cot x
Figure y 15.2.5
The (a) and
cosecant sine are reciprocal The
functions, 2 of of the cosecant and secant func
graphs
2
y " cos
y " cosThe graphs
x The2 of the cosecant andthe values
secant func the values of
graphs of the cosecant and secant func
2
the values of
x
the values of
!2p !w !p !q 21 q p w 2p
x
!1 !2p !w !p Figure
!q 5.2.5q(b) p w 2p
1 x!1
!2p !w !p !q !2p !w q p !p wFigure x
!q 2p 5.2.5 q(b) p w 2p
!p Figure q w x
!1 5.2.5 (b)
!2 !2p !w !q p 2p
!1 !2
!2p !w !p !q q p w 2p !1 x
!2
!1 !2
The cosecant function !2

!2
y " csc x
y
(c) y
The graphs ofx
y " csc
y y " sec x
The cosecant and sine Figure
functions5.2.5
are (b)
y "reciprocal
csc x functions,
theyvalues of
y " cos x The graphs y " sin x 2
2 of the cosecant and secant func
the values of
y " sin x 2
1
y " sin x 2
1 !2p !w !p !q q p w 2p x
1
x
!2p !w !p Figure
!q 5.2.5q(b) p w 2p !1
!2p!1 !w !p !q q p w 2p x
!2p !w !p !q q p w 2p !2x
!2 !1
!1
!2 The cosecant function
!2

y " csc x The cosecant function

y The cosecant function
(d)
y " sin x 2 Figure 1.4.26
1
We can see from Figure 1.4.19 (a) – (d) that the range of both functions tangent and cotangent
is!2p ,
!w , whereas
!p !q the range
q ofp secant
w and
2p cosecant
x functions is , 1 1, .
!1

!2

The cosecant function

55
 SECTION 1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES

INVERSRE
INVERSRE OFOF SINE
SINE AND
AND COSINE
COSINE FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS
It is necessary for a function to be one-to-one in order to have an inverse. A sketch of the graph
of sine and cosine functions in Figure 1.4.27 shows that every number in the range is an image
of infinitely many numbers in their domains. Thus the sine and cosine functions are not one-
to-one and therefore do not have an inverse. A close look at the graph of both functions, we
can easily see that the sine function is increasing on the interval ,
2 2
, while the cosine

function is decreasing on the interval 0, .

yy yy
π 11 11
__π2 2
_2π
_2π _π
_π 0 0 ππ ππ 2π x x
2π _2π
_2π _π _π π
_π 00 ππ ππ 2π x x
2π
_1 2 2 _ 2 2 _1 22
_1 _1

f (x ) sin x f (x ) cos x
yy Figure 1.4.27
yy ππ
y=sin–¡x
y=sin–¡x yy
ππ yy
Therefore,
22 despite that the sine and cosine functions do not have an inverse, the functions
π 11 11
y=cos–¡x
y=cos–¡x __π2 2
F (x ) sin x for x and G(x ) cos x for 0 x (1)
ππ 00 ππ xx
y
2 22
2 00 ππ xx
y _1
_1 22 _1
_1
y
_1
_1 00 11 xx 1
π have
1 an inverse. The domains of F and G are ,1 and 0, respectively, and their range
_2 2 2
0 π π is x 0 1,π π1_2π
2π _π _ πthe
π. A πsketch of
0
x graphs
π
_1_2π ofπ F _π
and 2πG xare
1 1 _ xπ2 x
0 shownπin Figures
2π 1.4.28
x (a) and (b)
_1 _2π
2 _π _2 2
__1
2π2 _1 _1 2 00 π
2 _1 2
respectively. The inverse of the functions defined in (1) are called the inverse sine function

y and the inverse cosine function. yy

yy y
y π
π y yy
y=sin–¡x y y
π y
2
1 1
_ π2 1 1
y=cos–¡x _ π2 11
11 y=cos–¡x 11
π _π
_π π 0 π x 0 π x
2 _1 0 π x 0 π xπ
ππ xx
2 π_1 π 2 3π x _π _1 0 2π x x π
__2 2
3π3π ππ π π 3π x _π 0 2 ππ _1 2π _12 2
_1
__
x2 2 __2 2 _12 2
_1 22
_1
_1
_1 0 1
(a) (b)

_1 0 1 x Figure 1.4.28
_ π2 _1 0 1 x
y=ˇx,x,0<x<π
y=ˇ 0<x<π π <x<
y=†x,x,__ π π π
π <x<
y=†x,x,__ π π π y=† 2 2<x< 2 2
y=† 2 2<x< 2 2
DEFINITION 1.4.6
y
y a.y The inverse sine function denoted by sin 1
(or arcsiny ), is defined as follows:
yy y
yy
y sin 1
x if and only if x y yy
sin where y and 1 x 1.
1
2 2 ππ
1 ππ 1
1 11 1 22
_π b.0 The inverse cosine function _1
π denoted by xcos 1
(or arccos ), is π π as follows:
defined
_ 2 _1 _1 2
π
π 3π 3π x _π π 2π x π π x 22
π π 0π0 _1 3π x π1π x x _π 0 π 2π x x _2 _1 2
_2 2 _2 _1 2 y _1_12cos x if and only _1 if x cos 0y01 1 where x0 y and 1 x 1. x
π
π
__ 2 _1_1 0 01 1 x
2

<2
π 56 y=ˇ
π
x, 0<x<π
y=ˇx,x,0<x<π
y=ˇ
π
0<x<π y=ˇ x,y=† x, _ 2 <x< 2
0<x<π
π π
π πy=ˇ–¡x
y=ˇ–¡x
y=† x, _ 2 <x< 2
y=† x, _ 2 <x< 2 y=†–¡x x
y=†–¡
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

1
The domain of sin is the closed interval 1, 1 and the range is the closed interval ,
2 2
1
, while the domain of cos is they closed interval 1, 1 and the range is the
y
closed interval
y y
1 1 1 1
0, _ π2 of sin
. A sketch of the graphs and cos are
1 shown in Figure 1.4.29 (a) and (b) 1
_ π2
_2π _π 0 π π 2π x _2π _π _ π 0 π π 2π x
respectively. To avoid confusion, it _1
is_2π
necessary
2 _π to denote 0 the
π reciprocal
π 2π _1 x _2π
of2 xsin and
2 cos x_π by_ π 0 π π
_1 2 2 _1 2
1 1
(sin x ) and (cos x ) respectively.
y
y y
π
π y=sin–¡x y π y y
2 π y=sin–¡x y y
2 1 1
y=cos–¡x _ π2 1 1
y=cos–¡x _ π2
π 0 π x
2 π
0 π x
_1
y 2 _1 0 π x 0
2 _1
_1 0 1 x _1 2
_1 0 1 x
4
x
_ π2 _1 0 1 x u √2
_ π2 _1 0
5 1 x
!3
Q 4, !3
(a) (b) 3
y 1
y Figure 1.4.29 y
y y
y

It follows from Definition 1.4.6 that y 1

1 1 1 y
1 _π 1 1
a. sin(sin x) x for x 1, 1 _π π π x
3π π π π 3π x _π 0 π 2π x _2 _1 2 π
_ 2 _2 _1 2 3π 2 π π π _13π x _π 0 π 2π x _2 _1
_2 _2 _1 2 2 _1 1
1
sin (sin y ) y for y ,
2 2
22
3p
1 p 4 p
4 3
y=ˇ x, 0<x<π π xπ –23
1 π π y=† x, _ <x< 2 2
b. cos(cos x) x forx,x_ 2 <x<
y=† 1, 12 π π
–1 y=ˇ x, 0<x<π 2 y=† x, _ 2 <
π
y=† x, _ 2 <x< 2

cos 1(cos y ) y for y 0,

y
y y
y y
y y
EXAMPLE 1.4.8 Find the value of the following: π
π
π
1 2 π
1 !3 π
2 3 _1 2
2 2 x π
a. sin 1 0
_1
π x b. cos0 1
0 1 x c. ¨_1cos 1
sin 2
2 _1 2 π πx 0 1 !1
_1
30x
1 x
_2
_2 01 1
π
_1
Solution 2

y=ˇ–¡x
y=ˇ
2 x, 0<x<π y=ˇ–¡x !!
1
a. sin is equivalent to y=ˇ x, 0<x<π
y=†–¡x
2 y y=†–¡x

2
sin ,
2 2 2
2 y
!2
4
¨
x
!2

57
 y y

4p
3
1
22 x
3p
1
SECTION 1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES
p p 4
4
x –23 3
–1 2

1 3
b. cos is equivalent to y
2 y

3!3
cos , 0 x
2¨
5 !1 2
¨
2 1
6 x
5 5 3
Note: 6
, even though cos 6 2
, !!3

because must bey between 0 and , inclusive.

1 2 1 3
c. cos sin 3
cos 2 2 . y
6
y y !2 y y
1 ¨ 1
1 !3 1
_π _π x x
RELATED PROBLEM 7 Find
2
!2
2
the value of the following: ¨
_2π _π _2π 0 _ππ π 0 2ππ x π _2π _π _ π_2π 0
2π x π
_π π 0 2ππ x π 2π x
_1 2 2 _1 2 _ π2 !1
_1 2 2 _1 2
1 3 1 2 1 1
a. sin b. sin c. cos
2 2 2
y y
y y π
2
Answers a. y=sin–¡x b. π c.
π
3 π y=sin–¡x
4 y y3 y y
2 2
1 1 1
y=cos–¡x _ π2 _ π2
1
y=cos–¡x
INVERSE
INVERSE OFOF TANGENT
TANGENT AND
AND COTANGENT
COTANGENT
π
2
FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS
π 0 π x 0
0
π x π x0 π x
2 _1 2 _1 _1
_1 2
A sketch _1 1 _1of
of the 0graphs x
tangent
0 1 and
x cotangent functions is shown in Figure 1.4.30. The

tangent function is increasing on the open interval 2 2

, and the range is the set of all real
_ π2 _1 0 1 _1 x 0 1 x
_ π2
numbers, while the cotangent function is decreasing on the open interval 0, and the range
is the set of real numbers.
y y
y y y y

1 1
1 1 1
_π 1
_π π π x
x
x _π π 0 2π x _2
π π 0 π π
_
3π π
_2 3π
π 3π
π π 3π x _1 _π π 2π x_1 2 _2 _1
2 __1
2
2 _2 2
_1 2 2 _1
2

y=ˇ x, 0<x<π π π
y=† x, _ 2 <x< 2
y=† x, _ 2 <x< 2 π
π
π
π y=ˇ x, 0<x<π π π
y=† x, _ 2 <x< 2
(a) y tan xy=† x, _ 2 <x< 2 (b) y cot x
Figure 1.4.30
y
y y
y y
The functions y
π
π π
1 2 π
H (x ) tan x for 1 x and
_1 K (x ) cot2 x for 0 x π (2)
2 π
x 2 2 _1 2
0 π 0 1 x
_1 0 π x 0 1 x
_1 π x 0
_1 1
have an inverse. The domains of H and K_ 2are ,
2 2 _and
π
2
0, respectively, and _1
their0 1 x

range is the set of all real numbers. A sketch of the graphs of H and K are shown in Figure
y=ˇ–¡x
y=ˇ x, 0<x<π y=ˇ–¡x
y=ˇ x, 0<x<π
y=†–¡x
y=†–¡ x
58
 y
π
y y

1 1
y=cos–¡x _ π2 1 1
_π
0 π x 0 π x 3π π π π 3π x _π 0 π
_1 2 _1 _ 2 CHAPTER
_2 _112 FUNCTIONS
2 _1

0 1 x y=ˇ x, 0<x<π
1.4.31 (a) and (b) respectively. The inverse of the functions defined in (2) x,are <x< the inverse
_ called
π π
y=† 2 2
tangent function and the inverse cotangent function.
y
y y
y y y y
y
1 1 1 1
_ π2 _ π2 π
1 1 2
1
_2π _π _2π 0 π _π π 02π πx π _2π 2π_πx _ π _2π 0 π _ππ _ π 02π πx π 2π x _1
_1 2 π _1 2 x 2 _1 2 2 _1 02 x
_π 0 π 2π x _2
π π 0 1 x
_1 2 _1
_1 π
_2

y y
y y π y=ˇ x, 0<x<π
y=ˇ x,y=sin–¡x
0<x<π π ππ
π π y=sin–¡x
y=† x, _ 2 <x< 2 y yy y
2 2 (a) H (x ) (b) K (x ) y=†–¡ x
π 1 11 1
y=cos–¡x _
y=cos–¡x _ π2
2 Figure 1.4.31
π
2
π 0 π x 00 π xπ x 0 π x
2
_1 2 _1
_1 2 _1
_1
y 0 1 x
_1 0 1 xy
DEFINITION 1.4.7
π
π
1
2 a. The_1inverse
π0
tangent
1 x function denoted by tan (or arctan ), is defined as
_1 _ π2 _ π2
0 x
2
_1 1
0 1 x follows:
π
_2 _1 0 1 x
1
y
y tan x if and only if x tan y where
y y y .
y 2 2
y y
y=ˇ–¡x
1
y=†–¡x
b. The inverse cotangent function denoted by cot (or arccot ), is defined as
follows: 1 1
1 1 1 1
_π _π
1 π π x x
_
3π
_2
π π π 3π x y _ππ x3π 0 xif and _π
cot only
π if 0 xx
2π cot 2π_1x 2 0
π y _ 2 where y2
_
π
_1
.
π
2 _1_ 3π
22 _ 22
π
_1
π
2 2
_1 _1
2

1
The domain of tan is the set of real numbers and the range is the open interval 2
,2 ,
y=ˇ x, 0<x<π y=ˇ x, 0<x<π π π
y=† x, _ 2 <x< 2 y=† x, _ π <x<π
π π 1
y=† x, _ 2while
<x<the domain
2y=†
π of cot
x, _ 2 <x< 2
π is the set of real numbers and the range is the open
2 interval
2 0, .
1 1
A sketch of the graphs of tan and cot are shown in Figure 1.4.32 (a) and (b) respectively.
y y y y
y y
π π
π
1 2
π
1 2 π
_1 π
_1 2
2
0 π x x
_1 0 π x 0 1
0 1 x
_1 π 0 1 x
_2 π _1 0 1 x
_2 _1
1 1
(a) y tan x y=ˇ–¡x (b) y cot x
y=ˇ x, 0<x<π y=ˇ–¡x
y=ˇ x, 0<x<π
y=†–¡ x Figure
y=†–¡x 1.4.32

From Definition 1.4.7, we obtain the following:

1
a. tan(tan x) x for x , ,
tan 1(tan y ) y for y 2 2
, .
1
b. cot(cot x) x for x , ,
cot 1(cot y ) y for y 0, .

59
 y y

!3
x
SECTION 1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC
¨ FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES
!1 2
2 1 ¨
x
1 !!3
EXAMPLE 1.4.9 Find the value of: tan 1

y
3
Solution
1 1
tan is equivalent to
3 2 y
!2
1
tan ¨ , !3
3 2 x 2 x
¨
!2
!1
6 2

Note: 11
6
, even though tan 11 1
, because
6 3
must be between 2
and 2
.

RELATED PROBLEM 8 Find the value of the following:

1 1
a. tan 1 b. sin 3

Answers a. b.
4 3

We can use points on terminal sides of angles in standard position to find exact values of
expressions involving any composition of a function and a different inverse function. To
evaluate such expressions, we represent such angles by . Then we use a sketch that illustrates
our representation.

5
EXAMPLE 1.4.10 Find the exact value of cos tan 1
12
5
Solution Let represent the angle in , where its tangent is . Thus,
2 2 12
1 5
tan
12
1 5
Using the definition of the inverse tangent function, we can rewrite tan as
12
5
tan , where .
12 2 2

Because tan is positive, must be an angle in 0, . Thus, is a first-quadrant angle.

2

Figure 1.4.33 shows a right triangle in quadrant I with

5
tan
12

60
 Quadrant 3 Quadrant
Tangent and Cosine
2 cotangent and secant
positive positive
θ
3 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

r = 13
(12, 5)

y=5
u x

x = 12

Figure 1.4.33

The hypotenuse of the triangle, r, or the distance from the origin to 12, 5 , is found using

r x2 y2 .

r x2 y2 (12)2 (5)2 144 25 169 13

Thus,
1 5 12
cos tan cos
12 13

RELATED PROBLEM 9 Find the following:

1 11 1 4 1 5
a. tan tan b. sin tan cos
6 3 13
Answers
56
a. b.
6 65

INVERSE OFOF
INVERSE SECANT AND
SECANT COSECANT
AND FUNCTIONS
COSECANT FUNCTIONS
A sketch of the graph of secant function is shown in Figure 1.4.34. The secant function is
increasing on the interval 0, 2 and decreasing on the interval , 32 . Furthermore, if
x 0, 2 , 32 , then sec(x ) , 1 1, .
y y
3π
2

π
0 π 2π x π
_1 2

_1 0 1 x

y sec
y=˚ x, 0≤x< x
2 , π≤x<
π 3π
2 y=˚–¡x

Figure
y 1.4.34 y
3π
The reason behind choosing the interval , 32 will be clear when we study the
2 differentiation
1
π
of the inverse of the secant function in Section
0 3.7. So, we have the following definition.
_π π 2π x π
_1 2 y=–¡x

_1 0 x
1
61
π 3π
y= x, 0<x≤ 2 , π<x≤ 2
SECTION 1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES

DEFINITION 1.4.8
1
The inverse secant function denoted by sec (or arcsec ), is defined as follows:

1
0 y , if x 1
y sec x if and only if x sec y and 3
2
y 2
, if x 1

1 1
The domain of sec is , 1 1, . The range of sec is 0, 2 , 32 . A sketch of
1
the graph of sec appears in Figure 1.4.35. From Definition 1.4.8 we have
1
sec(sec x) x for x , 1 1,

sec 1(sec y ) y for y 0, 2 , 32

y y
3π
2

π
0 π 2π x π
_1 2

_1 0 1 x

π 3π
y=˚ x, 0≤x< 2 , π≤x< 2 y sec 1
y=˚–¡x x
Figure 1.4.35
y y
3π
We now define the inverse cosecant function in 2terms of the inverse secant function.
1
π
0
_π π 2π x π
DEFINITION 1.4.9
_1 2 y=–¡x

1
They inverse cosecant function denoted 1 csc
_1y0 by x(or arccsc ), is defined by
3π
π 3π
y= x, 0<x≤ 2 , π<x≤
1 2
2 0 y , if x 1
y csc x if and only if x csc y and 2
π y 3
, if x 1
2
0 π 2π x π
y _1 2
x = −2 y
r = 13 x
(12, 5) x
From the definition, we have the domain of_1 csc0u 11 is , 1 1, . The range of csc 1
is
y=5
u π 3π
y=˚ x,30≤x< 2 x, π≤x< 2 y = − !5 y=˚–¡x
1
0, 2 , . A sketch of the graph of csc appears in Figure 1.4.36.
3

x = 12 2
r=

y y
P = (− 2, − !5 )
3π
2
1
π
0
_π π 2π x π
_1 2 y=–¡x

_1 0 1 x

π 3π 1
y= x, 0<x≤ 2 , π<x≤ 2 y csc x
Figure 1.4.36
y y
x = −2

62 r = 13
(12, 5)
u
x

y=5
u
x y = − !5
3
r=

x = 12
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

EXERCISES 1.4
EXERCISES 1.4

In Exercises 1-2, Convert the degree measures to radians.

1. a. 150 b. 120 c. 450 d. 135 e. 630

2. a. 2100 b. 3150 c. 4050 d. 10800 e. 10

In Exercises 3 – 4, convert the radian measures to degrees.

2 5 3 7 7
3. a. b. c. d. e.
3 6 4 2 3
3 13 2
4. a. b. c. d. e. 8
8 10 6 5

In Exercises 5–14, find the reference angle for each angle.

7
5. 160 6. 205 7. 351 8.
3
17 23
9. 250 10. 11. 2.4 12.
6 4
13
13. 14. 567
3

In Exercises 15 - 26, use reference angles to find the exact value of each of the following
trigonometric functions:
17
15. sin(8 ) 16. cos(300 ) 17. sin 18. csc(9 )
2
17 9 9
19. sin 20. cos 21. sec 405 22. csc
6 4 2
7 5 7
23. sin 24. cot 25. tan(8 ) 26. cot
2 6 4

In Exercises 27 - 30, find the values of the remaining trigonometric functions. Under the given
condition.
1 4 3
27. cos x and tan x 2 2 28. sin x and cos x
3 5 5
1 7
29. csc x 65 and cot x 30. tan x 2 and sec x 5
4 4

In Exercises 31 - 33, solve the equation for x in [0, 2 ] .

1
31. tan x 3 32. sin x 33. cos 2x cos x
2

63
SECTION 1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSES

In Exercises 34–37, a point on the terminal side of angle is given. Find the exact value of
each of the six trigonometric functions of .
3 4
34. , 35. ( 4, 3) 36. (5, 5)
5 5
37. ( 2, 5)

In Exercises 38 - 43, verify the identity.

1 csc
38. cot cos 39. 2 sin2 2t cos 4t 1
sec
csc2 1
40. cot2 41. csc y cot y
1 tan2 csc y cot y
3 1 1 3 1 1
42. cos4 cos cos 2 43. sin 4 (2x ) cos 4x cos 8x
2 8 2 8 8 2 8

In Exercises 44-47, determine the exact function value.

44.
11 1 1 1 1 1 1
a. sin 2
b. sin 2
c. cos 2
d. cos 2

45.
1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3
a. sin b. sin c. cos d. cos
2 2 2 2

46.
1 1 1 1 2 1 2
a. tan b. tan 3 c. sec d. sec
3 3 3

47.
1 1 1 1 2 1 2
a. cot b. cot 3 c. csc d. csc
3 3 3

In Exercises 48-53, find the exact value of the quantity.

48.
1 1 1 1
a. sin sin 6
b. sin sin 6
1 5 1 5
c. sin sin 6
d. sin sin 6

49.
1 1 1 1
a. cos cos 3
b. cos cos 3
1 2 1 4
c. cos cos 3
d. cos cos 3

50.
1 1 1 1
a. tan tan 6
b. tan tan 3
1 7 1 4
c. tan tan 6
d. tan tan 3

64
 CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS

51.
1 1 1 1
a. cot cot 6
b. sec sec 3
1 1 1 2
c. cot cot 6
d. sec sec 3

52.
1 1 1 1
a. tan sin 2
3 b. sin tan
2
3
1 1 1 1
c. cos sin 2
d. sin cos 2

53.
a. tan sec 1( 3) b. cos sin 12
3
2 sin 1 1
3
1 5 1 13
c. tan sec 3
csc 12

65
66
CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION

SECTION 2.1 DEFINITION OF LIMIT

SECTION 2.2 LIMITS LAWS
SECTION 2.3 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
SECTION 2.4 CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS
SECTION 2.1 DEFINITION OF LIMIT

Section 2.1

Studying the behavior of a function when the variable is near (but not necessarily equal)
a specified number leads us to understand the notion of the limit. The concept of limit is
fundamental to the study of differential calculus. In this section, we discuss how to estimate
the limit (if exists) numerically by constructing a table and graphically by sketching the graph
of the function. Then, we introduce the formal definition of the limit.

Consider the function

x2 4
f (x )
x 2

which is defined for all x except when x 2 . That is, the domain of f is 2 .

If we calculate the values of f at numbers that approach 2, we get the following table

x approaches 2 from the left x approaches 2 from the right

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 2 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1

f (x ) 3.9000 3.9900 3.9990 3.9999 4.0001 4.0010 4.0100 4.1000

f (x ) approaches 4 f (x ) approaches 4

Table 2.1.1

We observe from Table 2.1.1 that as x approaches 2 from either sides left or right, f (x )
approaches 4.

Therefore, from Table 2.1.1, we can see that when x differs from 2 by 0.0001 ( x 1.9999 or
x 2.0001 ), f (x ) differs from 4 by 0.0001 ( f (x ) 3.9999 or f (x ) 4.0001 ).

To illustrate this graphically, we can simplify the function f and sketch it,

x2 4 x 2 x 2
f (x ) x 2, x 2
x 2 x 2

68
 1

KING SAUD UNIVERSITY

CHAPTER
PREPARATORY YEAR 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
DEANSHIP
BASIC SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
y

f (x)
approaches 4
4

x
x2 − 4 2
y= As x approaches 2
x−2

y 2.1.1
Figure
f (x)
approaches 9
As we have seen in Figure 2.1.1, the graph
9 of f is the straight line y x 2 with the point
(2, 4) removed and we observe that as x approaches 2 , f (x ) approaches 4 .

x
Hence, we say that the limit of f (xx)3 ,−as
3x2
x approaches
3 2 is the number 4 and is expressed
with symbols as y= As x approaches 3
x−3

y
lim f (x ) 4
x 2
or we can write
9

f (x ) 4 as x 2

1 x
In general, if a function f is defined on an open interval
3
containing a real number a (but not
y = g(x)
necessary defined at a itself) and if we can make f (x ) approaches a real number L as we like
by requiring that x be sufficiently close to the real number a , but not equal to a , then we say
y
that L is the limit of f (x ) as x approaches a and write

lim f (x ) L or f1(x ) L as x a
x a
x
From the above discussion, note that the existence of f (a ) does not depend on the existence of
−1
the limit of f (x ) as x approaches a. That is, f (a ) may not exist, may exist and be different
from L , or may exist and equal to L .

y
In the following examples, we estimate the value of limits of some functions (if exist) numerically
and graphically. The formal definition of limit will be√introduced at the end of this section.
y= x

EXAMPLE 2.1.1 Estimate the value of the following limit.

x

x3 3x 2
lim
x 3 x 3

69
SECTION 2.1 DEFINITION OF LIMIT

x3 3x 2
Solution We use the following table to calculate some values of the function f x
x 3
for several values of x near 3 from both the right and left sides.

x approaches 3 from the left x approaches 3 from the right 1

x 2.9 2.99 2.999 2.9999 3 3.0001 3.001 3.01 3.1
KING SAUD UNIVERSITY
f (x ) 8.410 8.940PREPARATORY
8.994 8.999 YEAR DEANSHIP
9.001 9.006 9.060 9.610
BASIC SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
f (x ) approaches 9 f (x ) approaches 9
y
Table 2.1.2
f (x)
approaches 4
4 limit to be 9.
From Table 2.1.2, we can estimate the

Using the graph of f in Figure 2.1.2, we can also estimate this limit.
x
x 3x2 − 34x 2 x 2 2x 3 2
f x y= 2 x , x 3.
xx − 23 As x approaches
x 3

f (x)
approaches 9
9

x
3
x3 − 3x2 As x approaches 3
y=
x−3

Figure
y 2.1.2

Note that the function f is undefined at x 3 and yet f (x ) approaches 9 as x approaches

3. 9

REMARK 1 x
a. If we extend the definition of the function f in 3the above example as
y = g(x)

x 3 3x 2
, if x 3
g(x ) x y3
1, if x 3

then it becomes defined at x 3 with 1value g(3) 1 which is different from the
x
value of its limit at x 3 which is 9. The graph of g is shown in Figure 2.1.3
−1

70

y
 9 1
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−2 x

x3 − 3x2 CHAPTER
3
As x approaches 3
2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
y=
x−3
y f(x) = x

y y
a+ε y=f(x)
ε =δ 1
f(a) = a 9
x
ε =δ − 1 2 3
a−ε −

1 − x
x
a −δ a a +yδ = g(x) 3

Figure y2.1.3

b. If we regard
y the function f as the function h(x ) x 2 , then h(3) 9 which is equal
to the value of its limit. That is, 1
x
f(x)h(=xc)
lim lim x 2 9 h(3)
x 3 x 3
f(a) = c −1
The limit of such a function can easily be obtained by direct substitution of the
number 3 for x in the function. The class of functions in which the value of the
function at a point is equal tox its limit are called continuous functions. Continuous
a −δ a a+δ yconcepts in calculus and will be studied in Section
function is one of the important
2.4. For geometric illustration, see Figure 2.1.4.
√
y= x
y

y = f(x)
x

lim f !x" ! f !c"

f (c) x→c

x
c

Figure2.1.4

EXAMPLE 2.1.2 Let

x 1, x 0
f x
x 1, x 0

Estimate the value of limit (if exists) of the function f at x 0.

Solution If we calculate the values of f at numbers that are very close to 0, we obtain the
following table

71
 y

f (x)
approaches 9
SECTION 2.1 DEFINITION OF LIMIT
9

x
x approaches 0 from the left x approaches 0 from the right
3 2 3
x − 3x As x approaches 3
y=
x -0.1 -0.01 -0.001 x −
-0.0001
3 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
f (x ) -1 -1 -1 -1 y 1 1 1 1

f (x ) approaches -1 f (x ) approaches 1
9

Table 2.1.3
From Table 2.1.3, we observe that f approaches a different number from the right side of 0 than
1 x
it approaches from the left side. So, we say that the limit
3
of f does not exist at x 0.
y = g(x)

Nonexistence of this limit can be shown graphically in the Figure 2.1.5.

y

1
x

−1

Figure 2.1.5

y
RELATED PROBLEM 1 Use the table technique and the graph of f to estimate the following
limits (if exist)
√
y= x
x 4 x 1
a. lim b. lim
x 4 x 2 x 1 x 1
x
Answer
a. 4 b. Does not exist

1
EXAMPLE 2.1.3 Show that lim sin does not exist.
x 0 x
1
Solution Let f (x ) sin . In Table 2.1.4, we calculate the values of f at numbers that are
x
close to 0, we note that x ) oscillates between -1 and 1. So, the limit does not exist (see Figure
f (

2.1.6).
y
1

x approaches 0 from the right

x 0 2/9 2/7 2/5 2/3 2/

!1 0 1 x

f(x) ! sin(1>x)
f (x ) 1 -1 1 -1 1
!1
Table 2.1.4
Figure 2.1.6

72
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

FORMAL DEFINITION OF LIMIT

In the above discussion, we define limit using phrases “ f (x ) approaches L ” and “ x approaches
a ” in an intuitive manner which looks fairly technical and it is called informal definition of
limit. We used the table technique and graph of a function to estimate the limit. In fact, we
cannot be absolutely sure if these techniques give us a correct answer because there is infinity
numbers of x -values and hence we cannot consider all lists of them which approach a. Hence,
let us introduce, once again, the formal definition.

Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing a point a (but not necessarily
defined at a itself), let L be a real number. Then, we say

1. The function f approaches the limit L near a , if we can make f (x ) as close as we

desire to L by requiring that x sufficiently close, but not equal to, a . The first change
we make in this definition is to note that f (x ) approaches L means the distance
between f (x ) and L , is small, and similarly for x and a .

2. The function f approaches the limit L near a , if we can make the distance between
f (x ) and L as small as we desire by requiring that the distance between x and a to
be sufficiently small, and x a . The second change we make in this definition is to
note that making the distance between f (x ) and L small means making | f (x ) L|
small, and similarly for x and a .

3. The function f approaches the limit L near a , if we can make | f (x ) L | as small as

we desire requiring that | x a | be sufficiently small, and x a.

The third, crucial change is to note that making | f (x ) L | “ as small as we desire”

means making | f (x ) L| for any 0 that leads us to the following definition.

DEFINITION 2.1.1 (Limit of a Function)

Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing a (except possibly at
a itself) and let L , the statement

lim f (x ) L
x a

means that for any 0 , there is a 0 such that

if 0 x a , then f x L .
or

if a x a , then L f x L .

73
SECTION 2.1 DEFINITION OF LIMIT

y ! f (x)
L #´
L
L "´

x
a
a"d a#d
FIGURE 1.7
Figure 2.1.7
a − δ < x < a + δ guarantees that
L − ε < f (x) < L + ε.
EXAMPLE 2.1.4 Using Definition of Limit, show that

lim 4x 12
x 3

Solution By Definition 2.1.1, we want to show that for any 0 , there is a 0 such that

if 0 x 3 , then 4x 12 .

Since the choice of depends on , we want to find a connection between 4x 12 and

x 3 .
4x 12 4(x 3)
4(x 3)
4 x 3
Therefore, we want such that

if 0 x 3 , then x 3
4
So, for a given 0 we can choose . This choice of works because
4
if 0 x 3 , then 4x 12 4 x 3 4 4 .
4
That is, for a given , there exist such that
4

if 0 x 3 , then 4x 12 .

Therefore, by the definition of a limit,

lim 4x 12 .
x 3

EXAMPLE 2.1.5 Using Definition of Limit, show that

lim 3x 7 1
x 2

Solution By Definition 2.1.1, we want to show that for any 0 , there is a 0 such that

74
 y

f (x)
approaches 4
4
CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

x
if 0 x 2 , then 2 3x 7 1 .
x2 − 4
y= As x approaches 2
Since the choice of depends on − 2want to find a connection between
,xwe 3x 7 1 and

x 2. y
3x 7 1 3x 6
f (x)
approaches 9 3(x 2)
9 3x 2
Therefore, we want such that

if 0 x 2 , then x 2 x
3 3
So, for a given x3 − 3x2 . This
0 we can choose choice of
As x approaches 3 works because
y=
x−3 3
if 0 x 2 , then 3x 7 1 3x 2 3 3 .
y 3
That is, for a given , there exist such that
3
9
if 0 x 2 , then 3x 7 1 .
Therefore, by the definition of a limit,
lim 1 3x 7 1. x
x 2

y = g(x) 3
RELATED PROBLEM 2 Using Definition of Limit, show that
3 13
lim x y1
x
1 5 10
2

5
Answer Hint: Choose . 1
3
x
ONE - SIDED LIMITS
−1
Sometimes we can make f (x ) as close to L as desired by choosing x sufficiently close to x
from only one side. For example, the function f (x ) x , shown in Figure 2.1.8, approaches 0
as x approaches 0 from the right side but it is not defined for x 0.
y

√
y= x

Figure 2.1.8
Hence, we say that this function has a right-hand limit as x approaches 0 from the right and
we express that as

75
SECTION 2.1 DEFINITION OF LIMIT

x 0 as x 0 or lim x 0
x 0

Similarly, we say that the function f (x ) x has a left-hand limit as x approaches 0 from
the left and we write
lim x 0
x 0

These types of limits are called One-Sided Limits. The relationship between one-sided limits
and the limit of a function is described in the following theorem.

THEOREM 2.1.1
Let L , then
lim f (x ) L if and only if lim f (x ) lim f (x ) L
x a x a x a

ILLUSTRATION
From Example 2.1.2, we have found that
lim f (x ) 1 and lim f (x ) 1
x 0 x 0

Since lim f (x ) lim f (x ) , then lim f (x ) does not exist.

x 0 x 0 x 0

EXAMPLE 2.1.6 Let f (x ) x , find (if possible)

a. lim f (x ) b. lim f (x ) c. lim f (x )

x x 0
x 0 50
y 5 y
4 x , x 0
Solution We rewrite the function f as, f (x ) x
3 x ,x 0 4
2
If we calculate the values of f at numbers that approaches 0, we get the following
3 table
1
x 2
x approaches 0 from the left x approaches 0 from the right
−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10
−1 1
x -0.1 -0.01 -0.001 -0.0001 −2 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 x
1 2 3 4 5 6
f (x ) 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
−3 −1
−1
−4

f (x ) approaches 0 −5 f (x ) approaches 0
y
Table 2.1.5
y
f (x) = c

y = |x| f (a) = c

x
x
a −δ a a+δ
Figure 2.1.9
y
76
y 4
y = f (x) x 2 + 2x − 8
f (x) =
x2 − 4
4
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

From Table 2.1.5 or from Figure 2.1.9, we can estimate that

a. lim f (x ) lim x 0
x 0 x 0

b. lim f (x ) lim ( x ) 0
x 0 x 0

c. Since the left-hand and right-hand limits are both exist and equal 0, it follows from
Theorem 2.1.1 that
lim f (x ) 0
x 0

Now, we introduce the formal definition of one sided limit.

DEFINITION 2.1.2 (One Sided-Limit)

a. Right-Hand Limit (Limit from the Right)
Let f be a function defined on an open interval (a, c) . Then
lim f (x ) L
x a
means that for any 0 , there is a 0 such that

if a x a , then f x L .
b. Left-Hand Limit (Limit from the Left)
Let f be a function defined on an open interval (c, a ) . Then
lim f (x ) L
x a
means that for any 0 , there is a 0 such that
if a x a , then f x L .

EXAMPLE 2.1.7 Using definition of one sided limit, show that

a. lim x 2 0 b. lim 2 x 0
x 2 x 2

Solution
a. We want to show that for any 0 , there is a 0 such that

if 2 x 2 , then x 2 0 x 2 .
We have
2 x 2 0 x 2
x 2
By choosing , that is 2, we obtain

x 2
.
2
So, for a given 0 , there exist 0 such that and

77
SECTION 2.1 DEFINITION OF LIMIT

if 2 x 2 , then f (x ) 0 x 2
That is,

lim x 2 0.
x 2

b. We want to show that for any 0 , there is a 0 such that

if 2 x 2 , then 2 x 0 2 x .
We have
2 x 2 2 x 2
0 2 x
2 x
By choosing , that is 2, we obtain

2 x
2
So, for a given 0 , there exist 0 such that and

if 2 x 2 , then f (x ) 0 2 x
That is,
lim 2 x 0
x 2

RELATED PROBLEM 3 Using definition of one sided limit, show that

1 1
a. lim x 0 lim x 0
1 3 b. 1 3
x x
3 3

Answer

2 2
a. Hint: Choose . b. Hint: Choose .

78
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

EXERCISES 2.1
In Exercises 1-4, complete the table and use the results to estimate the limit (if exist).

x 2
1. lim 2
x 2 x x 2
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1
f (x )

x 3 3
2. lim
x 0 x
x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1
f (x )

1 1
3. lim 1 x 4
x 3 x 3
x 2.9 2.99 2.999 3.001 3.01 3.1
f (x )

1
4. lim
x 1x 1
x 0.9 0.99 0.999 1.001 1.01 1.1
f (x )

In Exercises 5-11, use the table technique to estimate the following limits (if exist)

lim 9 lim x 2 2 x 1 1 x 2
5. 6. 7. lim 8. lim
x 2 x 3 x 1 x 1 x 3 x 3
x2 16 sin x 1 cos x
9. lim 10. lim 11. lim
x 4 x 4 x 0 x x 0 x

In Exercises 12-17, use the graph of the function f to find the following limits (if exist)
y

4 y=f(x)
3
2
1
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−2

Figure 2.1.9
y f (x) = x
79
y
a+ε y=f(x)
ε =δ 1
 y

4 y=f(x)
3

SECTION 2.1 DEFINITION OF LIMIT2

1
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
12. lim f (x ) 13. lim−2f (x ) 14. lim f (x )
x 0 x 0 x 0

15. lim f (x ) 16. xlim f (x ) 17. xlim2 f (x )

x 2 2

y f(x) = x
In Exercises 18-27, use the graph of the function f to find the following limits (if exist)
y
a+ε y=f(x)
ε =δ 1
f(a) = a
x
ε =δ − 1 2 3
a−ε −

−
x
a −δ a a+δ Figure 2.1.10

18. lim f (x ) 19. lim f (x ) 20. lim f (x )

x 0 x 0 x 0

21. lim f (x ) 22. lim f (x ) 23. lim f (x )

x 1 x 1 x 1

24. lim f (x ) 25. lim f (x ) 26. lim f (x )

y x 3 x 3 x 3

27. lim f f (x )
x 2

f(x) = c
In Exercises 28-37, sketch the graph of the following functions and estimate each limit (if exists)
f(a) = c
28. lim f (x ), f (x ) 3 29. xlim0 f (x ), f (x ) x 1
x 2

30. xlim3 f (x ), f (x ) x2 1 31. lim f (x ), f (x ) x3

x 1

x 1
a −δ a a+δ
32. lim f (x ), f (x ) x 33. lim1 f (x ), f (x )
x
x 0 x
2
x 1
34. lim1 f (x ), f (x ) 35. xlim1 f (x ), f (x ) x 1
x x
2 y

36. lim f (x ), f (x ) cos xy = f (x) 37. lim f (x ), f (x ) sin

x 0
x 0 x

In Exercises 38-46, use the formal definition of the limit to prove the following limits
lim 8x f (c)
2
lim f !x" ! f !c"
x→c x
39. xlim(2 1) 7 40. lim x 0
38. x
1 3 x 0
4
x
1 c lim 3 x 0 43. lim(x 1) a 1, a
41. lim 0.5 42. x a
x 2x x 3

44. lim 9 9 45. lim(15 6x ) 33 46. xlim( mx b) ma b, a, b, m

x 0 x 8 a

80
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

In Exercises 47–48, find the limit L . Then find 0 such that f (x ) L 0.03 whenever

0 x a .

47. lim (3x 1) x

x 1 48. xlim2 3
2

81
SECTION 2.2 LIMITS LAWS

Section 2.2

In Section 2.1, we have seen that finding limits by the formal definition is annoying. So, we
provide some helpful theorems that may be used to evaluate limits if exist. All Theorems that
will be given in this section still hold for one sided limits. We prove some theorems using the
formal definition of limits and leave the others as exercises.

We start by a theorem that give the law of evaluating limits of two simple functions: the

constant function f x c (c ) and the identity functions f x x. y

4 y=f(x)
THEOREM 2.2.1 3
2
Let a,c . Then 1
x
a. lim c c b. lim−2x −1 a 1 2 3 4 5
x a x a −2

PROOF
a. Let f x c for all x . Then yf is a constant
f(x)function
=x as shown in Figure 2.2.2.
y
We want to prove that, given
a+ε 0 , there is a 0 such that y=f(x)
=δ
ε 1
if 0
f(a) = a
x a , then f x c .
But for any 0 x
ε =δ − 1 2 3
a−ε −
if 0 x a , then f x c c c 0
−
x
Thus, we can choose any 0 (does
a − δ nota depends
a+δ on ). Hence, f (x ) has the limit c
as x approaches a . That is
lim f (x ) lim c c
x a x a

f(x) = c

f(a) = c

x
a −δ a a+δ

Figure 2.2.1
y
82 y = f (x)

lim f !x" ! f !c"

f (c) x→c
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

b. Let f x x , then f is a linear function as shown in Figure 2.2.2.

We want to show that for any 0 , there is a 0 such that

if 0 x a , then x a .

If we choose , then the inequality 0 x a implies the inequality

y
x a . 4 y=f(x)
3
So, for a given , there exist such that 2
1
if 0 x a , then x a x
That is, −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−2
lim f (x ) lim x a.
x a x a

y f (x) = x
y
a+ε y=f(x)
ε =δ 1
f (a) = a
x
ε =δ − 1 2 3
a−ε −

−
x
a −δ a a+δ

Figure 2.2.2

y
ILLUSTRATION
lim 5 5, lim , 5 5
a. x 2 x 1
lim
f (x) = c x 37 7
1
b. lim x 4, f (a) = c lim x 0, lim x
x 4 x 0 x
1 2
2

The following theorem states some important algebraic laws of limits.

x
a −δ a a+δ

THEOREM 2.2.2
Let a,c . If lim f x and lim g x both exist, then
y
x a x a
y = f (x)
a. lim f x g x lim f x lim g x Addition Law
x a x a x a

lim f !x" ! f !c"

b. lim f x g x lim f x lim g xf (c) x→c
Subtraction Law
x a x a x a
x
c
c. lim f x g x lim f x lim g x Product Law
x a x a x a

83
SECTION 2.2 LIMITS LAWS

f x lim f x
x a
d. lim , provided lim g x 0 Quotient Law
x a g x lim g x x a .
x a

e. lim cf x c lim f x Scalar Multiplication Law

x a x a

PROOF
We prove part (a) and proofs of other properties are left as exercises.

a. Suppose that lim f x L and lim g x M , then we have to show that

x a x a
for any 0 , there is a 0 such that

if 0 x a , then f (x ) g(x ) (L M) (1)

Since lim f x L , then for any 0 , there exist 1 0 such that

x a

if 0 x a 1, then f (x ) L 0 (2)
2 2
Also, Since lim g x M , then for any 0 , there exist 2 0 such that
x a

if 0 x a 2, then g(x ) M 0 (3)

2 2

Let be the smaller of 1 and 2, then the inequalities (2) and (3) are both true. So,

if 0 x a , we obtain

f (x ) g(x ) (L M) f (x ) L g(x ) M
f (x ) L g(x ) M By Tiangular Inequality

,
2 2
which is the desired statement (1). That is,

lim f x g x L M lim f x lim g x

x a x a x a

ILLUSTRATION
3x 2 lim 3x 2
x 1 Theorem 2.2.2(d)
lim
x 1 4x 5 lim 4x 5
x 1

lim(3x ) lim 2
x 1 x 1 Theorem 2.2.2(a) & Theorem 2.2.2(b)
lim(4x ) lim 5
x 1 x 1

3 lim x lim 2
x 1 x 1
Theorem 2.2.2(e)
4 lim x lim 5
x 1 x 1

84
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

3 1 2 5
5 Theorem 2.2.1
4 1 5 1

lim x 2 lim(x x ) lim x lim x Theorem 2.2.2(c)

x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3
2
3 3 3 9 Simplify

REMARK
Properties (a) and (c) introduced in Theorem 2.2.2 still hold for a finite number of
functions as long as the limit of each one of them exists, that is, if the functions
f1, f2 ,..., fn have a limit at x a then,

a. xlima f1 x f2 x ... fn x lim f1 x

x a
lim f2 x
x a
...
x
lim fn x .
a

b. xlima f1 x f2 x ... fn x lim f1 x

x a
lim f2 x
x a
... lim fn x
x a

Using the above remark, we can establish the following theorem which called the power law.

THEOREM 2.2.3
Let a and n is a positive integer number, then
a. lim x n an
x a

n n
b. lim f x lim f x , provided xlima f x exists
x a x a

EXAMPLE 2.2.1 Find

4
lim x 10 2
x 1

Solution
4 4
lim x 10 2 lim x 10 2 Theorem 2.2.3 (b)
x 1 x 1
4
lim x 10 lim 2 Theorem 2.2.2(a)
x 1 x 1
4
110 2 Theorem 2.2.3(a) & Theorem 2.2.1(a)

34 81 Simplify

RELATED PROBLEM 1 Find the following limits

3
lim 3x 2
5
b. lim 12 4
a. c. lim x x
x 1 x 2 x x2 x 1

Answers
a. 1 b. 8 c. 16

85
SECTION 2.2 LIMITS LAWS

Now, we can evaluate limits of polynomials and rational functions. We start by an example and
then give a theorem that states the law of evaluating limits of every polynomial and rational
function.

EXAMPLE 2.2.2 Find

a. lim(3x 4 5x 3 x 9) x2 6x 3
x 2 b. lim
x 4 4x 5
Solution
a.
lim(3x 4 5x 3 x 9) lim 3x 4 lim 5x 3 lim x lim 9
x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2
x 2
Theorem 2.2.2(a)
3 lim x 4 5 lim x 3 lim x lim 9
x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2
Theorem 2.2.2(e)
3(2)4 5(2)3 2 9
Theorem 2.2.3(a), Theorem 2.2.1
95 Simplify

b.

x2 6x 3 lim x 2 6x 3
x 4
lim Theorem 2.2.2(d)
x 4 4x 5 lim 4x 5
x 4

lim x 2 6 lim x lim 3

x 4 x 4 x 4
4 lim x lim 5
x 4 x 4

Theorem 2.2.2(a, b & e)

( 4)2 6( 4) 3
Theorem 2.2.3(a) & Theorem 2.2.1
4( 4) 5
1 Simplify

Note that the limit of the polynomial and the rational function in the above example can
be found by direct substitution. Fortunately, direct substitution property is valid for every
polynomial and rational functions with nonzero denominator.

THEOREM 2.2.4

a. If f is a polynomial function and a , then

lim f x f a .
x a

86
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

f x
b. If h is a rational function given by h x and a such that g a 0
, then g x
f a
lim h x h a
x a g a

EXAMPLE 2.2.3 Find

lim 2x 4 5x 2 1 . x3 4x 2 3
a. b. lim .
x 2 2
x 1 x 5
Solution
a. Since 2x 4 5x 2 1 is a polynomial, we can apply Theorem 2.2.4(a) to obtain that

lim 2x 4 5x 2 1 2(2)4 5(2)2 1 13

x 2

b. Since the denominator does not equal 0 when x 1 , we can apply Theorem
2.2.4(b) to obtain that
x3 4x 2 3 ( 1)3 4( 1)2 3 0
lim 0
2 2 6
x 1 x 5 ( 1) 5

The next theorem deals with the limit of nth root functions and it states that for a positive
integer roots of x the limit may be evaluated by direct substitution.

THEOREM 2.2.5
a. Let n be a positive integer. The following limit is valid for all a if n is odd, and
is valid for a 0 if n is even.

lim n x n
a
x a

b. Let n be a positive integer. The following limit is valid for all f x if n is odd,

and is valid for all f (x ) with lim f x 0 if n is even.

x a

lim n f x n lim f x
x a x a

EXAMPLE 2.2.4 Find

5
a. lim 3x 2 2. b. lim 3x 2 5.
x 2 x 3

87
 SECTION 2.2 LIMITS LAWS

Solution
a. We have even root with lim 3x 2 2 10 0 , then using the root rule (Theorem
x 2
2.2.5(b)), we have

lim 3x 2 2 lim 3x 2 2 10 .
x 2 x 2

b. We have odd root. Applying the root rule (Theorem 2.2.5(b)), we have

5 5
lim 3x 2 5 5 lim 3x 2 5 5
3(3)2 5 32 2
x 3 x 3

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Find the following limits

5 x2 2x 1
a. xlim3 6 7x x2. b. xlim2 3x
2
2x . c. lim .
x 3 8 2x
Answers
a. 6 b. 5
8 c. 2

EXAMPLE 2.2.5 Use the limit laws and the graphs of f and g in Figure 2.2.3 to evaluate the
following limits (if exist).

a. lim f (x ) g(x ) b. lim f (x ) g(x ) f (x )

x 2 x 0 c. lim
x 21 g(x )

d. lim f (x ) e. lim f (x ) f. lim 3 2g(x ) 10

x 0 x 0 x 1

y y
y = f (x) y = g(x)
3 3
y = h(x)
2 2
y = f (x)
1 1
x x
3 2 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3
y = g(x) 1 1
x 2 2
c
3 3

Figure 2.2.3
Solution
Q (1, tan x) Q
a. From Figure 2.2.3, we see that
P P
(cos x, sin x) lim f (x ) 0P lim g(x ) 0
tan x x 2 and x 2
h sin x
(1, 0)
Therefore, we have
x x x x
O A O 1 A lim
O f 1(x ) Ag(x ) O lim1f (x )A lim g(x ) 0 0 0
1 x 2 x 2 x 2 .
b. From Figure 2.2.3, we see that
lim g(x ) 2
x 0
y
But, f
y
88 1

1 x
P(cos ¨, sin ¨)
g
1
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1 lim f (x ) lim f (x ) 2,
x 0 x 0

So, lim f (x ) does not exist.

x 0

Hence, we cannot use Theorem 2.2.2(b) for the desired limit.

In this case, we can apply Theorem 2.2.2(b) for the one-sided limits:

lim f (x ) g(x ) lim f (x ) lim g(x ) 1 2 1

x 0 x 0 x 0

lim f (x ) g(x ) lim f (x ) lim g(x ) 2 2 4

x 0 x 0 x 0
y y
y y = f (x) y = g(x)
3 3
Since, the yleft and right limits are not equal, so lim f (x )
= h(x) g(x ) does not exist.
x 0 2 2
y = f (x)
1 1
c.L Since lim 1 g(x ) lim 1 lim g(x ) 1 0 1 0 x, we can apply Theorem
x
x 2 x 2 x 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3
y = g(x)
2.2.2(d): 1 1
x 2 2
c f (x ) lim f (x ) 0
x 2
lim 3 0. 3
x 21 g(x ) lim 1 g(x ) 1
x 2

Q Q
d. Since lim f (x(1,
) tan x) 2 0 and we have a square root, then
x 0P (cos x, sin x) P P
lim f (xtan
) xdoes not exist sin x
x 0 h
x (1, 0) x x x
O A O 1 A O 1 A O 1 A
1 f (x )
e. Since lim 1 0 and we have a square root, then using Theorem 2.2.5(b), we
x 0
obtain that
lim f (x ) lim f (x ) 1 1 y
x 0 x 0 f
y
f. We have a cubic root. Applying Theorems 2.2.5(b), 2.2.2(a) and 2.2.2(e), we 1obtain
lim 3 2g(x ) 10 lim 2g(x )
P(cos
3 10 3 2 lim g(x ) lim( 10) 1 x
x 1 x ¨,1sin ¨) x 1 x 1
g
1 3 3
2(1) 10 8 2
¨ A
0 (1, 0) x
RELATED PROBLEM 3 Use the limit laws and the graphs of f and g in Figure 2.2.4 to
evaluate the following limits (if exist).
y
y g
4
4 f
2
2

2 4 x
0 2 4 x

Figure 2.2.4
y

89
P(cos ¨, sin ¨)
1
¨ A x
SECTION 2.2 LIMITS LAWS

lim f (x ) g(x ) f (x )
a. b. xlim2 f (x ) g(x ) c. lim
x 4 x 31 g(x )

d. lim f (x ) e. lim f (x ) f. lim 3 2g(x ) 8

x 2 x 2 x 1

Answers
a. 7 b. Does not exist c. 1
d. 3 e. 1 f. 2

REMARK
If the limit of two functions f and g at a number c does not exist, it is not necessary
that the limit of their sum does not exist at c.
For example, consider the functions:

x2 2x x 0 1 x2 x 0
f (x ) and g(x )
x 1 x 0 2 x x 0

It is clear that both lim f (x ) and lim g(x ) do not exist.

x 0 x 0

However, the limit of their sum

1 2x x 0
(f g )(x )
1 x 0
exists and equals to 1.

On the previous examples, we studied some types of functions whose limits can be evaluated
by direct substitution.

A quotient function whose numerator and denominator each has limit 0 when x approaches a is
0
said to have an indeterminate form at x a . In this case, we use algebraic simplifications
0
such as factorizations in example 2.2.6 or multiplying by the conjugate as in example 2.2.7.

Doing this transform the fraction into a simpler form which may have a limit or not.

EXAMPLE 2.2.6 Find the following limits (if exist)

x2 x x2 2x 3 x2 4
a. lim b. lim c. lim
1 x 1 3 3
x x 3 x 27 x 2x 8

1
2
d. lim h
(3 h )2 9
h
1 1 e. lim
2h h 0 h
2

90
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Solution
x2 x
a. Since lim(x 2 x) 0 and lim(x 1) 0 , then we say that the function has
x 1 x 1 x 1
0
an indeterminate form at x 1 . We take x as a common factor from the numerator,
0
then simplify to obtain
x2 x x (x 1)
lim lim lim x 1
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1

b. Since lim (x 2 2x 3) 0 and lim (x 3 27) 0 , then we say that the function
x 3 x 3

x2 2x 3 0
has an indetermrinate form at x 3 . We factor both numerator and
3 0
x 27
denominator, then simplify to obtain

x2 2x 3 (x 3)(x 1) x 1 4
lim lim lim
3 2 2 27
x 3 x 27 x 3 (x 3)(x 3x 9) x 3x 3x 9

x2 4
c. Since lim(x 2 4) 0 and lim(x 3 8) 0 , then we say that the function has
3
x 2 x 2 x 8
0
an indeterminate form at x 2 . We factor both numerator and denominator, then
0
simplify to obtain
x2 4 (x 2)(x 2) x 2 4 1
lim lim lim
2x 3 2 (x 2 2 12 3
x 8 x 2)(x 2x 4) x 2x 2x 4

1
2
1 1
d. Since lim 2 0 and lim h 0 , then we say that the function h
has
1 h 1 2 1
h h h
2 2
2
0 1
an indeterminate form at h . We simplify both numerator and denominator,
0 2
then we obtain
1 1 2h
2
2(1 2h ) 2
lim h lim h lim lim 4
h
1 1 h
1 2h 1 h
1 h(2h 1) h
1 h
2 h 2 2 2
2 2

(3 h )2 9
e. Since lim (3 h )2 9 0 and lim h 0 , then we say that the function
h 0 x 0 h
0
has an indeterminate form at h 0 . We factor the numerator, then simplify to
0
obtain

91
SECTION 2.2 LIMITS LAWS

(3 h )2 9 (3 h 3)(3 h 3) h(6 h)
lim lim lim lim(6 h) 6
h 0 h h 0 h h 0 h h 0

EXAMPLE 2.2.7 Find the following limits (if exist)

t2 9 3 x 2 h2
a. lim b. lim c. lim
t 0 t x 2
4 x2 12 h 0
h2 h 3 h 3
Solution
2 t2 9 3
a. Since lim t 9 3 0 and lim t 0 , then we say that the function
t 0 t 0 t
0
has an indeterminate form at t 0 . Unlike Example 2.2.6, we cannot factor the
0
numerator. However, we can rationalize the numerator and simplify as follows,

t2 9 3 t2 9 3 t2 9 3
lim lim
t 0 t t 0 t t 2
9 3
2
(t 9) 9
lim
t 0 2
t t 9 3
t2 t 0
lim lim 0
t 0
t t2 9 3 t 0
t2 9 3 6

0
b. Since the function has an indeterminate form at x 2 , we can rationalize the
0
denominator and simplify as follows,
x 2 x 2 4 x2 12
lim lim
x 2
4 x2 12 x 2
4 x2 12 4 x2 12
x 2 4 x2 12
lim
x 2 16 x2 12
x 2 4 x2 12
lim
x 2 16 x 2 12
x 2 4 x 2 12
lim
x 2 4 x2
x 2 4 x2 12
lim
x 2 (2 x )(2 x)
2
4 x 12 8
lim 2
x 2 2 x 4

0
c. Since the function has an indeterminate form at h 0 , we can rationalize the
0
denominator and simplify as follows,

92
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

h2 h2 h2 h 3 h 3
lim lim
h 0
h2 h 3 h 3 h 0
h2 h 3 h 3 h2 h 3 h 3

h2 h2 h 3 h 3
lim
h 0 h2 h 3 h 3

h2 h2 h 3 h 3
lim
h 0 h2 h 3 h 3

h2 h2 h 3 h 3
lim
h 0 h2

lim h2 h 3 h 3 2 3
h 0

RELATED PROBLEM 4 Find the following limits (if exist)

5
2x 3 3x 2 x3 8 5
a. lim b. lim
c. lim 2x 3
x 0 3x 4 2x 2 x 2 x2 4 x 1 4x 2 4

10 2x 2 7x 10 (2 h )3 8
d. lim e. lim
x 0 x h 0 h
Answers

3 c. 5 d. 7
a. b. 3 e. 12
2 4 2 10

The following theorem known by the Sandwich (or Squeeze) Theorem concerns the limit
of a function that is squeezed between two other functions, each of which has the same limit as
x approaches a . Figure 2.2.5 illustrate this theorem.

THEOREM 2.2.6 (The Sandwich (Squeeze) Theorem)

If g x f x h x for every x in an open interval containing a real number
c (except possibly at c itself), and

lim g x L lim h x , then lim f x L.

x c x c x c
y y
y y = f (x)
3 3
y = h(x)
2 2
y = f (x)
1 1
L x
3 2 1 1 2 3 3 2 1
y = g(x) 1 1
x Figure 2.2.5 2 2
c
3 3

93
Q (1, tan x) Q
P (cos x, sin x) P P
tan x
SECTION 2.2 LIMITS LAWS

EXAMPLE 2.2.8 Use Sandwich Theorem to find lim f (x ) , where

x 0

x2 x2
1 f (x ) 1 , for all x 0
4 2
Solution Since
x2 x2
lim 1 lim 1 1
x 0 4 x 0 2
,
the Sandwich Theorem implies that
lim f (x ) 1.
x 0

EXAMPLE 2.2.9 Use Sandwich Theorem to evaluate

1
lim x 2 cos ,x 0
x 0 x

Solution For all x 0 , recall that

1
1 cos 1.
x

Multiply this inequality by x 2 (note that x 2 0 , this multiplication preserves the inequalities),
we have
1
x2 x 2 cos x 2,
x
Since,

lim( x 2 ) 0 lim x 2
x 0 x 0

so, by the Sandwich Theorem, it follows that

1
lim x 2 cos 0
x 0 x

RELATED PROBLEM 5 Use Sandwich Theorem to find the following limit

3
lim x 3 x 2 sin
x 0 x

Answer 0

LIMITS INVOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

We discuss the limits of the six trigonometric functions: sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant,
and cosecant. Let us begin with their graphs which help us to estimate their limits.

94
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 y y
1
2π x 0 0 0 π 2π 2π
x 2π x x 0 0 0π π 2π
π 2π 3 x 2π
y x= f (x) x 0 π
y = g(x)
π π y
3
y = h(x)
_1 0 _1 _1 x _1 _1 _10 y= x _1 0
x2π x y= π
x y=y=2π
x x y= x π y=2 x 2π x 2 y=
y = f (x)
_1 y= x _1 1 1 _1
L y= x x x
3 2 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3
y yy yy = g(x) y y 1 1 y
x 2 2
y c
y
3 3

1 11 1 1 1 1

x 3ππ xx
Q (1, tan x) x 3π 0Q_π π π πx x
0 π _π 1ππ3π 0 _π π 0
π π _ 3π 3π _π π0 0 _π _ π 0
__2 22 _π _ 1π
π π 3π 3π 0 ππ π π 3π 3π π
_2 2 2 _3π
_ 22 __22 2 _
22 2
3π
22 2 P 2 2
π 3π
_
2 22 2
3ππ 3π
22
_ 2 2 2
(cos x, sin x) P 22 P
0 π π 3π x 3π _π _ π 0 π π 3π x tan x 3π _π _ π 0 π π sin3π x 3π _π _ π
2 2 _ 2 2 2 2 _2 2 2 h
x
2 _ 2 2
x (1, 0) x x x
O A O 1 A O 1 A O 1 A
1
y=† x y=ˇ xx
y=† y=† x y=ˇ x y=† xx
y=ˇ y=ˇ x

=† xy yy x
y=ˇ y y y y=† x y
y
f
y y
y
1
π
_2 1 3π π 1 π 1 3π 3π
_2
π 1 3π
2 _2 _2 2 2 2
1
P(cos ¨, sin ¨)
0 π x 0
_π _ π3π 0 _π
3π _π π
π xx π 3π _π
x 0 π π π0 0 πx x g_π _ π _1
0
__2 22_1 _π _ π
π π 0 3ππ 3π 3π π
2 _3π
_ 22 _2 2_1
π
22 22 _2
π3π
2 2 _1
3ππ
2 π22
3π
_ 2 2 2
3π 1 _2 1 2 3π
2 2
x 0 x ¨ A x
π π 3π
_2 _π _ π π π 3π
_
3π _π 0 π π _
3π _π _ π
2 2 _1 2 2 0 (1, 0) x 2 2 2 2

y= x y=˚ xx
y= y= x y=˚ x y= x
y=˚ y=˚ x
Figure 2.2.6 y
y g
= x y=˚ x y=
4 x
THEOREM 2.2.7 4 f
2
a. lim sin 0 b. lim cos 1
0 2 0

2 4 x
PROOF 0 2 4 x
a. Let us consider the unit circle in Figure 2.2.7. where is an angle in radian measure
and in standard position.
y

P(cos ¨, sin ¨)
1
¨ A x
0 Q (1, 0)

Figure 2.2.7

95
SECTION 2.2 LIMITS LAWS

So, the length of a circular arc AP is equal . The length of the line segment AP is
therefore less than . That is
AP
(1)
Triangle APQ is a right triangle with side of length

QP sin and AQ 1 cos

From the Pythagorean theorem and the inequality (1), we have

2 2
sin2 1 cos AP 2

Hence,
2
sin2 2
and 1 cos 2

By taking the square root for both sides, we have

sin sin (2)
and

1 cos 1 cos (3)

From (2) and since lim lim 0 , it follows from the Sandwich Theorem
0 0
that

lim sin 0.
0

b. From (3) and since lim lim 0 , it follows from the Sandwich Theorem
0 0
that
lim 1 cos 0 lim 1 lim cos 0 lim cos lim 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
Hence,
lim cos 1
0

Since the domain of the sine and cosine functions are the set of all real numbers, we extend
Theorem 2.2.7 to any number a rather than 0.

COROLLARY 2.2.1

a. lim sin x sin a b. lim cos x cos a

x a x a

PROOF
a. Let y x a . Since the expression x a is equivalent to x a 0 , and by
substitution, we have,
lim sin x lim sin x lim sin y a
x a x a 0 y 0

96
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

lim sin y cos a sin a cos y (By Trigonometric Identities)

y 0

By the Addition and Multiplication Laws of Limits (Theorem 2.2.2), we have

lim sin x lim sin y lim cos a lim sin a lim cos y
x a y 0 y 0 y 0 y 0
0 cos a sin a 1
sin a
Thus,
lim sin x sin a
x a

b. Similar to Part (a).

Since the domain of the other four trigonometric functions: tangent, cotangent, secant and
cosecant functions is not all real numbers, so we study their limits on their domain.

The domain of the tangent and secant functions is the set of all real numbers except numbers

of the form n , where n . Also, the domain of the cotangent and cosecant functions is
2
the set of all real numbers except numbers of the form n , where n .

COROLLARY 2.2.2

a. lim tan x tan a , a n ,n b. lim cot x cot a, a n ,n

x a x a
2

c. lim sec x sec a , a n ,n d. lim csc x csc a, a n ,n

x a 2 x a

When a n ,n , then
2
lim tan x lim sec x or
x a x a

Similarly, when a n ,n , then

lim cot x lim csc x or

x a x a

Figure 2.2.6 illustrates Corollary 2.2.2.

For example,
sin x
lim tan x lim
cos x
x x
2 2

97
SECTION 2.2 LIMITS LAWS

1
lim csc x lim
x x sin x

Symbols (infinity) and (minus infinity) does not represent real numbers. It is just a
notation we use to denote that a function increases without bound or decreases without bound.
Limits involving infinity will be discussed in more details next section.

EXAMPLE 2.2.10 Find the following limits (if exist)

a. lim sec x
x 0

b. lim x cos x
x

lim sin2 x
c.
x
4
Solution
1 lim 1 1
x 0
a. lim sec x lim 1.
x 0 x 0 cos x lim cos x 1
x 0

b. lim x cos x lim x lim cos x cos ( 1) .

x x x

2
2
2 1 1
c. lim sin x lim sin x .
x x 2 2
4 4

Note that, limits of many algebraic functions (Polynomial – Rational – Radical) and
Trigonometric functions can be evaluated by direct substitution for a given x -value that is in
their domains.

In the following theorem, we introduce two results about limits of trigonometric expressions

THEOREM 2.2.8
sin x 1 cos x
a. lim 1 b. lim 0
x 0 x x 0 x

PROOF
a. Let us consider the unite circle and 0 x as shown in Figure 2.2.8.
2

98
 1 1
L x x
3 2 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3
y = g(x) 1 1
x 2 2
c CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
3 3

Q (1, tan x) Q
P (cos x, sin x) P P
tan x
h sin x
x (1, 0) x x x
O A O 1 A O 1 A O 1 A
1

Figure 2.2.8
y
f
From Figure 2.2.8, we
y see that
1

Area of triangle AOP Area of sector AOP Area of triangle AOQ 1 x

P(cos ¨, sin ¨)
Since, g
1
1 sin x
¨ A AOP
Area of triangle
2
(1)h
2
,
0 1 2 (1, 0)x x
Area of sector AOP (1) x ,
2 2
1 tan x
Area of triangle AOQ (1)AQ ,
2 y2

We have, y g
4
4 f sin x x tan x
2 2 2 2
22
Multiplying by to obtain,
sin x 2 4 x
0 x2 41 x sin x
1 cos x 1 (1)
sin x cos x x

y
Using the identities cos x cos( x ) and sin( x ) sin(x ) , leads that Inequality (1)

is also true for x 0 . That is, Inequality (1) is valid for all nonzero x in the
2
P(cos ¨, sin ¨)
open interval , . 1
2 2 ¨ A x
0 Q (1, 0)
Since lim cos x 1 and lim 1 1 , we can apply the sandwich theorem to conclude that
x 0 x 0

sin x
lim 1
x 0 x

b. Multiply both numerator and denominator by 1 cos x and simplify, we have

99
SECTION 2.2 LIMITS LAWS

1 cos x cos x ) (1
(1 cos x )
lim lim
x 0 x x 0 x (1 cos x )
2
1 cos x
lim
x 0x 1 cos x
sin2 x
lim
x 0x 1 cos x
sin x sin x
lim
x 0 x 1 cos x
sin x sin x 0
lim lim (1) 0
x 0 x x 01 cos x 2

COROLLARY 2.2.3
Let a and b be two real numbers such that both different from zero. Then
sin(ax ) a
a. xlim0
bx b
tan(ax ) a
b. lim
x 0 bx b
x
c. lim 1
x 0 sin x

PROOF
y
a. Let y ax and observing that x 0 if and only if y 0 and x , then we use
a
part (a) of Theorem 2.2.8 to obtain,

sin(ax ) sin y a sin y a sin y a a

lim lim lim lim (1)
x 0 bx y 0 y y 0 b y b y 0 y b b
b
a
b.
tan(ax ) sin(ax )
lim lim
x 0 bx x 0 bx cos(ax )

sin(ax ) 1 a 1 a
lim lim (By part (a) of Corollary 2.2.3)
x 0 bx x 0 cos(ax ) b 1 b

x 1 lim 1 1
x 0
c. lim lim 1.
x 0 sin x x 0 sin x sin x 1
lim
x x 0 x

EXAMPLE 2.2.11 Find

sin(5x ) tan sin(2t ) 1 cos t
a. lim b. lim c. lim
x 0 3x 0 2 t 0 3t

100
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

tan(2x ) sin(x 6) sin x

d. lim e. lim f. lim
x 0 3x 1 1 x 6 x2 5x 6 x x

Solution
sin(5x )
a. Since lim sin(5x ) 0 and lim 3x 0 , then we say that the function has an
x 0 x 0 3x
0
indeterminate form at x 0 . Using part (a) of Corollary 2.2.3, we have
0
sin(5x ) 5
lim .
x 0 3x 3

tan 0
b. The function has an indeterminate form at 0 . Using part (b) of Corollary
2 0
2.2.3, we have:
tan 1
lim .
0 2 2

1 cos t sin(2t ) 0
c. The function has an indeterminate form at t 0 . To solve this
3t 0
problem, we can write it as:
sin(2t ) 1 cos t sin(2t ) 1 1 cos t
lim lim lim
t 0 3t t 0 3t 3t 0 t
Now, applying Corollary 2.2.3(a) and Theorem 2.2.8, we have
sin(2t ) 1 cos t sin(2t ) 1 1 cos t 2 1 2
lim lim lim (0)
t 0 3t t 0 3t 3 t 0 t 3 3 3.

tan(2x ) 0
d. The function has an indeterminate form at x 0 . We use here the
3x 1 1 0
conjugate of the denominator and obtain that

tan(2x ) tan(2x ) 3x 1 1
lim lim
x 0 3x 1 1 x 0 3x 1 1 3x 1 1
tan(2x ) 3x 1 1
lim
x 0 (3x 1) 1
tan(2x ) 3x 1 1
lim
x 0 3x
tan(2x ) 2 4
lim lim 3x 1 1 (2)
x 0 3x x 0 3 3

sin(x 6) 0
e. The function has an indeterminate form at x 6 . To solve this problem,
x 2 5x 6 0
we factor the denominator.
sin(x 6) sin(x 6) sin(x 6) 1
lim lim lim lim .
x 6x 2 x 6 (x 6)(x 1) x 6 6x 1
5x 6 x 6 x

101
SECTION 2.2 LIMITS LAWS

sin(x 6)
To evaluate lim , set y x 6 . Clearly, as x 6, y 0 , and hence
x 6 x 6
sin(x 6) sin y
lim lim 1
x 6 x 6 y 0 y
Finally,
sin(x 6) sin(x 6) 1 1 1
lim lim lim (1)
6x 2 x 6 6x 1 7 7
x 5x 6 x 6 x

sin x 0
f. The function has an indeterminate form at x . Setting y x , we
x 0
have as x ,y 0 . Now, using the identity:

sin(a b) sin a cos b cos a sin b ,

we have
sin x sin(y ) sin y cos cos y sin
lim lim lim
x x y 0 y y 0 y
(sin y )( 1) (cos y )(0) sin y
lim lim 1
y 0 y y 0 y

RELATED PROBLEM 6 Find the following limits

sin(5 ) sin 3 sin(x 1)
a. lim b. lim x
c. xlim1
0 7 x 3 x 3 x 3 2

1 cos sin x cos x sin(tan 3 )

d. lim 2 e. lim f. lim
0 5 x 1 tan x 0
4

Answers
5 c. 4
a. b.
7 3

1 2 f. 3
d. e.
10 2

sin(ax )
, x 0
EXAMPLE 2.2.12 Let f (x ) x . Find the value(s) of a such that lim f (x )
x 0
exists. 2(x 1) a 2 , x 0

Solution Since f is defined by different expressions for x 0 and x 0 , we have to consider

one-sided limits. Hence,

sin(ax )
lim f (x ) lim a and lim f (x ) lim 2(x 1) a2 2 a2
x 0 x 0 x x 0 x 0

Since lim f (x ) exists, we have

x 0

102
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

lim f (x ) lim f (x ).
x 0 x 0

Thus, a 2 a2
a2 a 2 0
a 1, 2

sin(3x )
, x 0
RELATED PROBLEM 7 Let f (x ) kx . Find the value(s) of k such that
k (1 x ) 2, x 0
lim f (x ) exists.
x 0

Answer: k 3, k 1.

103
 SECTION 2.2 LIMITS LAWS

y
EXERCISES
y
2.2
y = f (x) y = g(x)
In Exercises3 1-9, given that 3
2 2
y = f (x) lim f (x ) 2, lim g(x ) 4, lim h(x ) 0,
1 x a 1x a x a
x x
Find
3 the
2 limits.
1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3
1
1. lim 3 f1(x ) 4g(x ) 2. lim h(x ) 4g(x ) 2 3. lim f (x )g(x )
x x a 2 2 x a x a

2
lim g(x3 ) 5.3 lim 3 2 3 f (x ) 2
4. x a x a 6. lim
x a 3 g(x )
f (x ) 3/2 2/3
) Q 7. lim 8. lim 2 f (x ) 9. lim 4 f (x )
x a h(x ) g(x ) x a x a
sin x) P P
tan x In Exercises 10 – 14, use the Limit Laws and the graphs of f and g in Figure 2.2.9 to evaluate
h sin x
x the following
x limits (if xexist).
O 1 A O 1 A O 1 A f (x )
10. lim f (x ) 3g(x ) 11. xlim1 f (x )g(x ) 12. xlim2
x 2
g(x )
2
13. f (1) lim g(x ) 14. xlim2 x f (x )
x 2

y
f

1 x
P(cos ¨, sin ¨)
g
1

¨ A
(1, 0) x Figure 2.2.9

In Exercises 15-30, find the limit (if exist)

5 2
15. lim x 4 y 16. lim x 17. lim(2x 1) 18. lim (2x 3x 1)
x 2 x 3 x 0 x 3
g
19. lim x 43 3 2
21. lim x 3
4
x 1
20. lim 12x 2x 1 22. lim 2x 3
x 1 x 3 x 1

2x 23 2x 2
16 lim sin x 2 1 x 3 sin x
23. lim 24. lim 25. 26. xlim0
x 1 x 1 x 5 x 2 x
6
cos x
sec x 2 2 4lim xcos x sin x
27. lim 8 28. 5 29. lim cos 30. lim
4 x x 0 x
6
x 1 x x 0 x 1
In Exercises 31-48, find the following limits (if exist)

x2 1 3x 2 5x 2 x3 27
31. lim 32. lim 33. xlim3
x 1x 1 x 2 x 2 x 3
(x 3) sec(x 3) cos2 x 1 x
34. xlim3 lim
35. x 0 cos x 36. xlim0
P(cos ¨, sin ¨) x 2
9 1 x 2
x
1
A x
Q (1, 0) 104
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1 x x2 x 6 x2 2x 8
37. lim
1 x 1/3 4/3 38. xlim3 2 39. lim 2
x x x 9 x 2 x x 2

x 5 3 x 5 7 x 2
40. lim 41. lim 42. lim
x 4 x 4 x 2 x 2 x 2
x2 5 3
1 1 1 1
1 1
x x 2 45. lim
43. lim 3 3 44. lim x 1 x2 1 x 1
x 0 x x 2 x 2
1 1 2(x x) 2x (x x )2 x2
46. lim 1 47. lim 48. lim
h 0 h 1 h x 0 x x 0 x

In Exercises 49-70, find the following limits (if exist)

sin 5 sin 2h sin x
49. lim 50. lim 51. lim
0 h 0 h x 0 x2
sin2 x sin 6x sin 3x
52. lim 53. lim 54. lim
x 0 x x 0 tan 3x x 0 sin 7x
sin2 5x sin x 2 sin x
55. lim 56. lim 57. lim
x 0 3x 2 x 0 x x 0 3 x
sin x t2 x
58. lim 59. lim 60. xlim0
x 01 cos x t 01 cos t 2 cos 2
x
2 1 cos(3h ) x2 3 sin x
61. lim 62. lim 2 63. lim
01 cos h 0 cos (5h ) 1 x 0 x
5x sin x x 2 sin(3x ) sin(x 5)
64. lim 65. lim 66. lim 2
x 0 4 sin(5x ) 3 tan(2x ) x 0 4x tan x x 5 x 25

cos sin x
x 68. lim
67. lim , Hint: Let t x 1 x 1
x 2 x 2 2 x

1 tan x cos x sin x

69. lim 70. lim
x x x x
4 4
4 4

In Exercise 71-72, use the Squeeze Theorem to find lim f (x )

x c
71. c 4, 4x 9 f (x ) x2 4x 7 72. c 1, 2x f (x ) x4 x2 2

73. Suppose the inequality

1 x2 1 cos x 1
2 24 2 2
x
1 cos x
holds for values of x close to 0 . Find lim .
x 0 x2
3
74. Show that lim x 4 cos 0. 75. Show that lim x sin 0.
x 0 x x 0 x

105
SECTION 2.3 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY

Section 2.3

In the previous sections, we have studied how to evaluated limit of some functions f when
x approaches a real number and we found that the value of the limit (if exists) was a real
number L . In this section, we study two types of limits that involving infinity. The first one
is called infinite limit which means the limit of functions that either increase without bound
or decrease without bound as x approaches a real number a. The second is called limits at
infinity which means the limit of a function whose values approaches some numbers L as x
becomes either very large or very small.

INFINITE LIMITS

Let us consider
1
f (x ) .
x
From Figure 2.3.1 and Table 2.3.1, we can see that f (x ) increases without bound as x
approaches 0 from the right.

x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001 0.000001

f (x ) 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Table 2.3.1
y y y
1 1
y = x y= x f (x) ! 12
x
1
x x x x
x 1 1
1 x2 x2
x

x
x x
Figure 2.3.1
y
y
Horizontal asymptote y=a
We denote this by writing
3 y = f(x)
f 1
2 lim
1
x 0 x
x
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5 6
lim f (x) =
106 –2
–3
x →+ ∞

y
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Remember that the symbol is not a real number. Thus, although we may state that the
limit of f (x ) equals , we do not mean that the limit exists but denotes that the function
1
f (x ) increases without bound as x approaches 0 from the right.
x

Similarly, we can show that

1
lim
x 0 x

1
which mean that the function f (x ) decreases without bound as x approaches 0 from the
x
left as shown Figure 2.3.2.

y y y
1 1
y= x y= x f (x)

1
x x x x
x 1 1
1 x2 x
x

x x
Figure 2.3.2
y
y
Horizontal asymp
1
In the above discussion, we have found that the function3 f x approaches as x y=
xf
2
approaches 0 from the right and approaches as x approaches
1
0 from the left. So, we say
that x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 lim f (x) =
lim –2 x → +∞
x 0 x –3

does not exist.

y

If a function f approaches as x approaches a from both right and left sides, we prefer to say y = a Horizontal asy
that the limit is rather than we say does not exist. For example,
y ! f (x) as show in Figure 2.3.3,
we may write lim f (x) =
x → −∞
M
1
lim y
x 0 x2
"!
x
0 0
"! #!
107

y
y! tan x N
 SECTION 2.3 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY

y y y
y
1 1
1
y= x y= x f(x) ! 12
(x) = 2 x
2(x + 1) y
1
x x x x
4 1
x x 1
−1 1 x 2 + 2x − 8 x2
1 f (x) = x2
x −1 x2 − 4

−2
x
−4 2 x
2 x x
)
−2
y y Figure 2.3.3
y
x2 +1 Horizontal asymptote y=a
(x) = 4 Similarly, we write
x2 − 1
3 1 y = f(x)
2 f lim .
2 x 0 x2
1 See Figure
x 2.3.4. x
−4 −2 2 4
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 y
x
lim f(x)x=
–2 x→+ ∞ x
–3 −
f(x) ! 12
x y
−1 −1
x2 x2
y y
2 y y y
y = ay = 1 Horizontal asymptote 1
x y = x
x f(x) ! 12
y ! f (x) x
x
Figure 2.3.4
0 1
yx x x x
lim f(x) =
f
EXAMPLE 2.3.1 For the function ƒ in Figure
x →− ∞2.3.5, determine the
x following limits. 1 1
M 1 x2 x2
–2
a. lim f (x ) x
b. f lim f (x ) c. lim f (x )
x 3 y x 3 x 3
1
x
lim f (x ) lim f (x ) lim f (x ) x x
d. e. f.
x 0 x 0 "x ! #! x 0
x −1 x y
0 0 y
"! #! Horizontal asymptote y=a

3 y = f(x)
f
2
y 1 x
y! tan x N x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5 6
lim f (x) =
–2 x →+ ∞
–3 y ! f (x)
y

0 !
x
y Figure 2.3.5
– 3! –! – ! ! 3!
2 2 2 2
Solution
y=a Horizontal asymptote
a. We see from the graph that f goes to yinfinity
f (x)
as x goes to 3 from left. Thus, x
!
lim f (x )
x 3 lim f (x) =
x →− ∞
M

y
108
"! #!
x x
0 0
"! #!
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

b. We see from the graph that f goes to infinity as x goes to 3 from right. Thus,
lim f (x )
x 3

c. Since lim f (x ) lim f (x ) , we conclude that lim f (x ) .

x 3 x 3 x 3

d. We see from the graph that f goes to minus infinity as x goes to 0 from left. Thus,
lim f (x )
x 0

e. We see from the graph that f goes to infinity as x goes to 0 from right. Thus,
lim f (x )
x 0

f. Since lim f (x ) lim f (x ) , we conclude that lim f (x ) does not exists.

x 0 x 0 x 0

A limit in which f increases or decreases without bound as x approaches a is called an infinite

limit. The formal definition of infinite limit is introduced in the following definition.

Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing a (except possibly at a

itself),
a. The statement
lim f (x )
x a

means that for any M 0 , there is a 0 such that

if 0 x a , then f (x ) M.

Figure 2.3.6(a) illustrates this definition.

b. The statement
lim f (x )
x a

means that for any N 0 , there is a 0 such that

if 0 x a , then f (x ) N.

Figure 2.3.6(b) illustrates this definition.

109
 3 y = f (x)
y f
2
1 x
x y=a Horizontal asymptote
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2y –1–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
! f (x)
SECTION 2.3 LIMITS INVOLVING
–2 INFINITY lim
x →+ ∞
f(x) =
lim f (x) =
–3 x →− ∞
M y

y y

"! #!
x y=a Horizontal asymptote
0 xx
"! # ! y ! f (x) 0

lim f(x) =
x→− ∞
M
y
y! tan x N
y

"! y ! f (x) # !
x x
0 0
"! #!
x
0 !
– 3! –! – ! ! 3!
2 2 2 2
(a) (b)
y
tan x N
Figure
y! 2.3.6

ILLUSTRATION y ! f (x)

By using Definition 2.3.1, we want to show that x

0 !
– 3! –! – ! ! 3!
2 2 2 21
lim .
x 0 x2

Given M 0 , we want to find 0 such that

1
if 0 x 0 , then M
x2
Now,
1 1
M if and only if x 2
x2 M
or
1
x
M
1
Thus, choosing (or any smaller positive number), we obtain that
M
1 1
if x , then M
2 2
x
Therefore, by definition 2.3.1(a),
1
lim
x 0 x2

VERTICAL ASYMPTOTE

In Figure 2.3.6, we can see that the graph of f arbitrary close to the vertical line x a . This
line is called a vertical asymptote for the graph of f.

110
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

DEFINITION 2.3.2
If a function f approaches or as x approaches a from the right or the left,
then, the line x a is called a vertical asymptote for the graph of f .

EXAMPLE 2.3.2 Determine all vertical asymptotes of the graph of the following functions

1 x2 1 x2 2x 8
a. f (x ) b. f (x ) c. f (x )
2x 2 x 2
1 x 2
4
Solution
a. We are interested in the behavior of f as x approaches zeros of the denominator.
2x 2 0
2x 2
x 1

So, the behavior of f as x 1 is:

1 1
lim and lim
x 1 2x 2 x 1 2x 2

Using Definition 2.3.2, the line x 1 is a vertical asymptote for f .

y

1
f (x) = 2
2(x + 1) y

x 4
−1 1 x 2 + 2x − 8
f (x) =
−1 x2 − 4

−2
x
−4 2 2
(a) Figure 2.3.7
−2
y

b. We are interested in the behavior x 2 +f 1 as x

f(x) = of 4 approaches zeros of the denominator.
2 x −1
x2 1 2 0
(x 1)(x 1) 0 x
−4 −2 2 4
x 1, 1
y
x x
So, the behavior of f as x 1 is:
−
x2 1 x2 1 f (x) ! 12
lim and lim x
−1
x 1 x2 1 x 1 x2 1 −1
x2 x2
y
Using Definition 2.3.2, the line x 1 is a vertical asymptote for f .
2

Also, the behavior of f as x 1 is:

x
0
y

f
–2
111
f

1
 y

1
f(x) = 2
2(x + 1) y

SECTION 2.3 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY

x 4
−1 1 x 2 + 2x − 8
f(x) =
−1 x2 − 4
x2 1 x2 1
lim and −2lim
2
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 2
1 x
5 −4 2 2
y (a)
4 Using Definition 2.3.2, the 5liney x 1 is a vertical asymptote for f . −2
y
3 4
2 f (x) x2 + 1
3 = x2 − 1 4

1 2
x 2
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10 x
−1 1 −4 −2 2 4

−2 x y
−3 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x x
−1
−
f(x) ! 12
−4
−5 Figure 2.3.8 x
−1 −1
y x 2 x2
c. By factoring, we have y

y x2 2x 8 (x 2 x
2)( 4) x 4
f (x ) f (x) = c
2 (x 2)(x 2) x 2
x 4
y = |x| f (a) = c
We can see that the denominator is 0 when x x The behavior of f as
2 only.
0
y
x 2 is:
f
x x 4 –2 x 4 f
lim and lim x .
x 2 x 2 a −δ x a 2 ax + δ 2
1

Using Definition 2.3.2, the line x 2 is a vertical asymptote for f .

y x
−1

y 4
y = f (x) x2 + 2x − 8
f (x) =
x2 − 4
4
x
−4 −2 2

x −2
2
Figure 2.3.9

3 y
y Example 2.3.3 Determine all vertical asymptotes of the graph of f (x ) tan x .
y "x 4 y = 2x5 2
2 (2n 1)
Solution The graph of f (x ) tan x has vertical asymptotes at x for n ,
1 2
CU CU
where cos x 0 . Figure 2.3.10 illustrate this example. x
1
−2 −1 1 2
−1

0 x −2
!1
1121
−3
 y

"! #!
x x
0
"! #! CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND0 CONTINUITY

y
y! tan x N

y ! f (x)

x
0 !
– 3! –! – ! ! 3!
2 2 2 2

Figure 2.3.10

RELATED PROBLEM 1 Determine all vertical asymptotes of the graph of the following
functions
1 x2 4 x2 4x 3
a. f (x ) b. f (x ) c. f (x )
3x 9 2 2
x 8 x 1
1 5x e. f (x ) cot x
d. f (x )
x 3

Answers

a. x 3 b. x 2 2, x 2 2 c. x 1
d. No vertical asymptotes e. x n , n

LIMITS AT INFINITY
In Section 2.2 and the previous part of this section, we have studied the behavior of some types
of functions as x approaches some real numbers. Now, our main concern in this section is to
study the behavior of the function y f (x ) as x increases without bound ( x approaches )
or decreases without bound x approaches .

Let us consider
x 3
f (x ) ,x 2
x 2

From Figure 2.3.11, we can see that the values of f (x ) approaches 1 as x increases or decreases
without bound. These limits are called limits at infinity and denoted by

x 3 x 3
lim 1 and x lim 1
x x 2 x 2

113
 y=ƒ
y=L+∑
L
y=L-∑
SECTION 2.3 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
N 0

6
5 x"3
y!
4 x"2 y
3 y = f (x)
4
2
1
x
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
–3
–4
Figure 2.3.11
Now, the following is the formal definition of the limits at infinity of a function

DEFINITION 2.3.3
Let a and L be real numbers
a. Let f be a function defined on an infinite interval a, . Then, we say that f has
limit the real number L as x approaches , written
lim f x L
x

if for every 0 , there exists a number M 0 such that

if x M , then f x L
Figure 2.3.12 (a) illustrates this part of the definition.

b. Let f be a function defined on an infinite interval ,a . Then, we say that f

has limit the real number L as x approaches , written
lim f x L
x
if for every 0 , there exists a number N 0 such that
if x N , then f x L
Figure 2.3.12 (b) illustrates this part of the definition.

y=ƒ
y=L+∑
L
y=L-∑

0 M x

(a) y
y=ƒ
y=L+∑
L
y=L-∑
114
N 0 x

y
 −2 y=ƒ
y=L+∑ x
−4 2 2
L
(a)
y=L-∑ −2
y CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
0 M x
2
f (x) = x 2 + 1 4
x −1
2 y
y=ƒ
x y=L+∑
−4 −2 2 4
L
y=L-∑ y
x x
x
N 0 x
−
f (x) ! 12
y x
(a) −1 −1
6 x2 x2
y Figure 2.3.12
5 x"3
y!
2 4 x"2
EXAMPLE 2.3.4 For the function f graphed in Figure
y
2.3.13, find
3 y = f (x)
4
a. lim f (x 2) b. lim f (x )
x 1 x x
0 x
x y
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
f –1
–2 –2 y
f
–3 1
f(x) = 2
2(x + 1) 1 y
–4

x 4
x
−1
−1 1 x2 + 2x − 8
f (x) =
−1 x2 − 4

−2
x
Figure 2.3.13 −4 2 2
(a)
Solution −2
y
a. We see that as x approaches 2
minus infinity, the value of f approaches 1 . Thus,
f (x) = x 2 + 1 4
lim f (x ) 1
x −1
x
2

b. We see that as x approaches infinity, the value

x of f approaches 1 . Thus,
−4 −2 2 4
lim f (x ) 1
x y
x x
x
RELATED PROBLEM 2 For the function f graphed in Figure 2.3.14, find −
f (x) ! 12
a. lim f (x ) b. lim f (x ) x
−1
x x −1
x 2 x2
y
2

x
0
y

f
–2
f

1
Figure 2.3.14
x
−1

115
SECTION 2.3 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY

Answers
a. 1 b. 1

HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTE
In Figures 2.3.12, we can see that the graph of f closes to the horizontal line y L as
x or . This line is called a horizontal asymptote for the graph of f.

DEFINITION 2.3.4
The line y L is called a horizontal asymptote for the graph of f if
lim f x L or lim f x L
x x

In Figure 2.3.13, we can see that the horizontal asymptotes of f are y 1 and y 1.

REMARK
a. Limits laws introduced in Section 2.2 still hold for limits involving infinity.

b. Let p(x ) be a polynomial of degree n , n 1 , and let an be the coefficient of x n

in p(x ) . Then:
lim p(x ) lim an x n
x x

EXAMPLE 2.3.5 Find the following limits

a. lim 2x 3 5x 2 6x 3 b. lim 7x 3 5x 7 6x 5 3
x x

Solution

a. lim 2x 3 5x 2 6x 3 lim 2x 3 .
x x

3
b. lim 77xx 3
lim 55xx77 66xx55 33 lim 5x 7 .
x x x

The next theorem is helpful when evaluating limits at infinity especially for rational functions.

THEOREM 2.3.1
If r is a positive rational number and c 0 is any real number, then
c c
lim 0 lim 0 and
r
x x x xr
provided x r is defined.

116
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

The following examples includes the second case of indeterminate forms of quotient functions.
A quotient function whose numerator and denominator each approaches or is said
to have an indeterminate form .

EXAMPLE 2.3.6 Find the following limits (if exist)

1 100 2x 2 4
a. lim b. lim c. lim
x x x x2 5 x x 1
7x 2 x 37 x2 3x 7
d. lim e. lim
2 3
x 2x 5x x x 10x 4

Solution
1 1
a. By Theorem 2.3.1, we have lim lim 0.
1/2
x x x x

b. Note that the numerator is always 100, and the denominator is x 2 5 which approaches
100
as x approaches . Thus, lim 0.
2
x x 5

2x 2 4
c. Since lim (2x 2 4) and lim (x 1) , then we say that the function
x x x 1
has an indeterminate form . To find the limit of such function, we divide each term

in both numerator and denominator by x n where n is the highest power of x occurring

in the denominator, which is in this case x .
2x 2 4 4
2 2x
2x 4
lim lim x x lim x
x x 1 x x 1 x 1
1
x x x
4 1
Here, we used Theorem 2.3.1 which state that each of the expressions and
x x
approaches 0 as x approaches .

d. To find the limit of such function, we divide each term in both numerator and
denominator by x n where n is the highest power of x occurring in the denominator,
which is in this case x 2 .

7x 2 x 37 1 37
2 7
7x x 37 2 2 2 x x2 7 0 0 7
lim lim x x x lim
2 2 5 2 0 2
x 2x 5x x 2x 5x x
2
x 2
x 2 x

117
SECTION 2.3 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY

e. To find the limit of such function, we divide each term in both numerator and
denominator by x n where n is the highest power of x occurring in the denominator,
which is in this case x 3 .
x2 3x 7 1 3 7
2
x 3x 7 3 3 3 x 2
x3 0 0 0
lim lim x x x lim x 0.
3
x x 10x 4 x x3 10x 4 x
1
10 4 1 0 0
x3 x3 x3 x2 x3

x 3
EXAMPLE 2.3.7 Find the horizontal asymptotes (if any) for the function f (x ) 2
9x 5x
Solution To find the horizontal asymptotes of f, we find the limit of the function at . Using
the property that a2 a , we get:
x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3
lim lim lim lim
x x x x
9x 2 5x 5 5 5
x2 9 x2 9 x 9
x x x

Now,
3 3
x 1 1
x 3 x 3 x x 1 1
lim lim lim lim
x
5 x
5 x
5 x
5 9 3
x 9 x 9 x 9 9
x x x x

In the same way, we can show that

x 3 1
lim
x
9x 2
5x 3

1
Thus, the horizontal asymptotes of f are: y .
3

RELATED PROBLEM 3
A. Find the following limits (if exist)
1 100
2x 3 7x 2 5x b. lim c. lim
a. x lim 3 x 3
x 2 x x2 x 5

3x 2 4x 1 12x 2 2x 13 2x 2 3x 1
d. lim e. lim f. lim
2 3
x x 3 x 4x 5x x x 4
2x 3
g. x lim 2
16x 3x

B. Find the horizontal asymptotes for the following functions

118
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

x 2x 2 3x 1 3 2x 3
a. f (x ) b. f (x ) c. f (x )
9 x3 3x 2 5 x (1 2x 2 )

d. f (x ) 2 x3 e.
x
f.
cos x
f (x ) f (x )
x 2
x 4 3 4x 2 x
Answers
A.
a. b. 0 c. 0

d. e. 3 f. 0
1
g.
2
B.

a. y 0 2 c. y 1
b. y
3
d. No horizontal asymptotes. 1 1 f. y 0
e. y , y
2 2
Now, we introduce a corollary that will be sufficient to evaluate most limits at infinity for
rational functions.

COROLLARY 2.3.1
p(x )
Suppose that f (x ) , where p(x ) and q(x ) are polynomials of degrees n and m
q(x )
respectively. Then
a. If n m , then
lim f (x ) 0
x

b. If n m , then
coefficient of x n in p(x )
lim f (x )
x coefficient of x m in q(x )
c. If n m , then
sign of the coefficient of x n in p(x )
lim f (x )
x sign of the coefficient of x m in q(x )

sign of the coefficient of x n in p(x ) n m

lim f (x ) 1
m
x sign of the coefficient of x in q(x )

EXAMPLE 2.3.8 Evaluate the following limits:

3x 2 x 1 x x2 1 x6 2x 1
a. lim 3
b. lim
2
c. lim
2
x x x 1 x 3x 5x x 1 x
3 e. lim x6 4x 3 x3
d. lim x sin x
x x

119
SECTION 2.3 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY

Solution
a. Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of denominator, by Corollary
2.3.1(a) we obtain:
3x 2 x 1
lim 0
3
x x x 1

b. Since the degree of the numerator equals to the degree of denominator, by Corollary
2.3.1(b) we obtain: x x2 1 1
lim
2 3
x 3x 5x

c. Since the degree of numerator is greater than the degree of denominator, by Corollary
2.3.1(c) we obtain:
x6 2x 1 6 2
lim 1
2
x 1 x

1
d. We have indeterminate form ( 0 ). Replacing every x by , the limit becomes:
t
sin(3t )
lim
t 0 t
Using Corollary 1.2.3, we get:
sin(3t ) 3
lim 3
t 0 t 1

e. We have indeterminate form ( ). By multiplying the numerator and denominator

by the conjugate of x 6
4x 3 3
x , we rationalize the numerator:
x6 4x 3 x3
lim x6 4x 3 x3 lim x6 4x 3 x3
x x
x6 4x 3 x3
x6 4x 3 x6 4x 3
lim lim
x
x6 4x 3 x3 x
x6 4x 3 x3
4
lim x6 x 3 for x 0
x 4
1 1
x3
4 4
2
1 0 1 2

RELATED PROBLEM 4 Evaluate the following limits

2x 2 3 4x 3 x2 1 x5 x3 1
a. lim b. lim c. lim
x x5 2x 1 x 3x 2 2x 3 x x2 1

4 e. lim x2 1 x 1
d. lim x 2 tan x
2
x x

120
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Answers
a. 0 b. 2 c. d. 4 e.

We can apply Sandwich Theorem for the limits that approaches to infinity.

sin x
EXAMPLE 2.3.9 Evaluate lim .
x x
Solution For all x 0 , recall that
1 sin x 1.

Divide this inequality by a positive real number x, we have

1 sin x 1
,
x x x
Since,
1 1
lim 0 lim
x x x x
so, by the Sandwich Theorem, it follows that
sin x
lim 0
x x

cos x
RELATED PROBLEM 5 Evaluate lim
x x2
Answer 0

In part (c) of Example 2.3.8, we can observe that the limit does not approach a finite number
as x decreases without bound i. e., f (x ) as x . This limit is called infinite
limit at infinity and we close this section by introducing a formal definition of it.

DEFINITION 2.3.5
a. Let f be a function defined on the interval a, . The statement
lim f x
x

means that for each number M 0 , there exists a corresponding number N 0

such that
if x N then f x M.

b. Let f be a function defined on the interval a, . The statement

lim f x
x

means that for each number M 0 , there exists a corresponding number N 0

such that
if x N then f x M

121
SECTION 2.3 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY

c. Let f be a function defined on the interval , a . The statement

lim f x
x

means that for each number M 0 , there exists a corresponding number N 0

such that
if x N then f x M

d. Let f be a function defined on the interval ,a . The statement

lim f x
x
means that for each number M 0 , there exists a corresponding number N 0
such that
if x N then f x M

ILLUSTRATION
We want to show that lim ( 2x 1) .
x

Given a number M 0 , we want to find a number N 0 such that

if x N then f x M.

We want 2x 1 M as long as x is a large negative number. How negative should we make

x ? We rewrite the inequality to express x in terms of the lower bound M .

2x 1 M
2x M 1
1
x (M 1)
2
1
Choose N (M 1) , we have
2
1
if x (M 1) then 2x 1 M or f (x ) M.
2
Therefore, by Definition 2.3.5, we have
lim ( 2x 1) .
x

122
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

y
EXERCISES 2.3
6 Exercises 1 – 9, for the function f whose graph is given, determine the following limits
In
5 y
4
3 3
2
2
1 f
x 1
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–2 –1
–3 –2
–4 –3

Figure 2.3.15

1. lim f (x ) 2. lim f (x ) 3. lim f (x ) 4. lim f (x )

x 2 x 3 x 3 x 3

5. lim f (x ) 6. lim f (x ) 7. lim f (x ) 8. lim f (x )

x 0 x 0 x 0 x

9. lim f (x )
x

In Exercises 10 – 18, for the function f whose graph is given, determine the following limits
y

6
5 y
4
3 3
2
2
1 f
x 1
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–2 –1
–3 –2
–4 –3

Figure 2.3.16

10. lim f (x )
x 2
11. lim f (x )
x 2
12. xlim2 f (x ) 13.
x
lim f (x )
2

14. lim f (x ) 15. lim f (x ) 16. lim f (x ) 17. lim f (x )

x 2 x 2 x 0 x

18. xlim f (x )

In Exercises 19 -31, determine each limit (answer as appropriate, with a number, , or

does not exists)
2 3 2x 1
19. lim 20. lim 21. lim
x 0 5x x 4 x 4 x 3 x 3
3x 5 1
22. lim 23. lim 2 24. xlim0 2
x 5 2x 10 x 7 (x 7) x (x 1)
x 1 x 1 x
25. lim 26. lim 1 27. lim
x 6 6 x x 0 x x 3 x 2
9

123
SECTION 2.3 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY

x lim tan x lim sec x

28. lim 29. 30.
x 0 x x /2 x /2

31. lim (1 csc x )

x 0

In Exercises 32 -51, evaluate each limit (if exist)

3x 4 2x 3 7
32. lim 33. lim
x 1 5x x x 3
x 2
x 7
5 4 2x 3
10x x 24
34. lim 6 4
35. lim 2
x x x 1 x 3x 2x 1
1/3
x2 x 1 x2 5x
36. x lim 37. lim
2 3
8x 3 x x x 2
1 3 5
2 x x x x
38. lim 39. lim
x 3x 7 x 3 5
x x
3
x 5x 3 x2 1
40. lim 41. lim
x 2x x 2/3 4 x x 1
x2 7 x 3
42. lim 43. lim
x x 3 x
4x 2 25

44. lim 4 3x 3 45. lim x2 25 x2 1

x
x
x6 9
46. lim 2x 4x 2 3x 2 47. lim 9x 2 x 3x
x x

x2 x x2 x 3x sin x
48. lim 49. lim
x x 4x cos(2x )
tan x x
50. lim x 2
tan x
51. lim
x
2 x /2 tan(2x ) 3
In Exercises 52 -61, determine the horizontal and vertical asymptotes (if any) for the following
functions.
1 x 3x 2
52. f (x ) 53. f (x ) 54. f (x )
x2 1 9 x2 x2 7
2 x3 56. f (x ) 2 x3 57. f (x ) x
55. f (x )
2 x 4
x (1 x ) 4 x2
x 1 x x (x 2)
58. f (x ) 59. f (x ) 60. f (x )
2
4 x 2 x x 2 x3 5x 2 6x
4 sin x
61. f (x )
x
In Exercises 62 -64, use the formal definition to prove the following limits:
1 3 1
62. lim 63. xlim1 2 64. lim
x 0 x (x 1) x 5 (x 5)2

124
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

y
y y

Section 2.4
y ! !4 " x 2
2 y !4 !
y!! " 4x 2" x
2
2 2

x
–2 0 2 x x
–2 –2 0 0 2 2

y y
y y y y
y = f (x)
3 = f (x)
y = fy(x)
3 3
4
2 4 4
2 2 y = f (x)
= f (x)
y = fy(x)
1
1 1
In this section, we use the concept of limits to study the continuityx of functions. A function f is
x
x
2
0 1 2 3called
4 0 50 1 1 2 x2 3 if3 its
continuous 4 4graph
5 5 has
x no
x breaks or jumps.2 Figure
2
2.4.1 illustrates the discontinuity
of different functions at a point x c.
y y y y y y y y y y y y y
y = f (x) = f (x)
y = fy(x)
y = f (x) = f (x)
y = fy(x) y = f (x) = f (x)
y = fy(x)

y = f (x) = f (x)
y = fy(x)
y = f (x)

x x x x x x x x x x x x
c c c c c c c c c c c c c x
(a) (a)
(a) (a)(b) (b)(c)
(b) (b) (c) (c) (c)
(d) (d) (d) (d)

y y y Figure 2.4.1 y
y y y y y
= g (x)
y = gy(x) f f f
y = g (x) f f f
From Figure
4
2.4.1, we can observe that the function is discontinues at x c.
4 4 x
b xb xb x b xb
b x
In parta(a) of Figure 2.4.1, a f x
a a lim exists but
a a f (c ) is not defined.
x c
x x
x
In2 part
2 (b) of Figure 2.4.1, f (c) is defined but lim f x does not exist.
2
y x c y y
y y
y
In part (c) of Figure 2.4.1, f (c) is defined and lim f xf exists but limf f x f c
f

f(b)
f(b) f(b) y yx c x c
y b xb x
y ! f(x) b x
y ! f(x) In part (d)y !of
f(x)
Figure 2.4.1, lim f (x ) does not
2 y2 ! !a4 !
y! exist
" 4x 2" x
2 (the function
a a “blows up” as x
k k 2 y!!
x 4 "c x 2
k
approaches
f(a) f(a)
c).
f(a) x
x
0 a c1a c1 x2 x –2 –2 0 0 2 2
0 c2 c–2 c3 c03b bx
a cDEFINITION 2.4.1
2
0 1 c2 c3 b x y y
y y y
y
f(b) f(b) A function f is continuous at a point x c if thef(b)following
f(b)
conditions are satisfied:
f(b) f(b) f(c1)f(c ) !2)f(c
! 1f(c ) !3)f(c
! 2f(c ! 30) ! 0
k k y
k a.y f (c) is defined y f(c1) ! f(c2) ! f(c3) ! 0

y ! f(x)
y ! f(x) 0 0a ac1 c1 c3b xb x
f(a) f(a) c2 c2 c3
f(a) y ! f(x) b. lim f x exists
f(a) f(a) 0 a c1 c2 c3 b x
f(a) x c f(c)0 ! 0
f(c) ! f(a) f(a)
0 0a a x
c b c b x f(c) !0 f(a)
0 x
a c b
c. lim f x f c0 0 a a c c b b x x
0 x c
a c b x
f(b) f(b)
f(b)
If the function f is not continuous at x c , we say that f is discontinuous at x c.

EXAMPLE 2.4.1 Use the graph of the function shown in Figure 2.4.2 to determine whether f
is continuous at x 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 or not.

125
 y ! !4 " x 2
2

x
SECTION 2.4 CONTINUITY OF–2 FUNCTIONS
0 2

y y

y = f (x)
3
4
2
y = f (x)
1
x

0 x 2
1 2 3 4 5

Figure 2.4.2

Solution The function is continuous

y at x 0 because y y y
y = f (x)
lim fy(=x )f (x) 1 f (0)
x 0
y = f (x)
It is discontinuous at x 1 because f (1) is not defined. It is discontinuous at x 2 because
2 lim f (x ) fx (2) 1 x x
x 2
c c c c
Since
(a) (b) (c)
lim f (x ) 0 f (3)
x 3
y
y
we see that the function is continuous at x 3 . Next, we see ythat lim f (x ) does not exist, so f
y = g (x) x f 4
f is not continuous at x 4 . Finally, because f (5) is not defined, we see that the function is
4
discontinuous at x 5. b x b x
a a

EXAMPLE 2.4.2 Discuss the continuity of each function

x at the indicated point
2
x2 1 y
, x 1 y
a. f x x 1 at x 1.
2, x 1 f(b) y
y ! f(x)
sin x y ! !4 " x 2
a
, x 0 k 2
b. f x x at x 0
3, x 0 f(a)
x
–2 0 2
0 a c1 c2 c3 b x
c. f x x 1 at x 1 y
y
1
d. f x f(b) at x 3 f(b)
x 3
f(c1) ! f(c2) !
k y
Solution
a. The function is defined
f(a)
at x 1 where
y ! f(x) f (1) 2 , also 0 a c1 c2
f(a)
2
x 1 (x 1)(x 1) f(c) ! 0
lim 0 lim
a c b x x
lim( 1) 2 f(a)
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
0 a c b x
Since lim f (x ) f (1) , then the function f is continuous at x 1.
x 1 f(b)

b. The function is defined at x 0 where f (0) 3 . To evaluate the limit, we have

sin x
lim f (x ) lim 1
x 0 x 0 x

126
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Hence, the limit of the function exists but is not equal its value, that is
1 lim f (x ) f (0) 3.
x 0
Thus, the function f is discontinuous at x 0.

c. The function is defined at x 1 where f ( 1) 0 , we write the function as

x 1, x 1
f x
x 1, x 1
also
lim x 1 lim ( x 1) 0
x 1 x 1

lim x 1 lim (x 1) 0
x 1 x 1

Since lim f (x ) lim f (x ) 0 , this implies.

x 1 x 1

Since lim f (x ) f ( 1) , the function f is continuous at x 1.

x 1

d. The function is discontinuous at x 3 , because it is not defined at x 3.

RELATED PROBLEM 1 Discuss the continuity of each function at the indicated point
x2 4x 5
a. , x 1 at x 1.
f x x 1
6, x 1

tan(4x )
b. f x
, x 0 at x
2x 0
3, x 0
1
c. f x 2x 1 at x
2
1
d. f x at x 2
x2 2
Answers
a. Continuous b. Discontinuous c. Continuous d. Continuous

The next definition extends the concept of continuity at a point to the continuity on an open
or closed interval.

DEFINITION 2.4.2
a. If a function is continuous at each point in an open interval (a, b) , then it is called
continuous on the interval (a, b) .

127
 y y y
y = f (x)
y = f (x)

y = f (x)
SECTION 2.4 CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS
x x x x
c c c

(b) b. If a function f(c)is defined on a closed interval

(d) [a, b ] and continuous on the open in-
terval (a, b) , then it is called continuous on [a, b ] if
y y
f
f lim f x f a and lim f x f b
x a x b

b x b x
a
a In part (b) of the above definition, we can say that f is continuous from the right of a and from
x the left of b as shown in Figure 2.4.3.
y
f

y
b x
y ! f(x) a
2 y ! !4 " x 2

x
–2 0 2 Figure 2.4.3
1 c2 c3 b x
y

EXAMPLE 2.4.3
f(b)
x 2f(c1) 4! f(c2) ! f(c3) ! 0
y a. Determine where f (x ) is continuous.
x 2
b. Redefine the function
0
in part (a) to make it continuous
x
at every point in .
a c1 c2 c3 b
f(a)
y Solutionf(c) ! 0 f(a)
c b x
y ! !4 " x 2
02 a
a.
c
Note that
b x
x2 4 (x 2)(x 2)
f(b) f (x ) x 2 for x 2.
x 2 (x 2)
x
–2 0 2
Thus the graph of f is a straight line having a hole at x 2 as shown in Figure 2.4.4.
So, f is continuous for all x except when x 2.
y y

y = f (x)
3
4
2
y = f (x)
1
x

0 x 2
1 2 3 4 5
Figure 2.4.4

y b. Since
y f is continuous for all x except
y when x 2 , we redefine
y it as follows,
y = f (x)
y = f (x)
x2 4 y = f (x)
, x 2
g(x ) x 2
a, x 2
y = f (x)

x x x x
c 128 c c c

(a) (b) (c) (d)

y
 y y

y = f(
3 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
4
2
y = f (x)
where a is a real number. To determine
1 the value of a that makes g is continuous for
all x, we have
0 x 2
1
lim g(x ) g(2) 2 a .3 4 5
x 2
That is,
x2 4
a lim g(x ) lim
y lim(x 2) 4y y
x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 y = f (x)
So, we redefine the function as follows, y = f (x)

y = f (x)
x2 4
, x 2
g(x ) x 2
4, x 2x x
c c c

Hence the function g is continuous for all (a)

x . Note that the graph of (b)
g is the same as (c)
the graph of f except that we now include the point (2, 4) as shown in Figure 2.4.5.
y
y y
y = g (x) f
f

4
b x
a a

x
2
y
Figure 2.4.5
f(b) y
y ! f(x)
RELATED PROBLEM 2 k 2 y ! !4 " x 2
2
x
6x 7
a. Determine where f (x ) is continuous.
f(a)
x 7
x
b. Redefine the function in part (a) to make it continuous
0 a c
at cevery point
c b
in .x –2 0 2
1 2 3
y
Answers y

a.
f(b) x2 6x 7 f(b)
{7}. , x 7
k b. g(x ) x 7y
8, x 7
y ! f(x)
f(a)in Theorem 2.2.2, we state the following properties of 0
Using properties of limits introduced f(a)
continuity. 0 a c b x
f(c) ! 0 f(a)

0 a c b x
THEOREM 2.4.1
f(b)
If two functions f and g are continuous at a real number c, then the following
functions are also continuous at c.

a. f g Addition Property

b. f g Subtraction Property

129
SECTION 2.4 CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

c. f g Product Property
f
d. , provided g(c) 0. Quotient Property
g
PROOF
We prove the first part of this theorem. Parts (b)-(d) can be proved in similar fashion.

a. Suppose f and g are continuous at x c , then

lim f x f c and lim g x g c (1)
x c x c
So, we have
lim f g x lim f x g x (By definition of sum of two functions)
x c x c
lim f x lim g x (Addition Property of Limits)
x c x c
f c g c (From (1))
f g c (By definition of sum of two functions)
This shows that f g is continuous.

REMARK
Properties (a) and (c) introduced in Theorem 2.4.1 are still hold for a finite number of
functions as long as each one of them is continuous, that is, if f1, f2 , , fn are continuous
functions at a point x c , then
a. ( f1 f2 fn ) x is continuous at x c.
b. ( f1 f2 fn ) x is continuous at x c.

Using Theorem 2.4.1 and the above remark, we can show that polynomial functions and
rational functions are continuous at each point in their domain.

THEOREM 2.4.2
a. A polynomial function p(x ) is continuous on .
p(x )
b. A rational function r (x ) is continuous on except the numbers c such that
q(x )
q(c) 0.

EXAMPLE 2.4.4 Find the x -values (if any) at which f is discontinuous

a. f (x ) 2x 3 4x 5 2x 2 4x 2 1 6x
b. g(x ) c. h(x )
2 2
x 4x 5 x 5

130
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Solution
a. Since f is a polynomial function, so it is continuous at every real number. Thus f has
no points of discontinuity.

b. Since g is a rational function, so it is continuous at each real number except at values

y
which the denominator is 0. Solving the equation
y ! !4 " x 2
2 x2 4x 5 0
yields that the denominator equal zero when x 1 or x 5.
x
–2 0 2
Thus, the function g has a discontinuity at x 1 and x 5.

c. Since h is a rational function, so it is continuous on except at values which the

y
y denominator is 0. However, the denominator has no zeros. Thus, h has no points of
y = f (x)
3 discontinuity.
4
2
y = f (x)
RELATED PROBLEM 3 Find the x -values (if any) at which the following functions is
1
discontinuous x

0
a. x x2 5x 2 1 6x
1 2 3 f (x 4) 15 3x 4 3x 3 b. g(x ) c. h(x )
x2 2x 3 x 5
Answers
y a. None y b. xy 1, x 3 y c. None
y = f (x)
y = f (x) y = f (x)
REMARK
y = f (x)
We have seen in Section 2.2 that the limit of radical, absolute value and trigonometric
functions
x can be evaluated by direct
x substitution, that is these
x functions are continuous
x
c c c c
at every point in their domain.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

EXAMPLE 2.4.5 Discuss the continuity of the function f (x ) 4 x 2 on the interval [ 2, 2].
y
y y
Solution
y = g (x) Since 4 x 2 is a polynomial
f with values greater
f than zero for all x ( 2, 2) , we
4 have that f is continuous for all x in the interval ( 2, 2) .
b x b x
a a
Now, we study the continuity at the end points,
x
lim 4 x2 0 f ( 2) and lim 4 x2 0 f (2)
2 x 2 x 2 y
So,y f is continuous on the closed interval [ 2, 2] as shown in Figure 2.4.6. f
f(b) y
b x
y ! f(x) a
2 y ! !4 " x 2
k

f(a)
x
–2 0 2
0 a c1 c2 c3 b x
y
y Figure 2.4.6

f(b) f(b)
k y
f(c1) ! f(c2) ! f(c3) ! 0 131

f(a) y ! f(x) 0 a c1 c2 c3 b x
f(a)
SECTION 2.4 CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

x 1, x 0
EXAMPLE 2.4.6 Discuss the continuity of the function f (x ) .
cos x , x 0

Solution The domain of f is all real numbers. Since x 1 is a polynomial, then f is

continuous for x 0 or on ( , 0) . Also, cos x is continuous for x 0 or on (0, ) . At
x 0 , we have
lim f (x ) lim x 1 1
x 0 x 0 ,
lim f (x ) lim cos x 1
x 0 x 0
That is,

lim f (x ) 1 f (0)
x 0

Thus, f is continuous on .

RELATED PROBLEM 4 Discuss the continuity of the following functions

a. f (x ) 9 x 2 on the interval [ 3, 3] .

x 3, x 0
b. f (x ) on ( , ).
sin x , x 0
Answers
a. Continuous on [ 3, 3] b. Continuous on ( , 0) (0, ) (or {0})

EXAMPLE 2.4.7 Find the values of a and b such that the function

(x 2 1) / (x 1), x 1
2
f (x ) ax 2x b, 1 x 0
x a 2, x 0

is continuous at every real number.

Solution Since polynomial and rational functions are continuous on their domain, we study
the continuity of f only at x 1 and x 0.

In order to the function f be continuous at x 1 , it must that

lim f (x ) lim f (x )
x 1 x 1
x2 1
lim lim (ax 2 2x b)
x 1 x 1 x 1
lim (x 1) lim (ax 2 2x b)
x 1 x 1
2 a 2 b
a b 0 (1)

132
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Similarly, at x 0,
lim f (x ) lim f (x )
x 0 x 0
lim (ax 2 2x b) lim (x a 2)
x 0 x 0
b a 2 (2)
Solving (1) and (2), we obtain that a 1 and b 1.

RELATED PROBLEM 5 Find the values of a and b such that the function

(x 2 4) / (x 2) x 2
2
f (x ) ax bx 3, 2 x 3
2x a b, x 3

is continuous at every real number.

1
Answer a b .
2

EXAMPLE 2.4.8 For what values of x the following functions are continuous

a. f (x ) x cos x x
b. g(x )
sin x
Solution
a. Since both functions x and cos x are continuous at each number, then by Theorem
2.4.1 we conclude that f is continuous on .

b. The function x is continuous on [0, ) . The function sin x is continuous at each real
number but since it is in denominator, we exclude its zeros. Thus, g is continuous at
all positive real numbers except when x n , n . That is, g is continuous on
(0, ) ( ,2 ) (2 , 3 )

RELATED PROBLEM 6 For what values of x the following functions are continuous

a. f (x ) x sin x x
b. g(x )
cos x
Answers

a. 3 3 5
b. 0, , ,
2 2 2 2 2

The next theorem states the continuity of composite functions.

133
SECTION 2.4 CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

THEOREM 2.4.3
If a function g is continuous at c and a function f is continuous at g(c) , then the
composite function f g is continuous at c.

EXAMPLE 2.4.9 Determine where the function h(x ) cos 2x 2 3x 1 is continuous.

Solution Note that
h(x ) f g(x ) ,

where g(x ) 2x 2 3x 1 and f (x ) cos x . Since both f and g are continuous on . Thus,
by Theorem 2.4.3, we obtain that h is continuous on

RELATED PROBLEM 7 Determine where the function h(x ) cos( x 3 1) is continuous.

Answer h is continuous on

The next theorem states the limits of composite function.

THEOREM 2.4.4
If f is continuous at b and lim g x b , then
x c

lim f g x f b f lim g x .
x c x c

EXAMPLE 2.4.10 Find the following limits (if exist)

x2 x 2 3
a. lim b. lim cos 2x sin x
x 1 x 1 x /2 2

c. lim x 1 cos(tan x )
x 0

Solution
a. By the continuity of the absolute value function and using Theorem 2.4.4. we find
x2 x 2 x2 x 2
lim lim
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1

(x 1) (x 2)
lim
x 1
x 1

lim( 1)(x 2) 3 3
x 1

b. By the continuity of the cosine function and using Theorem 2.4.4. we find

134
 x
–2 0 2

CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

y
y
y
y = f (x)
3 y ! !4 " x 2
3 2 3 4
2 2x
lim cos sin x cos lim 2x sin x
x /2 2 x y =/2f (x) 2
3
1 cos lim 2x lim sinx x
x –2/2 0 x 2
/2 2 x
cos sin 2x cos 1 2
0 1 2 3 4 5

c. By the continuity of the cosine functiony and using Theorem 2.4.4. we find y

lim x y
1 cos(tan x ) lim x 31y cos( lim tan x ) 1 cos 0y 1(1) 1 y
x 0 x 0 x 0
y = f (x) 4
y = f (x) 2
y = f (x)
1
RELATED PROBLEM 8 Find the following limits (if exist) y = f (x)

03 x x) 2
x2 x 2 1 2 c. 3lim 4x sec 5x 3 cos(sin
a. lim b. lim sin 2x x cos x x 0 x
x 2 2x 3 c
x /2 2 c c c

Answers (a) (b) (c) (

y y y
a. 0 b. sin 1 c. 2 y = f (x)
y y = f (x) y
y
y = g (x) f
f
INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM
4
b x b x
Now, we introduce Intermediate Value Theorem which
a is an important
x theorem concerning
a x
c
the behavior of a function that is continuous on a closed interval. c c
x
(a) (b) (c
2
y
THEOREM 2.4.5: Intermediate
y Value Theorem
y
y
closed interval [a, b ] and if k is any number betweeny yf (a ) and
If f is continuous on a f(b)
y = g (x) f
y ! f(x)
f (b) , then there is at least a number c in [a, b ] such that f (c) k. a
4 2 y ! !4 " x 2
k b x
a a
f(a)
ILLUSTRATION x
x –2 0 2
0
In Figure 2.4.7, f is continuous
a c1 on [ac,2b ] andc3hence x
b there exist c such that f (c) k.
2
y
y y

f(b) f(b) f(b) y

y ! f(x) f(c1) ! f(c2) ! f
k y
2 y!!
k

f(a) y ! f(x) f(a) 0 a c1 c2

f(a)
f(c) ! 0 –2 0
0 a c b x 0 a c1 c2 c3 b x f(a)

y 0 a c b x
Figure 2.4.7
f(b) f(b)
k y
135
f(a) y ! f(x)
f(a)
f(c) ! 0
 y
f
x
f(b)
2 y
y b x
y y ! f(x) a
2 y ! !4 " x
2
SECTION 2.4 CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS
f
k
f(b) y
f(a) b x
y ! f(x) a
x
2 !4 " x
y! 2
–2 0 2
0 k a c1 c2 In Figure
c3 x
b 2.4.8, f is continuous on [a, b ] and f (a ) , f (b) have opposite sign, then the
y
f(a) Intermediate Value Theorem guarantees the existence of some c between a and b such
x
that f (c) 0. –2 0 2
0 a c1 c2 c3 b x f(b)
y f(c1) ! f(c2) ! f(c3) ! 0
y

y ! f(x) 0 f(b) a c1 c c3 b x
f(a) f(c1) ! f(c22) ! f(c3) ! 0
y
f(c) ! 0 f(a)
c b x

y ! f(x) 0 a c b x 0 a c1 c2 c3 b x
f(a)
f(b) f(c) ! 0 f(a)
a c b x

0 a c Figure
b 2.4.8x

f(b)
EXAMPLE 2.4.11 Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that the polynomial function
f (x ) x3 2x 1 has a zero in the interval [0,1] .

Solution
The equation x 3 2x 1 0 cannot be solved algebraically easily because the left side has
no simple factors.

Since f is a polynomial function, it is continuous on the closed interval [0,1] . Also, we have
f (0) 1 and f (1) 2
Since, 1 f (0) 0 f (1) 2 , it follows from the Intermediate Value Theorem, that there is
at least one number c in [0,1] such that f (c) 0 . i.e. f has a zero in the closed interval [0,1].

EXAMPLE 2.4.12 Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to prove that the equation
3x 4 5 x2
has a solution.

Solution
We rewrite the equation as

3x 4 x2 5 0

and set f (x ) 3x 4 x2 5 . Now, let g(x ) 3x 4 which is continuous on the

4
interval , and let h(x ) x 2 5 which is continuous on . Since ƒ is the sum of the
3
function g and the function h, it follows that f (x ) 3x 4 x 2 5 is continuous on the
4
interval , . By trial and error, we find the function values f (0) 3 and f (4) 15
3

136
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

4
, and note that ƒ is also continuous on the finite closed interval 0, 4 , . Since
3
3 0 15 , by the Intermediate Value Theorem there is at least one number c [0, 4] such
that ƒ(c) 0 . That is,

f (c) 3c 4 c2 5 0 3c 4 5 c2

Thus, the number c is a solution to the equation 3x 4 x2 5 0.

RELATED PROBLEM 9 Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that the polynomial
4 3
function f (x ) x x 1 has a zero in the interval [1, 2] .

Answers Hint: 1 f (1) 0 f (2) 7.

137
 1. y 2. y
1. y 2. y
SECTION 2.4 5CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS
5
5. y 5 5
4 4
4 4
3 3
3 3
2 2
2
EXERCISES
2
2.4 1 1
1 1 1
In Exercises 1–5, use the graph to determine where the function is discontinuous
0
.
x
0 x !1 1 !3 !2 !1 0 1 2 3 x
!1 1 !3 !2 !1 0 1 2 3 x !3 !2 !1 0 1 2 3 x
1. 2. 3.
1. 1. y y 2. 2. y y 3. y
3. y 5. 5. y y
5 5 5 5 5
5 4
4 4 4 4
4
33 3 3
3 3
2
22 2 2 2
1
11 1 1 1 1 1
!3 !2 !1 1 2 3 x
1 01 2 3x 1 xx
!1 !1 0!1
!3 !2 !3 0!2 !1
!3 !2 !1 1 02 31 x 2 3 x!3 !2 !1 1 02 3 1 x2 3 x
!3 0!2 !1
!2
!2
3. 3. y y
1. y 4. 2. y 5.
5. 4. y
5 4. y 5 5
5 y
4 4 3
4 3 3 4 3
2
3 2 2 3 2
2 1 2 1
1 1 1
!3 !2 !11 2 13 x 2 x 3
!3 !2 !1 x
!3 0 1 2 3 x
!3 0 1 2 3
0 x !1
!1 1 !3 !2 !1 0!2 1 2 3 x
!2!1 !3 !2 !1 0 1 2 3 x
!2
!2
3. y 4. 4. y!3 y
!3
5
3 3
4
3 2 2
In 2Exercises 6 – 11, discuss the continuity of each function at the indicated point
1
!3 x
2
x 25
0 1 02 2x x 2x 1, x 2
!3 !2 !1 6. 1f (x 2) 3
!3
!1 x
at 531
!1
3
7. f (x ) 2
at x 2
x 5 x 1, x 2
!2 !2 !2
x2 x !32 !3 2x 1, x 3
4. , x 2 9. f (x ) at x 3
8.
y f (x ) x 2 at x 2 2
x 4, x 3
3 3, x 2
2
10. f (x ) x2 4x 3 at x 1 x
11. f (x ) at x 0
x
!3 0 1 2 3 x
In Exercises
!1 12 – 25, find the numbers, if any, where the function is discontinuous.
!2
12.!3f (x ) 3x 2 4x 1 2x 4 x 4
13. f (x ) 14. f (x )
2 2
x 4x 3 x 6

15. f (x )
sin x
16. f (x ) 2x 2 7 17. f (x ) 2x 2 3x 1
2
x 4 x 2

x 2 x2 1 1
18. f (x ) , x 1 , x 0
19. f (x ) x 1 20. f (x ) x 1
x2 2x
3, x 1 1, x 0

138
 CHAPTER 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

x2 x 6 x 1, x 0
21. f (x ) , x 2 22. f (x )
x 2 0, x 0
5, x 2

x2 3x 1, x 2 24. f (x ) sec(2x )
23. f (x )
x 3, x 2

25. f (x ) cot( x )

x 2, x 2
26. Let f (x ) 2
. Find the value of k that makes f continuous on ( , ).
kx , x 2

ax b, x 1
27. Let f (x ) 4, x 1 . Find the value of a and b that makes f continuous on
2ax b, x 1
( , ).

x2 9
, x 3
28. Let f (x ) x 3 . Find the value of k that makes f continuous on ( , ).
k, x 3

sin(cx ) 5x
, x 0
29. Let f (x ) 2x tan x . Find the values of c that make f continuous at
8, x 0
x 0.

kx sin(x 2), x 2
30. Let f (x ) . Find the value of k that makes f continuous
4k cos(x 2) 3, x 2
on ( , ).

x cot(kx ), x 0
31. Let f (x ) 2
. Find the value of c that makes f continuous at
x c, x 0
x 0.

In Exercises 32-42, find the interval(s) where f is continuous

32. f (x ) (2x 2 3x 1)3 33. f (x ) x (x 3)2 34. f (x ) x2 5x 6

35. f (x ) x2 x 1 36. f (x ) 1 37. f (x ) 2x 6

x
x 2
38. f (x ) x 2
4 1 40. f (x ) x
39. f (x )
2 sin x
x 9 x
2x cos x x cos x
41. f (x ) 42. f (x )
1 sin x 5 2 sin x

139
SECTION 2.4 CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS

In Exercises 43–46, redefine the function to make it continuous at c .

2x 2 3x x2 3x 2
43. f (x ) , c 0 44. f (x ) , c 1
5x x 1
x 1 1 46. f (x )
tan(3x )
45. f (x ) , c 0 , c 0
x 7x

In Exercises 47-54, use the continuity to evaluate the limit

47. lim x 20 x2 48. lim sin sin x

x 4 x

4 x2 50. lim 3 x 3 4x 2
49. lim
x 0 1 x x 2

5 x x2 x 1
51. lim sin 52. lim tan
x 2x 1 x 3x 2
1

x2 x 6 x2 x 2
53. lim 54. lim sin
x 2 x 2 x 1 6(x 1)

In Exercises 55 – 57, use the Intermidiate Value Theorem to find the value of c such that
f (c) K.

55. f (x ) x2 x 1 on [ 1, 4] ; K 7 56. f (x ) x3 2x 2 x 2 on [0, 4] ; K 10

x 1
57. f (x ) on [ 4, 2] ; K 2
x 1

In Exercises 58 – 61, use the Intermidiate Value Theorem to show that there is at least one root
of the equation in the given interval.

58. x 3 2x 1 0 ; [0, 2] . 59. x 4 2x 3 3x 2 7 0 ; [1, 2] .

60. x cos x 0 ; [0,1] . 61. x 4 2x 3 x 1 ; [2, 3] .

62. Let f (x ) x 2 . use the Intermidiate Value Theorem to prove that there is a number c
in the interval [0, 2] such that f (c) 3 . (This proves the existence of the number 3 ).

140
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENTIATION

INTRODUCTION

f g f g

y = f(x)
y x

SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND THE TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES
SECTION 3.3 DERIVATIVE OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION
SECTION 3.4 THE CHAIN RULE
SECTION 3.5 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
SECTION 3.6 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES
SECTION 3.7 THE DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS
 SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

Section 3.1

y
y
y = f (x)
f( + ) ( ) y = f (x)

P(
f (a) on an open interval and a point a in the interval, how we define
Given a function f defined f (a)
the tangent line at the point P a, f (a ) on the graph of f ?

The problem of finding the tangent line

a to a curve arises
a in geometry.
x For instance, the tangent
a a x
to a circle is defined as a line that intersects the circle in exactly one point P , see Figure 3.1.1.

P
(2, 4)

x
y −

Figure 3.1.1 y
y

This definition suffices for a circle, but

3 for a more general curve it is not −a satisfactory y

definition, since a line may touch the graph

2 of f at some−point P and then intersect it again
at another point, as illustrated in Figure 3.1.2 1 2 5 6 x
1
x y
y –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
P
L
ngent line

y Slope m
Secant line
f( + ) x Q Slope m

M Figure 3.1.2 Secant lines Q Slope m

M is not a tangent line.

L Q2 Slope m
P
Suppose we have a function f f(a
and we want toQ(a
+ h)
+ h, f(a + h))
find a tangent to the function f at P a, f (a )
f(a + h) – f(a)
. To do this, we define the slope of the tangent line at P , then
Slopeif=Q3the slopeTangent
h is known,
line we can
find an equation for the tangent line byf (a)
using Slope m for lines.
P(a, f(a))the point-slope
P form of the equation

f(a)
x
142 x
a a
a a+h
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

To define the slope of the tangent line L at P a, f (a ) on the graph of f , we choose another
point Q a h, f (a h ) , see Figure 3.1.3. f x
y

Q Secant line

f x
P
Tangent line

x
a a h
y
Figure 3.1.3 s t
s a h

The line containing P and Q is a secant line. Using the standard calculation for the slope of
a line, we determine the slope of the secant line to be:
s a

f (a h) f (a ) f (a h) f (a )
mPQ
a h a a h a h
x

Let Q approaches P Q P . If Q approaches P from the right, we have the situation in

Figure 3.1.4 (a) and if Q approaches P from the left, we have the situation in Figure 3.1.4
(b). If mPQ gets closer to some number as Q approaches P , then that number is the slope
m of the tangent line L

y y
Slope m PQ Slope m PQ f x
Q
f x
Q

P P
L L
Slope m Slope m

x x
a a h a h a

Figure 3.1.4

y
Q line
If f is continuous at a , we can makeSecant a h, f (a h ) approaches P a, f (a ) by letting
Q
a h approaches a . That is, h approaches 0 . Thus, we have the following definition for the
slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function f at P a, f (a ) .
f x
P
Tangent line

143
x
a a h
 SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

DEFINITION 3.1.1
The slope m of the tangent line to the graph of a function f at P (a, f (a )) is
f (a h) f (a )
m lim
h 0 h
provided that the limit exists

The tangent line is then the line passing through the point a, f (a ) with slope m . Thus the
point-slope form of the equation of the tangent line is
y m(x a) f (a )

EXAMPLE 3.1.1 Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x ) x 2 at x 2.

Solution Using Definition 3.1.1, we obtain

f (2 h) f (2) (2 h )2 4
m lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h
y
y
y = f (x)
) 4 4h h2 4 h(4 h)
( ) lim
y= f (x) lim lim(4 h) 4
h 0 h h 0 h h 0
P(
)
f (a)
Note that the point corresponding to x 2 is 2, 4 . The equation of the tangent line with
slope 4 through the point 2, 4 is:
y m(x a ) f (a )
a a x a
y a 4(x 2) 4 x

y 4x 4

P
(2, 4)

x
y −

Figure 3.1.5
y
y

3 Related Problem 1 Find the −

equation of the tangent line
y to the graph of f (x ) 2x 2 1 at

2
x 1.
−
Answer y 4x 1 1 2 5 6 x
1
x y
3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

144
y Slope m

f( + ) Q Slope m
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

The formal definition of the derivative of a function at a point x a can now be given. We
will designate the derivative at a as f (a ) , rather than m .

Let f be a function that is defined on an open interval containing a . The derivative

of f at a , written f (a ) , is given by
f (a h) f (a )
f (a ) lim
h 0 h
provided the limit exists

The notation f (a ) is read “ f prime of a ”. If f (a ) exists, we say that f is differentiable at

a . If f is differentiable at a , then by Definition 3.1.2, f (a ) is the slope of the tangent line
to the graph of f at the point a, f (a ) .

EXAMPLE 3.1.2 Let f (x ) x 3 . Find f (1)

Solution Using Definition 3.1.2, we obtain

f (1 h) f (1) (1 h )3 1 1 3h 3h 2 h3 1
f (1) lim lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h h 0 h

3h 3h 2 h3 h(3 3h h2)
lim lim lim(3 3h h2) 3
h 0 h h 0 h h 0

RELATED PROBLEM 2
Let f (x ) 1 x 2 . Find f ( 3) .

Answer 6

Suppose that in Example 3.1.2 we had also need to find f (2) and f (3) . Must we repeat
the same long limit calculations to find each of f (2) and f (3) ? Instead, we compute the
derivative without specifying a value for x , leaving us with a function from which we can
calculate f (a ) for any a , simply by substituting a for x .

EXAMPLE 3.1.3 Let f (x ) x3 .

a. Find f (x ) , where x is any real number.
b. Find f (1), f (2), f (3) .

Solution Replacing a with x in Definition 3.1.2, we have

145
SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

f (x
h ) f (x )
f (x ) lim
h 0 h
(x h )3 x 3 x 3 3x 2h 3xh 2 h 3 x3
lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h
3x 2h 3xh 2 h 3 h(3x 2 3xh h 2 )
lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h
lim(3x 2 3xh h 2 ) 3x 2
h 0

Notice that in this case, we have derived a new function, f (x ) 3x 2 . Substituting for x , we
obtain
f (1) 3(1)2 3
f (2) 3(2)2 12
2
f (3) 3(3) 27

RELATED PROBLEM 3 Let f (x ) x3 2x .

a. Find f (x ) , where x is any real number.
b. Find f ( 1), f (0), f (4)

Answer a. 3x 2 2 b. 5, 2, 50

Example 3.1.3 leads to the following definition

DEFINITION 3.1.3
The derivative of a function f is the function f which value at any number x is

f (x h) f (x )
f (x ) lim
h 0 h
provided the limit exists

The process of calculating a derivative is called differentiation. We will use the notations
dy df d
y Dx y f (x ) f (x ) Dx f (x )
dx dx dx

as different ways to denote the derivative f (x ) . To indicate the value of a derivative at a

specified number x a , we use the notation

dy df d
f (a ) f (x )
dx x a dx x a dx x a

146
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

EXAMPLE 3.1.4 Let f (x ) 2x 2 1 . Find

a. f (x )
b. f (2), f ( 3)
c. The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at x 2
d. The equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at x 2

Solution
a. We have 2
2 x h 1 2x 2 1
f (x h) f (x )
f (x ) lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h
2 x2 2xh h2 1 2x 2 1 2x 2 4xh 2h 2 2x 2
lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h
2h 2x h
lim lim 2 2x h 4x
h 0 h h 0

b. Using the fact that f (x ) 4x , it follows that

f (2) 4(2) 8 and f ( 3) 4( 3) 12

c. At x 2 , the tangent line has slope

m f (2) 8

d. Note that the point corresponding to x 2 is 2, 9 . The equation of the tangent line
with slope 8 through the point 2, 9 is
y m(x a ) f (a )
y 8(x 2) 9
y 8x 7

RELATED PROBLEM 4 Let f (x ) 3x 2 5x 1 . Find

a. f (x )
b. f ( 1), f (1)
c. The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at x 1
d. The equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at x 1
Answer

a. f (x ) 6x 5 b. 11,1 c. 11 d. y 11x 2

It is usually easier to find f (a ) by using another form. We derive this alternate formula as
follows:

147
SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

From Definition 3.1.2, the derivative of f at a is

f (a h) f (a )
f (a ) lim
h 0 h
Let x a h . Then h x a . As h 0 , we see that x a and
f (a h) f (a ) f (x ) f (a )
f (a ) lim lim
h 0 h x a x a
Thus,
f (x ) f (a )
f (a ) lim
x a x a

EXAMPLE 3.1.5 If f (x ) x , x 0 . Find f (4)

Solution Using the alternative formula for the derivative, we have

f (x ) f (4) x 4
f (4) lim lim
x 4 x 4 x 4 x 4
Rationalizing the numerator, we have
x 2 x 2 x 4
f (4) lim . lim
x 4 x 4 x 2 x 4 x 4 x 2

1 1 1
lim
x 4 x 2 4 2 4

RELATED PROBLEM 5 If f (x ) x 1, x 1 . Find f (8)

1
Answer .
6

2
EXAMPLE 3.1.6 Let y , x 1 . Find
x 1
dy dy dy
a. b. ,
dx dx x 3 dx x 0

Solution
a. Using the limit definition of derivative, we have
2 2
dy f (x h) f (x )
lim lim x h 1 x 1
dx h 0 h h 0 h

2(x 1) 2(x h 1) 2x 2 2x 2h 2
lim lim
h 0 h(x h 1)(x 1) h 0 h(x h 1)(x 1)

2h 2 2
lim lim
h 0 h (x h 1)(x 1) h 0 (x h 1)(x 1) (x 1)2

148
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

dy 2
Thus, , x 1.
dx (x 1)2

b. When x 3 , we have
dy 2 1
dx x 3 ( 3 1)2 2
while when x 0
dy 2
2
dx x 0 (0 1)2

2
RELATED PROBLEM 6 Let y . Find
x
dy dy
a. b.
dx dx x
1
2

dy
Answer a. dy 2 b. 8
dx x2 dx x
1
2

We say that a function is differentiable on an open interval (a, b) if it is differentiable at every

number x in (a, b) . Likewise, we refer to functions those are differentiable on intervals of the
form (a, ),( , a ),( , ) . For closed intervals we use the following definition.

DEFINITION 3.1.4

A function f is differentiable on a closed interval [a, b ] when f is differentiable on

the open interval (a, b) , and
f (a h) f (a )
f (a ) lim Right hand derivative
h 0 h

f (b h) f (b)
f (b) lim Left hand derivative
h 0 h
both exist.

Figure 3.1.6 illustrates Definition 3.1.4.

149
 0 x
_1

SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

(b) y=f ª(x)

y
y

0 a x
0 a

Figure 3.1.6

Differentiability on an interval of the form a, b , a, , a, b , ,b is defined using one

sided limit at the endpoint.

EXAMPLE 3.1.7 Let f (x ) x 2 . Find

a. f (x ) b. Df c. f (6)

Solution
a. It is clear that Df 2, . We shall examine the cases x 2 and x 2 separately.
If x 2 , then using the limit definition of the derivative, we have

f (x h ) f (x )
f (x ) lim
h 0 h
x h 2 x 2
lim
h 0 h
x h 2 x 2 x h 2 x 2
lim
h 0 h x h 2 x 2
x h 2 (x 2)
lim
h 0h x h 2 x 2
x h 2 x 2
lim
h 0h x h 2 x 2
h 1
lim
h 0h x h 2 x 2 2 x 2

Since x 2 is an endpoint of Df , we must use a one sided limit to determine whether

f (2) exists

2 h 2 0 h 1
f (2) lim lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h h 0 h
Since this limit does not exist, then f (2) does not exist.

b. Df 2, .

150
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

c. From (a), we have

1
f (x )
2 x 2
Thus,

1 1
f (6)
2 6 2 4

RELATED PROBLEM 7 Let f (x ) 1 3x . Find

a. f (x ) b. Df c. f (0)

3 1 3
Answer a. b. , c.
2 1 3x 3 2

DIFFERENTIABILITY AND CONTINUITY

Both continuity and differentiability are desirable properties for a function to have. The
following theorem shows how these properties are related.

THEOREM 3.1.1
If a function f is differentiable at a , then f is continuous at a .

PROOF
If x Df and x a , then f (x ) may be written as follows:
f (x ) f (a )
f (x ) f (a )
x a
x a
Using limit theorems and the alternative definition of the derivative, we have
f (x ) f (a )
lim f (x ) lim f (a ) lim . lim x a
x a x a x a x a x a

f (a ) f (a ).0 f (a )

Thus by definition of continuity at a point, f is continuous at a .

The converse of Theorem 3.1.1 is not true; that is, there are functions, which are continuous
but not differentiable as we can see in the following example.

EXAMPLE 3.1.8 Given the function f (x ) x

a. Show that f is continuous at x 0.
b. Show that f is not differentiable at x 0.

151
 SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

Solution
a. f is continuous at x 0 (Verify). y

P
b. From the limit definition of the derivative, we have L
Tangent line
f (0 h ) f (0) h 0 h
f (0) lim lim lim
h 0 hSecant line h 0 h h 0 h

h x
We need to evaluate
y
both the left hand and the right hand limits of
M h
y The left hand derivative at x 0 is: M is not a tangenty line.
L
P Q(a + h, f(a + h))
P h h f(a + h) P
f (0) lim lim lim ( 1) 1 f(a + h
L h 0 h h 0 h h 0 L Slope = h

The right Tangent line

hand derivative at x 0 is: P(a, f(a))

Secant line
h h f(a)
f (0) lim lim lim 1 1
xh 0 h h 0 h h 0 x x
a a+h
y hand derivative is not equal to the right hand derivative, then f is not
Since the left
M M
differentiable at x 0 , see Figure 3.1.7
M is not a tangent line. M is not a tangent line.
L yP L
Q(a + h, f(a + h)) Q(a + h, f(a + h))
f(a + h) f(a + h)
f(a + h) – f(a) f(a + h) – f(
Slope = Slope =
h h
f(x) = |x|
P(a, f(a)) P(a, f(a))

f(a) f(a)

x x
a a+h (0, 0) x a a+h
Figure 3.1.7
y y y

y
RELATED PROBLEM 8 y Given the function f (x ) x 1
f(x) = |x| a. Show that f is continuous at x 1. f(x) = |x|

b. Show that f is not differentiable at x 1. a x a x a1

In general, if a function has a corner or a cusp it will not have a derivative at that point. The
x Vertical tangent x
(0, 0)
graphs in Figure 3.1.8 shows examples of corners and cusps.
a x
y y y y y y
Corners Cusp

y
Corner

a x a x a1 a2 x a x a x a1

Figure 3.1.8
al tangent Vertical tangent

x a x
152
 y

f(x) = |x|

CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

(0, 0) x
A function will also fail to be differentiable at a point if it has a vertical tangent at that point.
y at a point a . Recall
For example, the function shown in Figure 3.1.9 has a vertical tangent y y
that since the slope of a vertical line is undefined, there is no derivative at such point.
y

a x a x

Vertical tangent

a x

Figure 3.1.9

REMARK
Theorem 3.1.1 is often written as its contrapositive:

If a function f is discontinuous at a , then f is not differentiable at a .

Thus, we see that all differentiable functions on are continuous on . Nevertheless there
are continuous functions on that are not differentiable on .

x 1 x 0
EXAMPLE 3.1.9 Show that f (x ) is not differentiable at x 0.
2x x 0

Solution To show that f is not differentiable at x 0 . The above remark tells us that it is
enough to show that f is discontinuous at x 0 . Notice that

lim f (x ) lim x 1 1 , while lim f (x ) lim 2x 0

x 0 x 0 x 0 x 0

Thus, lim f (x ) does not exist. So f (x ) is discontinuous at x 0.

x 0

Using the above remark, f is not differentiable at x 0.

2x 1 x 1
RELATED PROBLEM 9 Show that f (x ) is not differentiable at x 1.
3x 1 x 1

SUMMARY
A function f fails to have a derivative at x a if:
The function f is discontinuous at x a.
The graph of f has a corner at a, f (a ) .
The graph of f has a vertical tangent at x a.

153
 f
SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

ILLUSTRATION
x0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
Below is the graph of the function f . List the points on the graph at which the function f
is not differentiable.

x0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
y
Figure 3.1.10
y
f x
The function in not differentiable at x x 5 since the function is discontinuous at this point;
it is not differentiable at x x1 , x x 2 , f(x)
x = cx 3 , f(x
x + h)x=4c and x x 6 since there are corners
at these points.
P

x x+h x

AVERAGE VELOCITY AND INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY a

The function that describes the motion of an object is called the position function of that
object. Suppose that the position of an object that moves along a curve at time t is given by
the function s(t ) . Consider the function s which graph is shown in Figure 3.1.11.
y
y
s t
s a h

s a P

a x
a h a
Figure 3.1.11

We can see that t changes from a to a h , s(t ) changes from s(a ) to s(a h ) . The ratio
of the change in s(t ) to the change in t measures the average velocity over the interval
a, a h . That is, the average velocity of a function s over the interval a, a h is

s(a h) s(a )
vav y
h
Slope m PQ f x
Thus, the average velocity of a function s over the interval a, a h has the same value as
Q
the slope of the secant line passing through the points a, s(a ) and a h, s(a h ) . Now,

P
154 L
Slope m

x
a h a
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

by letting h approach zero, we obtain the instantaneous velocity (or simply the velocity) of
the object when t a.

DEFINITION 3.1.5 (Instantaneous Velocity)

If s(t ) represents the position of an object that moves along the graph of s(t ) at time
t , then the instantaneous velocity at time t a is given by

s(a h) s(a )
v(a ) lim s (a )
h 0 h

In general, if s(t ) is the position function for an object moving along the graph of s(t ) , the
velocity of the object at time t is
v(t ) s (t )

That is, the velocity function is the derivative of the position function.

EXAMPLE 3.1.10 The position of a moving object at time t is given by the function
2
s(t ) t t , where s is measured in feet and t is measured in seconds.

a. Find the average velocity of the object over the interval 1,1.1 .
b. Find the instantaneous velocity of the object at t 1 and at t 3.
c. How much time it take for the object to reach instantaneous velocity of 99 ft sec .
Solution
a. To find the average velocity over the interval 1,1.1 notice that,
a 1 , h 0.1
Thus the average velocity is
s(a h) s(a ) s(1 0.1) s(1)
vav
h 0.1
(1.1)2 1.1 (1)2 1 2.31 2 0.31
3.1 ft sec
0.1 0.1 0.1

b. We calculate the instantaneous velocity at t seconds.

s(t h ) s(t ) (t h )2 (t h ) t2 t
v(t ) s (t ) lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h
t2 2th h2 t h t2 t 2th h2 h
lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h
h(2t h 1)
lim lim(2t h 1) 2t 1
h 0 h h 0

155
SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

Thus the instantaneous velocity at t 1 is v(1) 2(1) 1 3 ft sec ; at t 3 , it is

v(3) 2(3) 1 7 ft sec .

c. The instantaneous velocity after t seconds is 2t 1 . Thus, we must solve the equation
2t 1 99
98
The solution is t 49 sec .
2

RELATED PROBLEM 10 The position of a moving object at time t is given by the function
s(t ) t2 1 , where s is measured in feet and t is measured in seconds.
a. Find the average velocity of the object over the interval 2, 2.2
b. Find the instantaneous velocity of the object at t 2 and at t 5.
c. How much time it take for the object to reach instantaneous velocity of 120 ft sec .
Answer a. 4.2 ft sec b. 4 ft sec,10 ft sec c. 60 sec

156
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

EXERCISES 3.1
In Exercises 1-9, find the derivative of the given function using the limit definition of the
derivative.

1. f (x ) 2x 1 2. f (x ) x2 3 3. f (x ) x2 2x

2
4. f (x ) x 2 5. f (x ) 1 x 6. f (t ) 1 t

t 1
7. f (x ) 2 x 8. f (t ) 9. f (x ) 1
t 2 x 1

In Exercises 10-15, find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of y f (x ) at the point
x a.

10. f (x ) x2 1, a 1 11. f (x ) 2x 3 1, a 1

8
12. f (x ) 7x x 2, a 2 13. f (x ) ,a 2
x 4

4x 1 x 2
14. f (x ) 1 x 2 ,a 3 15. f (x ) 2
,a 2
x 5 x 2

In Exercises 16-19, the given limit is derivative, find the function and the point
2 2 3
3 2 h 3 2 3 h 2 3 h 33
16. lim 17. lim
h 0 h h 0 h

1 1 1
x3 8
18. lim 19. lim 2 x 2
x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2

20. Let f (x ) x2 7x . Find

a. f (x )
b. The equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at x 4

c. f (5)

21. Let f (x ) x3 7 . Find

a. f (x )
b. The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at x 1
c. f (2)

22. Let f (x ) x 1 . Find

a. f (x )
b. Df
c. f (3)

157
SECTION 3.1 THE DERIVATIVE AND TANGENT LINE PROBLEM

23. Let f (x ) x 2 . Find

a. f (x )
b. Df
c. f (2)

2x 1 x 3
24. Given the function f (x ) . Show that
4 x x 3

a. f is continuous at x 3
b. f is not differentiable at x 3

25. Given the function f (x ) x 5 . Show

f
that
a. f is continuous at x 5
b. f is not differentiable at x 5

In Exercises 26-29, Find allx point(s)

x x x onx the
x graph
x x x of
x the
x xfunction
x f (x ) where the slope m
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
of the tangent line has the indicated value.
26. f (x ) 2x 2 4x , m 0 27. f (x ) x2 6x , m 0
28. f (x ) 2x 2 2x , m 6 29. f f (x ) 2x 2 4x , m 4

Each figure in Exercises 30-31 shows the graph of a function f . List the points on the graph
at which the function f is not differentiable
x 0 x1 x2 x 3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8
30.

f
f

x0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5

x 0 x1 x 2 x 3 x4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8 x 9 x10 x11 x12

31.

f f

x x x x x x5 x
x 0 0 x1 1 x 2 2 x 3 3x 4 4 x5 6 x6 x7 x8

y
158
f(x) = c f(xf + h) = c
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

32. A particle moves along the graph of the function s(t ) t2 3t , where s is measured in
meters and t in seconds. Find the instantaneous velocity of the particle when t 1

33. A particle moves along the graph of the function s(t ) 2t 3 t 1 , where s is measured
in meters and t in seconds. Find the instantaneous velocity of the particle when t 2.

34. An object moves along a coordinate line so that its directed distance from the origin after
t seconds is t 2 1 feet.
a. Find its instantaneous velocity at t a, a 0.

b. When will it reach a velocity of 6 ft sec .

35. An object moves along a coordinate line so that its directed distance from the origin after
t seconds is 2t 1 feet.
a. Find its instantaneous velocity of the object at t a, a 0.
1
b. When will it reach a velocity of ft sec ?
3

159
SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

Section 3.2

In the previous section, we define the derivative f of a function f using the limit definition
of the derivative

f (x h) f (x )
f (x ) lim
h 0 h

Deriving the derivative of a function using the limit definition is tedious, lengthy and time
consuming when one wants to differentiate a complicated function. Fortunately, we can
summarize some general rules that have been derived from the limit definition of the derivative
to allow us to simplify the task of finding derivatives. We start with the derivative of a linear
function.

THEOREM 3.2.1
If f (x ) mx c where m and c are real numbers, then
f (x ) m

PROOF
From the derivative definition, we have

f (x h) f (x ) m(x h) c mx c
f (x ) lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h
mx mh c mx c mh
lim lim lim m m
h 0 h h 0 h h 0

As a result of this theorem we have the following two corollaries

COROLLARY 3.2.1 (Constant Function Rule)

If m 0 , then

d
c 0
dx

160
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

COROLLARY 3.2.2 (Identity Function Rule)

If m 1 and c 0 , then
d
x 1
dx

ILLUSTRATION

d d d 1 1
a. (3x ) 3 b. (2x 5) 2 c. x 3
dx dx dx 2 2

d d f. d
d. (4) 0 e. ( ) 0 cos 3 0
dx dx dx

Consider the power function f (x ) x r , where r is a rational number. In Section 3.1.1, we

showed that
d 2 d 3
(x ) 2x and (x ) 3x 2
dx dx
In a similar way we have found the derivative of the two functions, we have the following
theorem.

THEOREM 3.2.2 (The Power Rule)

If f (x ) x r , where r is any rational number, then f (x ) rx r 1
, provided that
x 0 when r 1.

ILLUSTRATION

a. d 5 d
(x ) 5x 5 1
5x 4 b. (x ) (1)x 1 1
x0 1
dx dx
d 6 6 1 7 d 1 d 1 1 1 2
c. (x ) 6x 6x d. x 1 x 1 x
dx dx x dx

1 1
d d 1 1 1
e. ( x) x2 x 2
dx dx 2 1
2 x
2x 2

We should keep in mind that a derivative is a limit; the differentiation rules in Theorem 3.2.3
follow immediately from the corresponding rules for limits.

THEOREM 3.2.3
If f and g are differentiable functions and c is any real number, then
a. cf (x ) cf (x ) ; Constant Multiple Rule

161
SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

b. f g (x ) f (x ) g (x ) ; Sum Rule

c. f g (x ) f (x ) g (x ) ; Difference Rule

PROOF
We prove only parts (a) and (b). The proof of part (c) is left as an exercise.

a. Let H (x ) cf (x ) . We want to show that H (x ) cf (x ) .

From the limit definition of the derivative, we have
cf (x h) cf (x ) f (x h) f (x )
H (x ) lim lim c
h 0 h h 0 h
f (x h) f (x )
c lim cf (x )
h 0 h

b. Let H (x ) f (x ) g(x ) . We want to show that H (x ) f (x ) g (x ) .

From the derivative definition, we have
f (x h) g(x h) f (x ) g(x )
H (x ) lim
h 0 h

f (x h) g(x h) f (x ) g(x )
lim
h h 0

Grouping f terms together and g terms together, we have

f (x h) f (x ) g(x h) g(x )
H (x ) lim
h 0 h

f (x h) f (x ) g(x h) g(x )
lim
h 0 h h
Using limits laws in Theorem 2.2.2, we have
f (x h) f (x ) g(x h) g(x )
H (x ) lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h

f (x ) g (x )

REMARK
Sum Rule can be extended to finite number of functions as follows:
If f1, f2 ,......., fn are differentiable functions, then

f1 f2 ...... fn (x ) f1 (x ) f2 (x ) ...... fn (x )

162
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

EXAMPLE 3.2.1 Find the derivative of each function

a. f (x ) 5x 3 b. g(x ) 5 x2
3 2
c. f (x ) 3x 5
x2
2
4x x 3
d. g(x )
x
Solution
a. Apply Theorem 3.2.3 (a) and the power rule, we have
d d
f (x ) 5x 3 5 x3 5 3x 2 15x 2
dx dx

b. Apply Theorem 3.2.3 (a) and the power rule, we have

d 3 d 3 d 2 10 10
g (x ) 5 x2 5 x2 5 x 2/3 5 x 1/3
1
dx dx dx 3 33 x
3x 3
c. Firstly, we write f as powers of x . So, we have
f (x ) 3x 5 2x 2

Apply Theorem 3.2.3 (b), we have

d
f (x ) 3x 5 2x 2
dx
d d
3x 5 2x 2
dx dx
Apply Theorem 3.2.3 (a) and the power rule, we have
d d
f (x ) 3 x5 2 x 2
dx dx

3 5x 4 2 2x 3

15x 4 4x 3

d. Note that we do not have a rule for computing the derivative of quotient function. So,
we need to rewrite g(x ) by dividing out x in the denominator. We have
3 1 1
4x 2 x 3 4x 2 x 3
g(x ) 4x 2 x2 3x 2
x x x x
From Theorem 3.2.3 and the power rule, we obtain
3 1 1 3 1 1
d d d d
g (x ) 4x 2 x2 3x 2 4x 2 x2 3x 2
dx dx dx dx
3 1 1 1 1 3
d d d 3 1 1
4 x2 x2 3 x 2 4 x2 x 2 3 x 2
dx dx dx 2 2 2
1
1 3 1 3
6x 2 6 x
1 3
2 x 2 x3
2x 2 2x 2

163
SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

RELATED PROBLEM 1 Find the derivative of each function

a. f (x ) 3x 4 b. g(x )
3
3 x4 10
c. f (x ) 2x
x
d. g(x ) x 3x 2 x
Answer

a. 12x 3 b. 4 3 x 3
c. 5x 2 2
3
d. 9x 2 x
2

Till now, we have developed rules for computing the derivatives of a variety of functions
including the derivatives of sum and difference of two of functions. We may wonder whether
the derivative of a product of two functions is the same as the product of their derivatives. We
test this with the following simple example.
d
Consider x 3x 5 . We can compute this derivative by first combining the two terms:
dx
d d
x 3x 5 x8 8x 7
dx dx

Is this derivative the same as the product of the two individual derivatives? Notice that
d d
x3 x5 3x 2 5x 4
dx dx d
15x 6 8x 7 x 3x 5
dx

Thus, the derivative of f (x )g(x ) is not as simple as f (x )g (x ) . Theorem 3.2.4 provides us with
a general rule for computing the derivative of a product of two differentiable functions.

THEOREM 3.2.4 (The Product Rule)

If f and g are differentiable functions, then

fg (x ) f (x )g (x ) g(x )f (x )

PROOF
Let H (x ) f (x )g(x ) . We want to show that
H (x ) f (x )g (x ) g(x )f (x )
From the limit definition of the derivative, we have
f (x h )g(x h) f (x )g(x )
H (x ) lim
h 0 h
Subtract and add f (x h )g(x ) , we have
f (x h )g(x h) f (x h )g(x ) f (x h )g(x ) f (x )g(x )
H (x ) lim
h 0 h

164
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

f (x h )g(x h) f (x h )g(x ) f (x h )g(x ) f (x )g(x )

lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h
f (x h ) g(x h) g(x ) g(x ) f (x h) f (x )
lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h
g(x h) g(x ) f (x h) f (x )
lim f (x h ) lim lim g(x ) lim
h 0 h 0 h h 0 h 0 h

Recognize the derivative of f and the derivative of g , we have

H (x ) f (x )g (x ) g(x )f (x )

In the following example, we notice that the product rule saves us from multiplying out a
tedious product

EXAMPLE 3.2.2 Find the derivative of each of the following functions

a. f (x ) x 3 (x 4 5x 2 10)
2
b. f (x ) x2 1 x2 x
x
2
c. f (x ) x (x 5x ) x 3x 2

Solution
a.
d d
f (x ) x3 x 4 5x 2 10 x4 5x 2 10 x3
dx dx
x 3 4x 3 10x x4 5x 2 10 (3x 2 )
4x 6 10x 4 3x 6 15x 4 30x 2
7x 6 25x 4 30x 2
b.
d 2 2 d
f (x ) x2 1 x2 x x2 x x2 1
dx x x dx
1 2 2
x2 1 2x x2 x 2x
2 x
2 x x
5x 3/2 2 1
4x 3 2x 2
2 x2 2 x
c. First, we write f as a product of two functions
1
f (x ) (x 5x 2 ) x 3x 2
Thus,
1 d d
f (x ) x 5x 2 x 3x 2 x 3x 2 (x 1 5x 2 )
dx dx
1
(x 5x 2 ) 1 6x x 3x 2 x 2 10x
3(20x 3 5x 2 1)

165
SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Find the derivative of each of the following functions

a. f (x ) (x 2 1)(x 3 1) b. f (x ) x (x 3
5x ) x 2

3
c. f (x ) x 3x 5x 2
x

Answer

a. 5x 4 3x 2 2x b. 15x 2 4x 3
x 2
20x

c. 90x 7/2 25x 3 3

3/2
2x

REMARK
The product rule is valid for any finite number of functions. The following example
will be written for three functions just for simplicity:

Suppose that f , g, and h are differentiable functions. We can develop a rule for
( fgh ) (x ) as follows:

( fgh ) (x ) ( fg )h (x )
(fg )(x )h (x ) h(x )(fg ) (x )
f (x )g(x )h (x ) h(x ) f (x )g (x ) g(x )f (x )
f (x )g(x )h (x ) h(x )f (x )g (x ) h(x )g(x )f (x )
f (x )g(x )h(x ) f (x )g (x )h(x ) f (x )g(x )h (x )

Theorem 3.2.5 provides us with a general rule for computing the derivative of a quotient of
two differentiable functions

THEOREM 3.2.5 (The Quotient Rule)

If f and g are differentiable functions at x and g(x ) 0 , then
f g(x )f (x ) f (x )g (x )
(x )
g 2
g(x )

PROOF
f (x )
Let H (x ) . We want to show that
g(x )
g(x )f (x ) f (x )g (x )
H (x )
2
g(x )
From the derivative definition, we have
f (x h) f (x )
H (x h) H (x ) g(x h) g(x ) g(x )f (x h ) f (x )g(x h)
H (x ) lim lim lim
h 0 h h 0 h h 0 hg(x h )g(x )

166
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Subtracting and adding g(x )f (x ) in the numerator of the last quotient, we obtain
g(x )f (x h) g(x )f (x ) g (x )f (x ) f (x )g (x h)
H (x ) lim ,
h 0 hg(x h )g(x )

Or equivalently,

f (x h) f (x ) g(x h) g(x )
g(x ) f (x )
h h
H (x ) lim
h 0 g(x h )g(x )

Taking the limit of the numerator and denominator, we have

f (x h ) f (x ) g(x h) g(x )
lim g(x ) f (x )
h 0 h h
H (x )
lim g(x h )g(x )
h 0

f (x h ) f (x ) g(x h) g(x )
g(x ) lim f (x ) lim
h 0 h h 0 h
lim g(x h )g(x )
h 0

g(x )f (x ) f (x )g (x )
2
g(x )

EXAMPLE 3.2.3 Find the derivative of each of the following functions

5 x2 1
a. f (x ) b. f (x )
2 3
2x 6x 3 x 1
Solution
a. Apply the quotient rule, we have
d d
2x 2 6x 3 5 5 2x 2 6x 3
d 5 dx dx
f (x )
dx 2x 2 6x 3 2x 2 6x 3
2

2x 2 6x 3 0 5 4x 6 20x 30
2 2
2x 2 6x 3 2x 2 6x 3

b. Apply the quotient rule, we have

d d
x3 1 x2 1 x2 1 x3 1
d x2 1 dx dx
f (x )
dx x 3 1 x3 1
2

(x 3 1)(2x ) (x 2 1)(3x 2 )
2
x3 1
2x 4 2x 3x 4 3x 2 x4 3x 2 2x
2 2
x3 1 x3 1

167
SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

RELATED PROBLEM 3 Find the derivative of each of the following functions

4 1 x (x 1)(x 2)
a. f (x ) b. f (x ) c. f (x )
x 3 1 x 2 (x 1)(x 2)
Answer

a. 2 x2 2x 1 12 6x 2
b. c.
x x 3
2
(1 x 2 )2 (x 2 3x 2)2

EXAMPLE 3.2.4 Suppose f and g are differentiable functions at x 2 and that

f (2) 3, f (2) 4, g(2) 1 and g (2) 2.
Find

a. d b. d x f (x )
2 f (x ) 3g(x ) 4x 2
dx x 2 dx x g(x ) x 2

d
c. f (x )g(x ) x 2
dx
Solution
a. Using Theorem 3.2.3, we have
d
2 f (x ) 3g(x ) 4x 2 2 f (x ) 3g (x ) 8x .
dx

Thus,

d
2 f (x ) 3g(x ) 4x 2 2 f (2) 3g (2) 8(2) 2( 4) 3(2) 16 2.
dx x 2

b. Using the quotient rule, we have

d x f (x ) x g(x ) 1 f (x ) x f (x ) 1 g (x )
dx x g(x ) 2
x g(x )
Thus,
d x f (x ) 2 g(2) 1 f (2) 2 f (2) 1 g (2)
dx x g(x ) 2
x 2 2 g(2)
(2 1)(1 4) (2 3)(1 2)
2
2
(2 1)

c. Apply the product rule, we have

d
f (x )g(x ) f (x )g (x ) g(x )f (x )
dx

168
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Thus,
d
f (x )g(x ) x 2
f (2)g (2) g(2)f (2) (3)(2) (1)( 4) 2
dx

RELATED PROBLEM 4
Suppose f and g are differentiable functions at x 1 and that
f (1) 2, f (1) 3, g(1) 1 and g (1) 4.
Find

a. d
b. d x2 f (x )
3 f (x ) 2g(x ) 4x 3
dx x 1 dx x g(x ) x 1
c. d f (x )g(x )
dx x 1

Answers

a. 5 b. 17 4 c. 5

x3 x 1
Example 3.2.5 Find the values of a and b such that f (x ) is differentiable
ax b x 1
at x 1.

Solution Since f is differentiable at x 1 , then it is continuous at x 1 . This implies that

lim f (x ) lim f (x )
x 1 x 1
lim ax b lim x 3
x 1 x 1
a b 1
Since f is differentiable at x 1 and the functions 3x 2 , a are continuous at x 1 , then
f (1) f (1)

d
f (1) x3 3x 2 3
dx x 1
x 1

d
f (1) ax b a
dx x 1

Thus,
a 3

Since a b 1, b 1 a 1 3 2.

ax 3 x 2
RELATED PROBLEM 5 Find the values of a and b such that f (x ) 2
is
x b x 2
differentiable at x 2.

169
SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

1 4
Answers a , b .
3 3

In the following example we will use the quotient rule to find an equation of the tangent line
to the graph of a given function.

x2 3
EXAMPLE 3.2.6 Find an equation for the tangent line to the graph of f (x ) at
x 1
x 3.
Solution From the quotient rule, we have
d d
x 1 x2 3 x2 3 x 1
f (x ) dx dx
2
x 1

x 1 2x x2 3 1 2x 2 2x x2 3 x2 2x 3
2 2 2
x 1 x 1 x 1

The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at x 3 is

x2 2x 3 12 3
m f (3)
2 16 4
x 1 x 3

The equation of the tangent line is

y m(x 3) f (3)
3
y (x 3) 3
4
3 3
y x
4 4

RELATED PROBLEM 6 Find an equation for the tangent line to f (x ) 3x 2 3x 2

at
x 1.
2
Answer y 3x 3

In the following example, we find the points at which the curve y f (x ) has a horizontal
tangent.

EXAMPLE 3.2.7 Find the x coordinate of the point(s) at which the curve y x4 4x 2 1
has a horizontal tangent.
dy
Solution The horizontal tangents, if any, occur where the slope is zero. To find these
dy dx
points, we find :
dx

170
 KING SAUD UNIVERSITY
PREPARATORY YEAR DEANSHIP
BASIC SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION
6 y

4
dy
4x 32 8x ,
dx x=1
x
dy −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6
Solve the equation 0 for x , we have
dx −2
dy
4x 3 y =8x
x2 + 30 −4 4x (x 2 2) 0
dx x+1
x
−6 0 or x 2 2
x
−8 0 or x 2

y
6

4 y = x4 − 4x2 + 1

2
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−2
√ √
x=− 2 −4 x= 2

Figurey3.2.1
y = 2 cos x 2
y = −2x + π
1
RELATED PROBLEM 7 Find the x coordinate of the point(s)
x at which the curve
3 2 −π − π2 tangent. π π
y x 4x x 2 has a horizontal −1 2

−2
4 13 4 13
Answer x , x
3 3
8 y

6
y = x + sin x
4

(π, π)
2

x
π π 3π 2π
2 2

−2

171
SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

EXERCISES 3.2
In Exercises 1-18, find the derivative of the given function

1. f (x ) 3x 3 4x 2 5x 2 1 5
2. f (x ) 3x 7 x
5
1 5
2
4 1 x2
3. f (x ) 3x 7 x 2x 3 4. f (x ) x x
5 3x 3 2
1 7
5. g(x ) 4 2
6. R(x )
5
x x 1 x
7. g(t ) t2 t 1 t2 2 8. h(x ) x 3 (x 1)(x 2 2x )

9. g(x ) (5x 2 7)(3x 2 2x 1) 10. h(x ) 3x 2 2x x4 3x 1

11. g(t )
t 2 x2 3
12. g(x )
t 2 x 4
x 14. f (x ) x 1
13. f (x )
3 2x
z2 2 16. f (x ) 1 1
15. f (z ) 1 1
z 3 x x2
2t 2 3t 1 x2 x 1
17. f (t ) 18. g(x )
2t 1 2
x 1
In Exercises 19-27, find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the function at the
indicated point.

19. f (x ) 2x 2 3x 4 , 2, 6 5 2 5
20. f (x ) x 2x 2 , 1,
3 3
21. f (x ) x2 2x 2 , 1,1 x
22. f (x ) , 6, 2
x 3

1 1 24. f (x ) x 2 , 1,1
23. f (x )
2
, 1,
x 1 2
x 1 10
25. f (x ) , 1, 26. f (x ) x2 , 2, 9
x 1 2 x

27. f (x ) x3 x , 1, 0

28. Suppose f and g are functions of x that are differentiable at x 0 and that:
f (0) 5, f (0) 3, g(0) 1, and g (0) 2

Find the values of the following derivatives at x 0.

f g
a. fg 0 b. 0 c. 0 d. 7g 2f 0
g f

172
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

29. Suppose f and g are functions of x that are differentiable at x 3 and that:

f (3) 4, f (3) 6, g(3) 2, and g (3) 5

Find the following
f f
a. f g (3) b. fg (3) c. (3) d. (3)
g f g

In Exercises 30-33, find x coordinates of the points where the tangent line to the graph of
the given function is horizontal
5x 31. f (x ) x2 x 11
30. f (x )
2
x 1

32. f (x ) (x 2)(x 2 2x 8) 33. f (x ) x3 x2

34. Find all points x , y on the graph of f (x ) x 2 with tangent lines passing through
the point (3, 8) .

35. Find equations for the tangent to the curve y x3 4x 1 at the points where the
slope of the curve is 8 .

2 3
36. Let f (x ) x x2 12x 6 . Find the values of x for which
3
a. f (x ) 12 b. f (x ) 0 c. f (x ) 12

1
37. Find the point(s) on the graph of the function f (x ) 2x at which the slope of
x
tangent line is 2 .

1 1 dy
38. Solve the equation 6 for y and find .
x y dx

39. Find the values of a and b if the tangent to y ax 2 bx at (1, 5) has slope 8 .

x 3, x 1
40. Determine whether f (x ) is differentiable at x 1 or not.
4x 3, x 1

ax 2 b, x 1
41. Find a and b given that the derivative of f (x ) 5
is
bx ax 4, x 1
everywhere continuous.

d 2
42. Use product rule to show that f (x ) 2 f (x )f (x ) .
dx

173
SECTION 3.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

43. The position of a particle moves in a straight line is given by the equation
s(t ) t3 4.5t 2 7t, t 0,
where t is measured in seconds and s in meter. When the particle reaches a velocity
of 5 m s .

44. A particle moves in a straight line according to s(t ) t2 6t 9, t 0 , where t

is measured in seconds and s in feet.
a. Find the velocity of the particle at time t .
b. What is the velocity of the particle after 2 seconds?

174
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Section 3.3

Before starting this section, we might need to review the trigonometric functions. In dealing
with problems involving angles of triangles, the measurement of an angle is usually given in
degrees. In calculus, we are dealing with functions of real numbers, and these functions are
defined in terms of radian measure. Thus, when we talk about the function f (x ) sin x it is
understood that sin x means the sine of the angle which radian measure is x .

So far, we have applied the rules of differentiation on different types of functions such as:
polynomials and rational functions. In this section, we discuss the differentiability of the six
trigonometric functions.

THEOREM 3.3.1

d d
a. sin x cos x b. cos x sin x
dx dx
PROOF
We will prove (a), while (b) is left as an exercise.
From the limit definition of the derivative, we have
d sin(x h) sin x
sin x lim
dx h 0 h
Using the identity:
sin(a b) sin a cos b cos a sin b

we have,
d sin x cos h cos x sin h sin x
sin x lim
dx h 0 h
Grouping terms with sin x and terms with sin h separately, we have

d sin x cos h sin x cos x sin h

sin x lim lim
dx h 0 h h 0 h
Factoring sin x from the first term and cos x from the second term, we have
d cos h 1 sin h
sin x sin x lim cos x lim
dx h 0 h h 0 h

175
 SECTION 3.3 DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
y
y 1 y " cos x
Recall from Theorem 2.2.8 that
x
–! 0 !
0 cos h 1 sin h
–1 lim 0 and lim 1
y'
h 0 h h 0 h
Thus, y' " –sin x
1
d
–! 0 ! sin xx sin x (0) cos x (1) cos x
–1 dx

These differentiation rules are illustrated in Figure 3.3.1 and Figure 3.3.2. Note that the slope
of the sin x curve determines the value of the cos x curve, while the slope of the cos x curve
determines the value of the sin x curve.
y y
y " sin x y 1 y " cos x
1
x x
–! 0 ! –! 0 !
0 –1
–1

y' y'
y' " –sin x
1 1
0 x 0 x
–! ! –! !
–1 y' " cos x –1

Figure 3.3.1 Figure 3.3.2

EXAMPLE 3.3.1 Find the derivative of each function

y 5 sin x
1
cos x b. 3 cos x y
a. y y " sin x
4 1 sin1x
Solution –! 0 !
x
–1
a. Using difference rule, we have
y'
dy d 1 d 1 d 1 1
5 sin x cos x 5 sin x cos x 5 cos x sin x
dx dx 4 dx 4 dx – ! 0 4! x
–1 y' " cos x
b. Using quotient rule, we have
d d
1 sin x 3 cos x 3 cos x 1 sin x
dy d 3 cos x dx dx
dx dx 1 sin x 2
1 sin x

1 sin x 3 sin x 3 cos x (cos x ) 3 sin2 x 3 sin x 3 cos2 x

2 2
1 sin x 1 sin x
3 sin2 x cos2 x 3 sin x 3(1 sin x ) 3
2 2 1 sin x
1 sin x 1 sin x

176
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

RELATED PROBLEM 1 Find the derivative of each function

1 2 sin x
a. y 4 cos x sin x b. y
3 2 cos x
Solution

1 2 1 2 cos x
a. 4 sin x cos x b.
3 2 cos x
2

Since the tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions are defined in terms of the sine
and cosine functions, the derivatives of these functions can be obtained from Theorem 3.3.1 by
applying quotient rule.

THEOREM 3.3.2

d d
a. tan x sec2 x b. cot x csc2 x
dx dx
d d
c. sec x sec x tan x d. csc x csc x cot x
dx dx

PROOF
We will prove (a) and (c), while (b) and (d) are left as an exercise.
sin x
a. Since tan x , using quotient rule, we have
cos x
d d
cos x sin x sin x cos x
d d sin x dx dx
tan x
dx dx cos x cos2 x

cos x cos x sin x sin x cos2 x sin2 x

cos2 x cos2 x
2
1 1
sec2 x
2 cos x
cos x
1
c. Since sec x , using quotient rule, we have
cos x
d d
cos x 1 1 cos x
d d 1 dx dx
sec x
dx dx cos x cos2 x

sin x 1 sin x
sec x tan x
2 cos x cos x
cos x

EXAMPLE 3.3.2 Find the derivative of each function

sec x
a. y x csc x cot x b. y sin x cos x c. y
1 tan x

177
 sin x 1 sin x
sec x tan x
2 cos x cos x
cos x

EXAMPLE 2.3.2 Find the derivative of each function

SECTION 3.3 DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
sec x
a. y x csc x cot x b. y sin x cos x c. y
1 tan x
Solution
a. Using Theorem 3.2.3, we have
d d d d
x csc x cot x x csc x cot x
dx dx dx dx
1
csc x cot x csc2 x
2 x
b. Using the product rule, we have
d d d
sin x cos x sin x cos x cos x sin x
dx dx dx
sin x sin x cos x cos x

sin2 x cos2 x cos(2x )

c. Using the quotient rule, we have

d d
1 tan x sec x sec x 1 tan x
d sec x dx dx
dx 1 tan x 2
1 tan x
1 tan x sec x tan x sec x sec2 x
2
1 tan x
sec x tan x sec x tan2 x sec3 x
2
1 tan x

sec x (tan x tan2 x sec2 x ) sec x (tan x 1)

2
1 tan x (1 tan x )2

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Find the derivative of each function

a. y csc x 1
x4 3 cot x 2 cos x b. y x 3 tan x c. y
sin x
Solution

a. 4x 3 3 csc2 x 2 sin x b. x 2 x sec2 x 3 tan x

cot x cos x csc x 1

c.
sin2 x
Now, we are going to find the equation of the tangent line using the derivative of trigonometric
functions.

EXAMPLE 3.3.3 Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of y 2 cos x at the point

,0 .
2

178
 2
x=1
x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6
−2 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION
x2 + 3 −4
y=
x+1
Solution −6
dy −8 tangent line to the graph of y at x
The derivative is 2 sin x . The slope of the is:
dx 2
y
dy 6
m 2 sin 2
dx x 4
2 2
2 4 y = x − 4x + 1
The equation of the tangent line is
2

y ( 2) x 0 x
−3 −2 −1 2 1 2 3
y 2x−2
See Figure 3.3.3 √ √
x=− 2 −4 x= 2

y
y = 2 cos x 2
y = −2x + π
1
x
−π − π2 π π
2
−1
−2

Figure 3.3.3
8 y

RELATED PROBLEM 3 Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of y 3 sin x at the
6
point ( , 0) .
y = x + sin x
4
Answer y 3x 3
(π, π)
2
EXAMPLE 3.3.4 Find all point(s) on the graph of f (x ) x x x, 0
sin x 2 where the
tangent line is horizontal. π
2
π 3π 2π
2

Solution −2

A horizontal tangent line has slope 0. Therefore, we are seeking all x for which f (x ) 0
f (x ) 1 cos x
Solve the equation
1 cos x 0

Since 0 x 2 , then the only solution to the equation is

x
Thus, the graph f has a horizontal tangent line at the point ( , f ( )) ( , )

RELATED PROBLEM 4 Find all point(s) on the graph of f (x ) 2x sin x where the tangent
line is horizontal.

179
SECTION 3.3 DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Answer None

EXAMPLE 3.3.5 Assume that a particle’s position on the x axis is given by

s(t ) 3 cos t 4 sin t

Where s is measured in meters and t is measured in seconds. Find the particle’s instantaneous

velocity when t 0 and t

2
Solution
The velocity v(t ) of the particle is given by
ds d
v(t ) 3 cos t 4 sin t 3 sin t 4 cos t
dt dt

Particle’s velocity when t 0 is

v(0) 3 sin(0) 4 cos(0) 3(0) 4(1) 4 m sec

and particle’s velocity when t is

2
v 3 sin 4 cos 3(1) 4(0) 3 m sec .
2 2 2

RELATED PROBLEM 5 Assume that a particle’s position on the x axis is given by

s(t ) t 2 sin t
Where s is measured in meters and t is measured in seconds. Find the particle’s instantaneous
velocity when t 0 and t

Answer 3 m sec , 1 m sec .

d
EXAMPLE 3.3.6 Show that sin(2x ) 2 cos(2x )
dx
Solution Recall the identities
sin(2x ) 2 sin x cos x and cos(2x ) cos2 x sin2 x
Thus,
d d
sin(2x ) 2 sin x cos x
dx dx
dd dd
sin xx dx cos
22 sin cos xx cos xx dx 22 sin
cos sin xx
dx dx
sin xx
22 sin sin xx
sin cos xx 22 cos
cos cos xx
2 sin2 x 2 cos2 x
2(cos2 x sin2 x ) 2 cos 2x

180
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

d
RELATED PROBLEM 6 Show that cos(2x ) 2 sin(2x ) .
dx

181
SECTION 3.3 DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

EXERCISES 3.3
dy
In Exercises 1-20, find
dx
1. y x csc x 2. y cot x csc x

3. y x (1 sec x ) 4. y tan x
x
sec x csc x
5. y 6. y
x 1 tan x
cot x 8. y x 2 cos x 4 sin x
7. y
1 csc x
x2 1 cot x
9. y sin2 x cos2 x 10. y
3 cos x csc x

sin x sec x tan x 1

11. y 12. y
1 x tan x sec x
3
13. y x sin x tan x 14. y x sin x cos x

15. y tan2 x 16. y sec3 x

17. y x 2 cos x 1 cos x

18. y
x
sin x cos x x cos x sin x
19. y 20. y
cos x x2 1
In Exercises 21-24, find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the function at the
indicated point.
1
21. f (x ) sin x , , 22. f (x ) tan x , ,1
6 2 4
23. f (x ) sec x , ,2 24. f (x ) sec x 2 cos x , ,1
3 3

In Exercises 25-26, prove each formula

d d
25. cot x csc2 x 26. csc x csc x cot x
dx dx

cos t
27. A particle moves according to the position function s(t ) , where t is measured
t
in seconds and s in feet. Find the instantaneous velocity at t .

In Exercises 28-31, find the x -coordinate(s) of the point(s) on the graph of the function at
which the tangent line has the indicated slope.

28. g(x ) x sin x , m 1 29. f (x ) sin x , m 1

182
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

30. g(x ) cot x , m 2 31. f (x ) csc x , m 0

In Exercises 32-34, find all points on the graph of f (x ) where the tangent line is horizontal.

32. f (x ) tan2 x 33. f (x ) 9 sin x cos x

cos x
34. f (x )
2 sin x

183
SECTION 3.4 THE CHAIN RULE

Section 3.4

In this section, we derive a result that greatly increases the number of functions whose derivatives
can be easily calculated. Suppose we are asked to find the derivative of the function
5
y x3 2x
dy
Differentiation formulas we learned till now do not enable us to find . Observe that y is a
dx
composition function. In fact, if we let y f (u ) u 5 and let u g(x ) x 3 2x , then we can
write y f g(x ) . We know the derivatives of both f and g , so it will be helpful to have a
rule that tells us how to find the derivative of f g in terms of derivatives of f and g .

THEOREM 3.4.1 Chain Rule

Let y f (u ) , u g(x ) such that g(x ) Df . If g is differentiable at x and f is
differentiable at u g(x ) , then the composite function y f g is differentiable at
x and
dy dy du
. (1)
dx du dx
f (g(x ))g (x ) (2)

Now, we differentiate the function we introduce at the beginning of this section

5 dy
EXAMPLE 3.4.1 If y x3 2x , find .
dx
dy
Solution We can find by using Theorem 3.4.1 formula (1) as follows:
dx
Let u x3 2x and y u 5 , then

dy dy du
5u 4 3x 2 2
dx du dx

Substitute u x3 2x , we have
dy 4
5 x3 2x 3x 2 2
dx

184
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

dy
Also we can find by using Theorem 3.4.1 formula (2) as follows:
dx

Write y as y f g (x ) f g(x ) where f (u ) u 5 and u g(x ) x3 2x . Since

f (u ) 5u 4 and g (x ) 3x 2 2

Using Theorem 3.4.1 formula (2), we have

dy
f g(x ) g (x )
dx
f x3 2x g (x )
4
5 x3 2x 3x 2 2

dy
RELATED PROBLEM 1 If y x2 5x , find .
dx
2x 5
Answer .
2
2 x 5x

One of the main uses of the chain rule is to establish other differentiation formulas. As a first
illustration, we shall obtain a formula for the derivative of a power of a function.

THEOREM 3.4.2 (The General Power Rule)

If g is a differentiable function and r is any rational number, then
d r r 1 d
g(x ) r g(x ) g(x )
dx dx

PROOF
r dy
Let y u r and u g(x ) , then y g(x ) . Now let us use the chain rule to find .
dx
d r dy dy du
g(x )
dx dx du dx
d r 1 d
ru r 1 u r g(x ) g(x )
dx dx

EXAMPLE 3.4.2 Differentiate the following functions

a. f (x ) 8 1
x3 7x 5 b. f (x )
3
3x 5 2x 3 1
Solution
a. Apply the general power, we obtain
d 8 7 d
f (x ) x3 7x 5 8 x3 7x 5 x3 7x 5
dx dx
7
8 x3 7x 5 3x 2 7

185
SECTION 3.4 THE CHAIN RULE

1
1
b. Rewrite the given function as f (x ) 3x 5 2x 3 1 3 .
1
3x 5 2x 3 1 3

Apply the general power rule, we obtain

1 4
d 5 3 1 d
f (x ) 3x 2x 1 3 3x 5 2x 3
1 3 3x 5 2x 3 1
dx 3 dx
4
1
3x 5 2x 3 1 3 15x 4 6x 2
3
15x 4 6x 2 5x 4 2x 2
4 4
3 3 3x 5 2x 3 1 3
3x 5 2x 3 1

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Differentiate the following functions

a. f (x )
5 2
x5 3x 2 x b. f (x )
2x 4 x 5
Answers

a. 5 x 5
4 8x 3 1
3x 2 x 5x 4 6x 1 b.
3
2x 4 x 5

EXAMPLE 3.4.3 Differentiate the following functions

4
a. h(z ) 2z 1 b. k (t )
3 5
t 1 2t 3
3z 2
Solution
a. We apply the general power rule and then quotient rule, we have
3
2z 1 d 2z 1
h (z ) 4
3z 2 dz 3z 2

d d
3 3z 2 2z 1 2z 1 3z 2
2z 1 dz dz
4
3z 2 2
3z 2

3 3
2z 1 3z 2 2 2z 1 3 2z 1 6z 4 6z 3
4 4
3z 2 2 3z 2 2
3z 2 3z 2
3 3
2z 1 7 2z 1
4 28
3z 2 2 5
3z 2 3z 2

b. We apply the product rule and then the general power rule, we have

186
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

3 d 5 5 d 3
k (t ) t 1 2t 3 2t 3 t 1
dt dt
3 4 d 5 2 d
t 1 5 2t 3 2t 3 2t 3 3 t 1 t 1
dt dt
3 4 5 2
t 1 5 2t 3 2 2t 3 3 t 1 1
3 4 5 2
10 t 1 2t 3 3 2t 3 t 1
2 4
t 1 2t 3 10t 10 6t 9
2 4
t 1 2t 3 16t 1

RELATED PROBLEM 3 Differentiate the following functions

2
a. h(t ) 3t 2 5 b. f (z ) 3 2
6z 7 8z 2 9
2
2t 7
Answers
124t 3t 2 5 b. f (z ) 6z 7
2
8z 2 9 336z 2 224z 162
a. h (t )
3
2
2t 7

The next example shows that it may be necessary to apply the general power rule more than
one time to find the derivative of a given function.

6
4
EXAMPLE 3.4.4 Find y , if y x3 2x x2 1

Solution Applying the general power rule, we have

5
4 d 4
y 6 x3 2x x2 1 x3 2x x2 1
dx
5
4 d 4 d
y 6 x3 2x x2 1 x3 2x x2 1
dx dx
Again applying the general power rule, we have
d 4 3
x3 2x 4 x3 2x 3x 2 2 ,
dx
and
1 1
d d 1 2 x
x2 1 x2 1 2 x 1 2 2x
dx dx 2 x2 1
Therefore,
5
4 3 x
y 6 x3 2x x2 1 4 x3 2x 3x 2 2
x2 1

187
SECTION 3.4 THE CHAIN RULE

5
3
RELATED PROBLEM 4 Find y , if y x2 x 2x 4 4

Answer

3
4 2x 1 4x 3
5 x2 x 2x 4 4
2
33 x 2 x 2x 4 4

CHAIN RULE AND TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

In Section 3.3, we studied how to differentiate trigonometric functions such as f (x ) sin x .

How do we differentiate functions such as f (x ) sin x 3 , g(x ) tan 3x 2 1 and

h(x ) sec sin x . We can easily use the chain rule to find the derivative of such functions as
we can see in the following example:
dy
EXAMPLE 3.4.5 If y 5 sin x 4 , find
dx
Solution Let, u x 4 so that y 5 sin u
By the chain rule
dy dy du
5 cos u 4x 3
dx du dx
Substitute u x4
dy
5 cos x 4 4x 3 20x 3 cos x 4
dx

dy 3 tan x 3
RELATED PROBLEM 5 Find if y 2x .
dx

Answer 9x 2 6 sec2 x 3 2x .

Table 3.4.1 contains a list of generalized derivative formulas that result directly from the chain
rule

Generalized Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

d du d du
sin u cos u cos u sin u
dx dx dx dx

d du d du
tan u sec2 u cot u csc2 u
dx dx dx dx

d du d du
sec u sec u tan u csc u csc u cot u
dx dx dx dx

Table 3.4.1

188
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

EXAMPLE 3.4.6 Find

d d d
a. tan(3x 2 ) b. x 2 csc 2x c. sec3 t 4
dx dx dt
Solution
a. Taking u 3x 2 in the generalized derivative formula for tan u yields
d d du
tan(3x 2 tan u sec2 u
dx dx dx
d
sec2 3x 2 3x 2 6x sec2 3x 2
dx
b. Apply the general power rule, we have
1 1
d 2 d 2 1 2 d
x csc(2x ) x csc(2x ) 2 x csc(2x ) 2 x 2 csc(2x )
dx dx 2 dx
1
1 2 d d
x csc(2x ) 2 x2 csc(2x ) csc(2x ) x2
2 dx dx
Apply generalized derivative formula for csc u , we have
1
d 1 2
x 2 csc(2x ) x csc(2x ) 2 x2 csc(2x ) cot(2x )(2) csc(2x ) 2x
dx 2
2x 2 csc(2x ) cot(2x ) 2x csc(2x )
2 x 2 csc(2x )
x 2 csc(2x ) cot(2x ) x csc(2x )
x 2 csc(2x )
3
c. Rewrite sec3 t 4 as sec t 4 , and then apply the general power rule
d d 3 2 d
sec3 t 4 sec t 4 3 sec t 4 sec t 4
dt dt dt
Apply generalized derivative formula for sec u , we have
d 2 d 4
sec3 t 4 3 sec t 4 sec t 4 tan t 4 t
dt dt
3 sec2 t 4 sec t 4 tan t 4 4t 3

12t 3 sec3 t 4 tan t 4

RELATED PROBLEM 6 Find

d d d
a. csc x 3 b. 3
x2 cot(2x ) c. cot5 (t 2 )
dx dx dt
Answer
a. 3x 2 csc(x 3 ) cot(x 3 ) 2x 2 csc2 2x c. 10t cot4 (t 2 ) csc2 (t 2 )
b.
2
33 x 2 cot(2x )

189
SECTION 3.4 THE CHAIN RULE

EXAMPLE 3.4.7 Discuss the differentiability of the function f at x 0

1
x 2 sin x 0
f (x ) x
0 x 0
Solution The function f is continuous at x 0 because,
1
lim x 2 sin 0 f (0) The limit can be found using Sandwich Theorem
x 0 x

The derivative of f for x 0 is:

1 1
f (x ) 2x sin cos .
x x
Note that lim f (x ) does not exist, however, we show that the function is differentiable at
x 0
x 0 using the definition of derivative as follows:
1
h 2 sin
f (h ) f (0) h 1
f (0) lim lim lim h sin
h 0 h h 0 h h 0 h
1
Now, sin 1 for all h 0 , then
h
1 1
h sin h h h sin h
h h

Since lim h 0 lim h , we get by Sandwich Theorem

h 0 h 0
1
lim h sin 0
h 0 h
Thus, f (0) 0 . Therefore, f is differentiable at x 0.

RELATED PROBLEM 7 Discuss the differentiability of the function f at x 0

1
x sin x 0
f (x ) x
0 x 0

Answer f is not differentiable at x 0.

EXAMPLE 3.4.8 Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y x 2 cos(3x ) at x .
Solution The slope of the tangent line at any point (x , y ) on the graph of y x 2 cos(3x ) is
dy
given by . Using product rule and generalized derivative formula for cos u , we obtain
dx
dy d d d
x 2 cos(3x ) x2 cos(3x ) cos(3x ) x2
dx dx dx dx

190
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

d
x2 sin(3x )
3x 2x cos 3x 3x 2 sin 3x 2x cos 3x
dx
The slope of the tangent line at x is
dy 2
m 3 sin 3 2 cos 3 2
dx x 2
40 y
y = 8x3 − 9x2
30
2
y = x cos(3x)
20

10
x
π π 3π 2π
2 2
−10

−20

−30
Figure 3.4.1
32 y

RELATED PROBLEM 8 Find an equation of 24

the tangent line to the graph of y x 2 sin(4x ) at
x .
4
16 x2/3 + y 2/3 = 8
2
Answer y 4x .
16 8 (8, 8)

y = 16 − x
1 x
EXAMPLE 3.4.9 The equation
−12
of−8motion
−4
of a particle is given by s(t ) sin 10 t , 10
4 8 12 4
where t is measured in seconds and s in
2
centimeters. Find the velocity of the particle at time
y
t.
1
ds
Solution We know that the velocity is . Taking u 10x t in the generalized derivative
−1 −0.5 dt 0.5 1 1.5 2
formula for sin u yields −1

ds d 1 −2 1 y = 6x − 7 5
10 sin 10 t 10 cos 10 t cos 10 t
dt dt 4 −3 4 2
Thus, −4
ds 5
v(t ) cos 10 t
dt 18 2
y y = 4x3 − 3x2 − 12x + 7
15
12
RELATED PROBLEM 9 A particle is 9
moving vertically such that its distance s(t ) from a
6
1 3 (2, 3)
fixed point is given by s(t ) sin 100 t , where t isx measured in seconds and s in
4
−3 25 −1 −3
−2 1 2 3
centimeters. Find the velocity of the particle at time t .
−6
−9 y = 24x − 45
−12
Answer 4 cos 100 t . −15
−18

191
SECTION 3.4 THE CHAIN RULE

EXERCISES 3.4
In Exercises 1-30, find the derivative of the following functions

3 5
1. f (x ) 2x 3 2. f (x ) x2 2x
30 4
3. g(x ) x5 10 4. h(x ) x2 3x 1

1 x
5. f (t ) 6. g(x )
2 x 1
1 t2
3 2 3
2 8. f (x ) x2 1 2x 1
7. f (t ) t
t
9. g(x ) 3x 2 1 2x 1
3
10. g(x ) cos x 3
6
11. f (x ) 1 cos2 x 12. h(x ) 4 tan x 3

13. y sec2 (2x ) tan2 (2x ) 14. h( ) csc

3
15. f (x ) cos2 (cos x ) sin2 (cos x ) 16. h(x ) sin sin sin x

4
17. f (x ) 3
x3 2x 1
3 1 8x
18. g(x )
1 8x
3 2
1 2v x 5
19. f (v ) 20. g(x )
1 v x2 2
3
4
21. g(x ) 2 x2 1 22. f (t ) 3 sec2 t 1

23. f (x ) cos 1 2x
2
24. g(t ) 2 cot2 t 2

25. g(x ) sin tan(2x ) 1 1

26. g(t ) sec t tan t
2 2
3
sin x 28. g(t ) cos5 4t 19
27. f (x )
cos(2x )
29. g(t ) cos4 sin t 2 30. h(x ) sin 3 cos x

In Exercises 31-40, find the equation of the tangent line to the given curve at the given point.

31. y 2x 1 ,(0,1)
5 x
32. y , 2, 2
5
2
3 x
10 3
33. y x3 x2 x 1 , 1, 0 34. y 1 2x 2 , 1, 27

192
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

2
35. y cot2 x , ,1 36. y cos 3x , ,
4 4 2

37. y tan2 x , ,1 38. y 2 tan 3 x , ,2

4 4
2 1
39. y x2 1 , 1, 40. y 1 x sin 3x , ,1
4 3

In Exercises 41-44, find the x -coordinate of the point(s) at which the graph of the equation
has a horizontal tangent line

2 3
41. y x 2 (x 1)3 42. y 2x 1 x 3
2 4
x 3 1 8x
43. y 44. y
x 1 8x

45. Determine the point(s) in the interval 0, 2 at which the graph of f (x ) 2 cos x sin(2x )
has a horizontal tangent.

46. Find all point(s) on the graph of y sin2 x where the tangent line has slope 1 .

In Exercises 47-48, use the position function to find the velocity at t 2 (Assume units of
meters and seconds)

60t
47. s(t ) t2 8 48. s(t )
t2 1

193
SECTION 3.5 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

Section 3.5

If f {(x , y ) : y 3x 3 5x 2 x 7} , then the equation

y 3x 3 5x 2 x 7

defines the function f explicitly. However, not all functions are defined by such an equation.
For example, if we have the equation:
3x 3 x 3y 3 y2 5y 7 9 (1)

One cannot solve for y in terms of x ; however, Equation (1) may define one or more functions
f such that if y f (x ) , Equation (1) is satisfied. That is
3 2 7
3x 3 x 3 f (x ) f (x ) 5 f (x ) 9

holds for all x in the domain of f . In this case, we say that the function f is defined by
equation (1) implicitly.

If we assume that equation (1) defines at least one differentiable function y in terms of x , then
the derivative of y with respect to x can be found by implicit differentiation.

Since equation (1) can be written so that all the terms involving x are on one side of the
equation and all the terms involving y are on the other side of the equation, such an equation
is a special type of equations involving x and y . The left side of equation (1) is a function of
x , and the right side is a function of y . Let F be the function defied by the left side, and G
be the function defied by the right side. Thus,

F (x ) 3x 3 x G (x ) 3y 3 y2 5y 7 9

where y is a function of x , say y f (x ) . Thus, equation (1) can be written as

F (x ) G (x )

This equation is satisfied by all values of x in the domain of f such that G ( f (x )) exists.
Therefore, for all values of x such that f is differentiable,
d d
3x 3 x 3y 3 y2 5y 7 9 (2)
dx dx

194
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

The derivative on the left side equation (2) is easily be found, and
d
(3x 3 x) 9x 2 1 (3)
dx

while the derivative on the right side of equation (2) is found by the chain rule.
d dy dy dy
3y 3 y2 5y 7 9 9y 2 2y 35y 6 (4)
dx dx dx dx

Substituting the obtained values in (3) and (4) into (2), we get
dy
9x 2 1 9y 2 2y 35y 6
dx
dy 9x 2 1
2
dx 9y 2y 35y 6
dy
As we can see from the last result we were able with the help of chain rule to find as an
dx
equation involves both variables x and y .

The above example leads us to the following definition

DEFINITION 3.5.1
The equation F (x , y ) 0 is said to define an explicit function y f (x ) if the equation
F x , f (x ) 0 is satisfied for every x in the domain of f .

The next illustration will clarify what we have been doing.

ILLUSTRATION
The equation
(x 2)2 y2 9 0 (5)

defines two functions y1 9 (x 2)2 and y2 9 (x 2)2 , see Figure 3.5.1.

Actually it defines more than two functions. Now, we show that y1 and y2 satisfy equation (5).

Substitute y1 in (5) we obtain

2
(x 2)2 y12 9 (x 2)2 9 (x 2)2 9 0
(x 2)2 9 (x 2)2 9 0

Similarly, for y2 .

195
 P
(2, 4)

x
SECTION 3.5 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION
y −

y
y

3 − y

2 −
1 2 5 6 x
1
x y
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 3.5.1

y REMARK Slope m

f( + )
It is out of the scope of this book to discuss under what conditions an equation defines
Q Slope m
a differentiable implicit function. Instead we will assume that in all examples and
Secant lines
exercises. Q Slope m

Q2 Slope m
Regarding differentiation of a given function, when it is explicitly expressed in the form
Q3 Tangent line
y f (x ) , we apply the rules of mdifferentiation directly to it and find its derivative as we have
Slope
f (a) P
done in the previous sections. On the other hand, when the function is implicitly expressed,
we use the x
a method ofa implicit differentiation which is our goal in this section. The idea of
implicit differentiation is based on the chain rule and it works as follows:

Guidelines for Implicit Differentiation

Let y be a function of x which is expressed implicitly in terms of an equation of the form
dy
F (x , y ) 0 . To find the derivative , we proceed as follows:
dx
Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x .

Write the terms involving y (or dy dx ) on one side of the equation and the terms

dy dy
that do not involve on the other side of the equation, then solve for .
dx dx

Now, let us consider some examples to illustrate the method of implicit differentiation.

EXAMPLE 3.5.1 If each of the following equations determines an implicit differentiable function
dy
y f (x ) , find .
dx
a. x 3 y3 1 xy b. y 2 x cos y

2 3 2 3
c. xy yx x2 d. 3 tan(xy ) 2 0

196
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Solution
a. Differentiating both sides of x 3 y3 1 xy with respect to x , regarding y as a
function of x
d d
x3 y3 1 xy
dx dx
d d d d
x3 y3 1 xy
dx dx dx dx

Using the chain rule on the y 3 term and the product rule on the xy term, we obtain
3x 2 3y 2y xy y
Solving for y yields
3y 2y xy y 3x 2
3y 2 x y y 3x 2
y 3x 2
y
3y 2 x

b. Differentiating both sides of the equation y 2 x cos y with respect to x and using the
product rule, we obtain
d d
y2 x cos y
dx dx
d d d
y2 x cos y cos y x
dx dx dx
2yy x sin y y cos y 1

2yy x sin y y cos y

Solving for y yields
2yy x sin yy cos y
2y x sin y y cos y
cos y
y
2y x sin y

2 3 2 3
c. Differentiating both sides of the equation xy yx x 2 with respect to x , we
obtain
d 2 3 2 3 d
xy yx x2
dx dx
Apply product rule, we have
d 23 2 3 d d 2 3 2 3 d
x y y x y x x y 2x
dx dx dx dx
2 13 2 3 2 13 2 3
x y y y 1 y x x y 2x
3 3

197
SECTION 3.5 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

2 13 2 3 2 13 2 3
xy y y yx x y 2x
3 3
Solving for y yields
2 13 2 3 2 13 2 3
xy x y 2x yx y
3 3
2 13 23
2x yx y
y 3
2 13 23
xy x
3

d. Differentiating both sides of the equation 3 tan(xy ) 2 0 with respect to x , we

obtain
d d
3 tan(xy ) 2 0
dx dx

12
Rewrite 3 tan(xy ) as 3 tan(xy ) , we obtain

d 12
3 tan(xy ) 2 0
dx

Applying difference rule, we obtain

d 12 d
3 tan(xy ) 2 0
dx dx
1 12
d d
3 tan(xy ) 3 tan(xy ) 2 0
2 dx dx
1 12
d
3 tan(xy ) 0 sec2 (xy ) (xy ) 0 0
2 dx
1 12

3 tan(xy ) sec2 (xy ) xy y 0

2

Solving for y yields

1 12

3 tan(xy ) (x sec2 (xy )y y sec2 (xy ) 0

2
1 12
1 12

x sec2 (xy ) 3 tan(xy ) y y sec2 (xy ) 3 tan(xy ) 0

2 2

1 12

y sec2 (xy ) 3 tan(xy )

2 y
y
1 12
x
x sec2 (xy ) 3 tan(xy )
2

198
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

dy
RELATED PROBLEM 1 Find for each of the following
dx
a. 8x 2 y2 10 b. sin2 (3y ) x y 1
32
c. 3xy x3 y2 d. 1 sin 3 xy 2 y
Answers
8x b. 1
a.
y 6 sin(3y ) cos(3y ) 1

3 2 3 12
x x y2 y 3y 2 sin2 xy 2 cos xy 2
c. 2 d.
12
x y x3 y2 2y 6xy sin2 xy 2 cos xy 2

The following example shows how to find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of
functions that are defined implicitly.

EXAMPLE 3.5.2 Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y 3 yx 2 x2 3y 2 0

at the point P 0, 3 .

Solution Note that P 0, 3 is on the graph since

3 2 2 2
3 3 0 0 3 3 0

dy
The slope m of the tangent line at P 0, 3 is the value of when x 0 and y 3 . First let
dx
dy
us find using implicit differentiation. Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect
dx
to x and using the product rule, we obtain
d d
y3 yx 2 x2 3y 2 0
dx dx
d d d d
y3 yx 2 x2 3y 2 0
dx dx dx dx
dy d d dy
3y 2 y x2 x2 y 2x 6y 0
dx dx dx dx
dy dy dy
3y 2 2xy x2 2x 6y 0
dx dx dx
dy
Solving for yields
dx
dy dy dy
3y 2 x2 6y 2xy 2x
dx dx dx
dy
3y 2 x2 6y 2x (y 1)
dx

199
 f( + ) ( ) y = f (x)

P(
f (a)
f (a)
SECTION 3.5 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

a a x a
a x
dy 2x (y 1)
dx 3y 2 x2 6y
Thus, when x 0 and y 3, y

dy 2(0)(3 1)
m P 0
dx 2 2
(0,3) 3(3) (0) 6(3)
(2, 4)

So, an equation of the tangent line at 0, 3 is

x
y
y 0 x 0 3 or y 3, −

see Figure 3.5.2.

y
y

3 − y

2 −
1 2 5 6 x
1
x y
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 3.5.2
y Slope m

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Find an equationf (of +the) tangent line to the curve x 2 Q (ySlope xm)3 9
at the point P 1, 3
Secant lines Q Slope m
5 13
Answer y x .
6 6 Q2 Slope m

dy Q3
EXAMPLE 3.5.3 Given that x csc y 2 , find Tangent line
dx
f (a) x ,y 1, P
Slope m
6

dy x
Solution First let us find using implicit differentiation. Differentiating
a both sides of the
dx a

equation with respect to x and using the product rule, we obtain

d d
x csc y 2
dx dx
d d
x csc y csc y x 0
dx dx
dy
x csc y cot y csc y 1 0
dx
dy
x csc y cot y csc y 0
dx

200
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

dy
Solving for yields
dx dy csc y 1
dx x csc y cot y x cot y

Thus,

dy 1 1 3
tan
dx x ,y 1, 6 3 3
6 1 cot
6

dy
RELATED PROBLEM 3 Given that x 2 cos y y2 1 0 , find .
dx x ,y 0,1
Answer 0 .

2 3 2 3
EXAMPLE 3.5.4 Find all points (x , y ) on the graph of x y 8 where tangent to the
graph at (x , y ) have slope 1.

Solution Differentiate both sides of the equation, we have

d 2 3 2 3 d
x y 8
dx dx
2 13 2 13
x y y 0
3 3
Thus,
13
y
y
13
x

Since the tangent to the graph will have slope 1 , set y 1 , we have
13
y 13 13
1 y x y x
13
x

2 3 2 3
Substitute this in the original equation x y 8 , we obtain
23 23 23 23
x x 8 2x 8 x 4
3 3
2 3
x 4 x2 64 x 8

If x 8 , then y 8 , and the tangent line passing throw the point (8, 8) has slope 1.

If x 8 , then y 8 , and the tangent line passing throw the point ( 8, 8) has slope 1.

201
SECTION 3.5 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

RELATED PROBLEM 4 Find the coordinates of the point in the first quadrant at which the
tangent line to the curve x 3 xy y3 0 is horizontal.
3
2 34
Answer , .
3 3

202
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

EXERCISES 3.5
dy
In Exercises 1-21, Find using implicit differentiation
dx

1. x2 y 2xy 2. x2 y2 1 3. x 2y xy 2 3x
2
4. 2x 2 y2 1 5. 2x y y 6. x2 y 2x 1

7. x3 y3 6xy 8. x 2y 3xy 3 x 3 9. 1 xy y
2
10. tan y 3x 2 11. cos xy x 12. 2 sin y x 1
13. x sin y y sin x 1 2 2
14. x 1 y 2 9 15. x y 1

16. x sec(2y ) 17. 1 cos2 y xy 18. x y2 cot xy

xy
21. 1 1
52
19. x 1 20. 2x 2 3y 2 x 1
2 2
x y x y

In Exercises 22-30, find an equation of the tangent line at the given point.

22. x 3y 2 3xy , ( 1, 3) 23. x 2 4y 3 0 , (2,1)

24. x 4 8 x2 y2 , 2, 2 25. x 4 4 x2 y2 , 1, 3
2
x2 y2 9 x2 y2
26. 1 , 5, 27. 1 , 1, 2
16 9 4 2 8
2 3 2 3 2
28. x y 4 , 3 3,1 29. y x3 2 x , 1,1

2
30. 2 x 2 y2 25 x 2 y 2 , 3,1

In Exercises 31-32, find the points at which the graph of the equation has a horizontal tangent
line
31. 25x 2 16y 2 200x 160y 400 0 32. 4x 2 y2 8x 4y 4 0

33. Find all point(s) on the curve x 2y 2 xy 2 where the slope of the tangent line is 1.

34. Show that the equation of the tangent line to the parabola y 2 4 px at the point a, b
is by 2p(a x) .

203
SECTION 3.6 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES

Section 3.6

If the derivative f of the function f is itself differentiable, then the derivative of f is a

function denoted by f and is called the second derivative of f . If f is also differentiable,
then its derivative is denoted by f and is called the third derivative of f . In general, if the
th
n derivative of f is differentiable, we can apply the differentiation process to obtain the
(n 1)th derivative of f . The successive derivatives of f are denoted by

f , f , f , f (4),..........., f (n )
or
d d2 d3 dn
f (x ) , f (x ) , f (x ) ,.........., f (x ) .
dx dx 2 dx 3 dx n

If y f (x ) , then the first n derivatives are also denoted by

y , y , y ,........., y (n )
or
dy d 2y d 3y d ny
, , ,..........,
dx dx 2 dx 3 dx n

Now, let us consider some examples on higher derivatives.

EXAMPLE 3.6.1 Find each of the following

a. f (x ) for f (x ) x5 2x 3 2x .

d 5y
b. for y x7 2x 4 6x 2 12 .
5
dx

Solution

a. In order to find f (x ) , we need to find f (x ) . We obtain

d
f (x ) x5 2x 3 2x 5x 4 6x 2 2
dx
Thus,
d d
f (x ) f (x ) 5x 4 6x 2 2 20x 3 12x .
dx dx

204
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

d 5y dy d 2y d 3y d 4y
b. In order to find , we need to find , , , . We obtain
dx 5 dx dx 2 dx 3 dx 4
dy d
x 7 2x 4 6x 2 12 7x 6 8x 3 12x
dx dx
d 2y d
7x 6 8x 3 12x 42x 5 24x 2 12
2 dx
dx
d 3y d
42x 5 24x 2 12 210x 4 48x
3 dx
dx
d 4y d
210x 4 48x 840x 3 48
4 dx
dx
Thus,
d 5y d
840x 3 48 2520x 2 .
5 dx
dx

RELATED PROBLEM 1 Find each of the following

4 3
a. f (x ) for f (x ) 2x .
x
d 3f 4
b. for f (t ) 4t 2 12 .
dt 3 t2

Answer
9 96
a. 24x 2 . b. .
4 x 5 t5

EXAMPLE 3.6.2 Given that f (x ) sin x 2 . Find f (x ) .

Solution In order to find f (x ) , we need to find f (x ) . Doing so using the generalized
derivative formula for sin u yields
d d
f (x ) sin x 2 cos x 2 x2 2x cos x 2
dx dx
Thus,
d d
f (x ) f (x ) 2x cos x 2
dx dx
Using product rule and the generalized derivative formula for cos u yields
d d d
f (x ) 2x cos x 2 2x cos x 2 cos x 2 2x
dx dx dx

2x 2x sin x 2 2 cos x 2

4x 2 sin x 2 2 cos x 2

205
SECTION 3.6 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Given that f (x ) cos x 3 . Find f (x ) .

Answer f (x ) 9x 4 cos x 3 6x sin x 3

Notice that higher derivatives of sin x and cos x form a pattern, that is because of the
periodicity of the two functions. For example, if f (x ) sin x , then

f (x ) cos x , f (x ) sin x , f (3)(x ) cos x , f (4)(x ) sin x

Now, we can see that f (4)(x ) sin x , so we can find any derivative of the sine function as
follows. Suppose we want to find the n th derivative of sin x . All we need to do is divide n by
4 , and look at the remainder r . If we take the r th derivative of sin x , it will be exactly the
same as taking the n th derivative, as every four derivatives will simply return us to the original
result of the sine function. Applying this principle, we find that

f (17)(x ) f (x ) cos x
f (18)(x ) f (x ) sin x
(19) (3)
f (x ) f (x ) cos x
f (20)(x ) f (x ) sin x

Note the derivatives follow a similar pattern for f (x ) cos x

The following example shows how to find the second derivatives of functions that are defined
implicitly.

EXAMPLE 3.6.3 Find y if y sin y x

Solution In order to find y , we need to find y providing this function determines an implicit
differentiable function. Doing so using implicit differentiation yields
d d
y sin y x
dx dx

y cos y y 1

Solving for y yields

1
y
1 cos y

Thus,

d 1
y
dx 1 cos y

206
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

We now use the quotient rule, differentiating implicitly as follows

( sin y )y (sin y )y
y
2 2
1 cos y 1 cos y
Substituting for y yields
1
sin y
1 cos y sin y
y
2 3
1 cos y 1 cos y

RELATED PROBLEM 3 Find y if x 3y 3 4 0.

2y
Answer y
x2

EXAMPLE 3.6.4 Find all values of k such that y xk satisfy the equation
3x 2y 4xy 2y 0.
Solution

y kx k 1, y k k 1 xk 2

Substitute values of y, y , y in the equation 3x 2y 4xy 2y 0 , so, we have

3x 2k k 1 xk 2
4kxx k 1
2x k 0

3k k 1 xk 4kx k 2x k 0

x k 3k k 1 4k 2 0.
Thus,
3k k 1 4k 2 0
3k 2 k 2 0
3k 2 k 1 0
2
k ,k 1.
3

The following example shows how to find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f
at indicated point.

EXAMPLE 3.6.5 If f (x ) x4 x3 6x 2 7x , find an equation of the tangent line to the

graph of f at the point P (2, 3) .

207
SECTION 3.6 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES

Solution

f (x ) 4x 3 3x 2 12x 7

P 2, 3 is on the graph of f since,

3 2
f (2) 4 2 3 2 12 2 7 3

The slope m of the tangent line to the graph of f at P 2, 3 is f (2) . We have

f (x ) 12x 2 6x 12

Thus,
2
m f (2) 12 2 6 2 12 24

Therefore, the tangent line is described by the equation

y 24 x 2 3
y 24x 45

RELATED PROBLEM 4 If f (x ) 2x 4 3x 3 , find an equation of the tangent line to the graph

of f at the point P (1, 1) .

Answer y 6x 7.

d2
EXAMPLE 3.6.6 If g is twice differentiable function, find x g x2 in terms of g, g , g
2
dx
d
Solution Apply the product rule and the chain rule to find x g x2 , we obtain
dx
d d d
x g x2 x g x2 g x2 x
dx dx dx
xg x 2 2x g x2

2x 2g x 2 g x2 .

d2
Apply product rule, chain rule, and sum rule to find x g x2 , we obtain
dx 2
d2 d
x g x2 2x 2g x 2 g x2
2 dx
dx
d d d
2x 2 g x2 g x2 2x 2 g x2
dx dx dx

2x 2 g x2 2x g x2 4x g x2 2x

4x 3g x2 4xg x 2 2xg x 2

4x 3g x2 6xg x 2 .

208
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

d2
RELATED PROBLEM 5 If g is twice differentiable function, find g x in terms of
dx 2
g, g , g .

xg x g x
Answer .
4x x

ACCELERATION
In Section 3.2, we know that if s f (t ) is the position function of an object that moves in a
straight line, then its first derivative represent the velocity of the object
ds
v(t ) f (t )
dt
d 2s
Now, we want to give a physical interpretation of the second derivative . It is just the first
dt 2
derivative of the velocity. Thus, it measures the rate of change of velocity with respect to time,
which is called acceleration and it is denoted by a . Thus,
dv d 2s
a .
dt dt 2
If t is measured in seconds and s in meters, then the unit of velocity is meters per second,
which we abbreviate as m sec . The unit of acceleration is then meters per second squared,
2
which we abbreviate as m sec .

EXAMPLE 3.6.7 The position of a particle is given by the equation

s(t ) 4t 3 9t 2 6t 2,
where s is measured in meters and t in seconds.
a. What are v(t ) and a(t ) , the velocity and acceleration of the particle, at time t ?
b. What is the velocity of the particle after 2 seconds?
c. When is the particle at rest?
d. What is the acceleration of the particle after 3 seconds?
e. When is the acceleration of the particle positive?
Solution
a. We have
ds d
v(t ) 4t 3 9t 2 6t 2 12t 2 18t 6
dt dt ,
while
d 2s d
a(t ) 12t 2 18t 6 24t 18 .
2 dt
dt

209
SECTION 3.6 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES

b. The velocity after 2 seconds means the instantaneous velocity when t 2 , that is,

v(2) 12(2)2 18(2) 6 18 m sec

c. The particle is at rest when v(t ) 0 , that is,

12t 2 18t 6 6 2t 2 3t 1 6 2t 1 t 1 0

1 1
And this is true when t or t 1 . Thus the particle is at rest after second and
2 2
after 1 second.

d. The acceleration after 3 seconds is given by

a(3) 24(3) 18 54 m sec2

e. The acceleration is positive when a(t ) 0 , that is,

24t 18 6(4t 3) 0.
3
Thus, a(t ) 0 when t .
4

1 4
RELATED PROBLEM 6 If s(t )
t 5t 3 12t 2 , where s is measured in meters and t in
2
seconds. Find the velocity of the moving object when its acceleration is 0 m/sec2.

Answer v(1) 11 m / sec , v(4) 16 m / sec .

210
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

EXERCISES 3.6
In Exercises 1-16, find the second derivative of the given function
1. f (x ) x7 2x 4 x3 6x 2 2. g(x ) x8 2x 5 3x 2 1

3
3. h(t ) t2 1 4. f (x ) x2 2x

1 3 6. h(x ) x3 3
x 2x
5. g(x ) x 2x 2 18
2
x 1 x
7. g(x ) 8. f (x )
x 1 1 x
34 65
9. g(x ) 1 x2 10. h(x ) x3 2x 2

11. g(t ) sin 3 t 12. f (x ) x 2 cos 2x

1
13. g(x ) 14. r (t ) tan t 2
1 cos(3x )
4 3
15. h(t ) 3t 1 16. f (x ) 2 9x

In Exercises 17-22, find y

2 3
17. y 5t 1 18. y x 1

1 3x
19. y 20. y
x 1 1 x
21. y sin 7x 22. y sin x 3

In Exercises 23-28, find g (2)

2 2x 2
23. g(x ) 24. g(x )
x 5 x
2
25. g(t ) cos t 26. g(x ) x sin
x
2
3 s 1
27. g(x ) x 1 x2 28. g(s )
s 1
In Exercises 29-36, find y by implicit differentiation

29. x 2 y2 1 30. x 2 3 y
2 3
1
31. x 2 6xy y2 8 32. x y 1
33. x cos y y 34. 2 sin(xy ) 1
35. 2 tan y x 36. 2 cos y x

211
SECTION 3.6 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES

d2 g(x )
37. If g is twice differentiable function, find in terms of g, g , g .
dx 2 x

38. If f (x ) x3 x2 6x 5 , find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at

the point P (1, 7) .

d 2y
39. If y x 4 , show that x 2 12y 0.
dx 2

1
40. If y , show that x 2y 3xy y 0.
x

d2 d 1
41. Evaluate x2 1 .
2 dx x
dx

d2 d2
42. Evaluate 1 2x 5 x3 .
2 2
dx dx

43. The position of a particle moves in a straight line is given by the equation
s(t ) t4 4t 1,
where s is measured in meters and t in seconds.

a. What are v(t ) and a(t ) , the velocity and acceleration of the particle, at time t ?
b. What is the velocity of the particle after 2 seconds?
c. What is the acceleration of the particle after 1 2 second?
d. When is the acceleration of the particle positive?

1 4
44. If s(t ) t 14t 3 60t 2 , find the velocity of the moving object when its
10
acceleration is zero.

212
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Section 3.7

In this section, we use the chain rule to find the derivative of an inverse function in terms of
1
the original function. Recall from Theorem 1.4.1 that if f is the inverse function of f , then
1 1 1
f ( f (x )) x for x in the domain of f and f ( f (x )) x for x in the domain of f .
1
Suppose f and f are differentiable, it follows that
1
f (f (x )) x
d 1 d
f (f (x )) x
dx dx

Using the chain rule, we have

1 1
f (f (x ))( f ) (x ) 1 (1)

1
Solving equation (1) for ( f ) (x ) , we have
1
( f 1 ) (x ) , f (f 1
(x )) 0
f ( f 1(x ))

Now, we state the result as Theorem 3.7.1

THEOREM 3.7.1
Let f be a function that is differentiable on an interval I . If f has an inverse function
1 1 1
f , then f is differentiable at any x for which f ( f (x )) 0 . Moreover,

1 1 1
(f ) (x ) , f (f (x )) 0 (1)
1
f (f (x ))

Formula (1) can be expressed in a less forbidding form by letting

1
y f (x ) so that x f (y )
Thus,
dy 1 dx
f (x ) and f (y )
dx dy

Substituting these expressions in (1) yields the following alternative formula for (1)

213
SECTION 3.7 THE DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS

dy 1
(2)
dx dx dy

If we can obtain an explicit formula for the inverse of a function, then we can use such formula
in order to find the derivative of the inverse. On the other hand, this is not always the case.
Thus, we have to apply Theorem 3.7.1 to discuss the differentiability and obtain the derivative
of the inverse. The following example illustrates this.

EXAMPLE 3.7.1 Let f (x ) x3 4x 1

1
a. Show that f is differentiable on .
1
b. Find the derivative of f by using Formula (2).
1
c. Find the derivative of f by implicit differentiation.

Solution
1
a. We need to show that as x varies over , the value of f (x ) varies over an interval
on which f has a nonzero derivative. But this is so because
f (x ) 3x 2 4
Which is positive for all x .

1
b. If we let y f (x ) , then
x f (y ) y3 4y 1 (3)
from which it follows that,
dx
3y 2 4
dy
Thus,
dy 1 1
(4)
dx dx dy 3y 2 4

Because (3) is too complicated to solve for y in terms of x , we leave (4) in terms of y .

c. Differentiating (3) implicitly with respect to x yields

d d
x y3 4y 1
dx dx
dy dy
1 3y 2 4
dx dx
dy
1 3y 2 4
dx

214
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Thus,
dy 1
dx 3y 2 4
Which agrees with (4).

1 3
RELATED PROBLEM 1 Let f (x ) x x 1
3
1
a. Show that f is differentiable on .
1
b. Find the derivative of f by using Formula (2).
1
c. Find the derivative of f by implicit differentiation.
Answer
1 1
b. c.
2 2
y 1 y 1

DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The inverse trigonometric functions are the inverse functions of the trigonometric
functions (with suitably restricted domains). They are used to obtain an angle from any of the
angle›s trigonometric ratios. Now, we develop rules for differentiating the inverse trigonometric
functions. Recall from Section 1.6 that we need pay very close attention to the domains
and ranges for these functions. The following theorem lists the derivatives of the six inverse
trigonometric functions.

THEOREM 3.7.2 (Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions)

d 1 1 d 1 1
a. sin x , 1 x 1 b. cos x , 1 x 1
dx 1 x 2 dx 1 x2
d 1 1 d 1 1
c. tan x d. cot x
2
dx 1 x dx 1 x2
d 1 1 d 1 1
e. sec x , x 1 f. csc x , x 1
dx x x 2
1 dx x x2 1

PROOF
We shall prove (a), (c) and (e). The other formulas are left as an exercise.
1
a. Let y sin x . Therefore,

ysin(y ) x for
2 2
Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to y , we have

215
SECTION 3.7 THE DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS

d d
sin y x
dy dy
dx
cos y (5)
dy
From the identity sin2 y cos2 y 1 , and replacing sin y by x , we obtain

cos2 y 1 x2

If y , then cos y 0 . Thus,

2 2
cos y 1 x2

Substituting cos y 1 x 2 in equation (5), we get

dx
1 x2
dy
From Formula (2),
dy 1
dx dx dy
And hence,
d 1 1
sin x , where 1 x 1
dx 1 x2

1
c. Let y tan x . Therefore,

tan y y x for
2 2
Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to y , we have
d d
tan y x
dy dy
dx
sec2 y (6)
dy
From the identity 1 tan2 y sec2 y , and replacing tan y by x , we obtain

sec2 y 1 x2

Substituting sec2 y 1 x 2 in equation (6), we get

dx
1 x2
dy
From Formula (2),
dy 1
dx dx dy
And hence,
d 1 1
tan x
dx 1 x2

216
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

1
e. Let y sec x . Therefore,
3
sec y x for 0 y or y
2 2
Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to y , we have
d d
sec y x
dy dy
dx
sec y tan y (7)
dy
From the identity 1 tan2 y sec2 y , and replacing sec y by x , we obtain
tan2 y x2 1

3
If 0 y or y , then tan y 0 . Thus,
2 2
tan y x2 1

Substituting tan y x2 1 , and replacing sec y by x in equation (7), we get

dx
x x2 1
dy
From Formula (2),
dy 1
dx dx dy
And hence,
d 1 1
sec x for x 1
dx x x2 1

Now, if u g(x ) is differentiable function of x , then the chain rules gives the following
generalized derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions.

THEOREM 3.7.3 (Generalized Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions)

d du
1 d 1 1 du
a. sin 1
u b. cos u
dx 1 u 2 dx dx 1 u 2 dx
d 1 1 du d. d du
1
c. tan u cot 1
u
dx 1 u 2 dx dx 1 u dx 2

e. d 1 1 du f. d 1 1 du
sec u csc u
dx u u 2
1 dx dx u u 2
1 dx

EXAMPLE 3.7.2 Find the derivative of each of the following functions

a. f (x ) sin 1
5x b. f (x ) tan 1
x 1 c. f (t ) t 2 sec 1
2t

d. f (t ) 1
sin cos t

217
SECTION 3.7 THE DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Solution
1
a. Taking u 5x in the generalized derivative formula for sin u yields
d 1 d 1 1 du
f (x ) sin 5x sin u
dx dx 1 u 2 dx
1 d 5
5x
2 dx 1 25x 2
1 5x

1
1
b. Taking u x 1 x 1 2 in the generalized derivative formula for tan u yields

d 1 d 1 1 du
f (x ) tan x 1 tan u
dx dx 2
1 u dx
1
1 d
x 1 2
2 dx
1
1 x 1 2

1
1 1
x 1 2 1
1 x 1 2
1 1 1
x 2 2 x 1 2 x 2 x 1

c. Apply the product rule, we have

d d 2
f (t ) t 2 sec 1
2t sec 1
2t t
dt dt
1
Taking u 2t in the generalized derivative formula for sec u yields
d 1 d 1 1 du
sec 2t sec u
dt dt u u 2
1 dt
1 d 2 1
2t
2 dt 2t 4t 2
1 t 4t 2 1
2t 2t 1
Thus,
1 t
f (t ) t2 sec 1
2t 2t 2t sec 1
2t
2 2
t 4t 1 4t 1

1
d. Taking u cos t in the generalized derivative formula for sin u yields
du 1 d 1 1 t
f (t ) sin u cos u cos cos t cos t t
dt dt 1 t 2
1 t2

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Find the derivative of each of the following functions

a. f (x ) 2 sin 1
x 1 b. f (x ) sec 1
2x

c. f (t ) tan 1
sin(2t ) d. f (t ) tan 1
t t cot 1
t

218
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

Answer

a. 2 b. 1
2
2x x x 4x 2 1

2 cos 2t d. 1 t
c. cot 1
t
1 sin 2
2t 1 t2

3 dy
EXAMPLE 3.7.3 If y 1 cos 1(3x ) , find .
dx
Solution Apply the general power rule, we have
dy 2 d
3 1 cos 1(3x ) 1 cos 1(3x )
dx dx
1
Taking u 3x in the generalized derivative formula for cos u yields
d 1 d 3
1 cos 1(3x ) 0 3x
dx 1 (3x ) dx2
1 9x 2
Thus,
dy 2 3
3 1 cos 1(3x )
dx 1 9x 2
2
9 1 cos 1(3x )
1 9x 2

4 dy
RELATED PROBLEM 3 If y x2 csc 1(2x ) , find .
dx
3 1
Answer 4 x 2 csc 1(2x ) 2x .
x 4x 2 1

EXAMPLE 3.7.4 Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the curve

1 1 2 2
sin x sin y at the point P , .
2 2 2
Solution Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x , we obtain
d 1 1 d
sin x sin y
dx dx 2
Thus,
1 1 dy
0
1 x2 1 y 2 dx
dy
Solving for yields
dx

219
SECTION 3.7 THE DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS

1
dy 1 x2 1 y2
dx 1 1 x2
1 y2
2
2
1
dy 2
1
dx (x ,y )
2 2
,
2
2 2 2
1
2

2 2
Thus, the equation of the tangent line at , is
2 2

2 2
y 1 x
2 2
y x 2

RELATED PROBLEM 4 Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the curve
3
y sin 1(x 1) at the point P , .
2 6
2 3
Answer y x .
3 2 6

220
 CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIATION

EXERCISES 3.7
1
In Exercises 1-3 use Formula (2) to find the derivative of f

1. f (x ) 2x 3 x 3 2. f (x ) 2x 5 x3 x

3. f (x ) x7 x5 x

In Exercises 4-17, find the derivative of the function

1 cos 1 x
4. f (x ) sec 3x 5. g(x )
x 1
1 1
6. f (x ) cot x 7. f (x ) x cos x 1 x2

1 t
8. f (t ) t 4 t2 2 sin 1
9. f (t ) tan sin 1
t
2 2
4 1
10. f (x ) csc(2x ) cot(2x ) 11. f (x ) sec x2 1

1
12. f (x ) x 2 tan 1
x2 13. f (x ) cos x 1
cos x cos 1
x

tan 1(x ) 1
14. f (x ) 15. f (x ) x sec x
x2 1

1 1 1
16. f (t ) tan 1
t t2 1 17. f (t ) cot t cot
t

In Exercises 18-22, find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the function at the
indicated point.

x 1
18. y 3 cos 1 , 1, 19. y x sin 1
x , ,
2 2 12

2 1 ,
20. y sec 1
2x , , 21. y cos x2 0,
2 4 2

22. y tan 1
x , 1,
4

1 x
23. If h(x ) x sin 16 x 2 , find h (2) .
4

d 1 1 du
24. Prove that cot u .
dx 2
1 u dx

221
SECTION 3.7 THE DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS

222
CHAPTER 4
APPLICA ATION

INTRODUCTION

SECTION 4.1 EXTREMA OF FUNCTIONS

SECTION 4.2 THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM
SECTION 4.3 INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS
SECTION 4.4 CONCAVITY
SECTION 4.5 CURVE SKETCHING
SECTION 4.6 OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS
SECTION 4.7 RELATED RATES
SECTION 4.1 EXTREMA OF FUNCTIONS

Section 4.1

The behavior of a function f on an interval I plays an important role in calculus. In order to

study the behavior of the function, some information is collected, to know about the function.
In this section, we explain how to determine the maximum and minimum values of a function
if exist. The maximum and minimum values of a function are called extreme values or extrema
of the function.

ABSOLUTE EXTREMA
In the following definition, we can see that the largest value of a function in a given interval is
the maximum value and the smallest value is the minimum value.

DEFINITION 4.1.1
Let f be a function defined on an interval I containing c , then

a. f (c) is the maximum value of f on I if f (c) f (x ) for all x in I .

b. f (c) is the minimum value of f on I if f (c) f (x ) for all x in I .

The maximum and minimum values of a function are called absolute (or global) maximum and
minimum. In Figure 4.1.1, the function f takes on its maximum value at d , thus f (d ) is the
absolute maximum value and it takes on its minimum value at a , thus the absolute minimum
value is f (a ) . The point (d, f (d )) is the highest point in the graph of f and the point (a, f (a ))
is the lowest point.

Absolute maximum.
f (d)

y ! f (x)

Absolute minimum. f (a)

x
a c e d b

y Figure 4.1.1
y ! h(x)

224 y y
x
0 a c1 c2 b 2
1
y y x
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

The following examples explain how to find the absolute maximum and minimum of a function

from its graph. We note that, in some cases, a function does not have an absolute maximum or
1
an absolute minimum.
KING SAUD UNIVERSITY
EXAMPLE 4.1.1 Let f : PREPARATORY x ) x 3DEANSHIP
defined by f (YEAR 12x 4 . Find the absolute maximum
and minimum of f on the interval 3, 3 usingDEPARTMENT
BASIC SCIENCE Figure 4.1.2.
1
30 y
KING SAUD UNIVERSITY
20
PREPARATORY YEAR DEANSHIP
10
BASIC SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
x
−3 −2 −1 30 1 2 3
y
−10
20
−20
10 y = x3 − 12x − 4
−30
x
−3 −2 Figure 4.1.2
−1 1 2 3
30 y
−10

Solution It is clear from the graph 20 the absolute maximum is 12 occurs at x

of f that
−20 2,
(−2, 12)
y = x3 − 12x − 4
and the absolute minimum is 20 occurs at 10x
−30 2 as illustrated in Figure 4.1.3.
x
−3 −2 −1 30 1 2 3
y
−10
20 (2, −20)
(−2, 12) −20
10 y = x3 − 12x − 4
−30
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
3 y
−10
2 (2, −20)
−20
y = x3 − 12x − 4
1
−30 y = |x|
x
−3 −2
Figure 4.1.3
−1 1 2 3
3 y
−1
2
−2
EXAMPLE 4.1.2 Find the absolute maximum1and minimum of the following functions:
−3 y = |x|
x
a. f (x ) x b. g(x ) 2x 5
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
2 y
−1
Solution
−2
a. The graph of f is shown in Figure 4.1.4.
1
We can see that the absolute minimum is 0
= 2x5
−3
occurs at x 0 ; however, there is no absolute maximum.
x
2 y
−1 1

−11 = 2x5

225
−2 x
−1 1
 x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−10
(2, −20)
SECTION 4.1 EXTREMA OF FUNCTIONS
−20
y = x3 − 12x − 4
Absolute maximum.
−30 f (d)

3 y
y ! f (x)
2

1
y = |x|
Absolute minimum. x
f (a)
−3 −2 −1 2 Absolute
1 Absolute maximum.
3 maximum.
−1
f (d) f (d)
Figure
−2 4.1.4
a c e d b
b. The graph of f is shown in Figure −3
4.1.5. yWe ! f (x)
! yfcan
(x) see that the function does not have 2
y
extreme values.
y ! h(x)32 yy
Absolute
Absolute minimum.f (a)f (a)
minimum. 2
1 = 2x5
1 y = 2x5
x x
x x x
a a 0−2 a −1c1 c2 be e1 d b
−1 c d b
2
1
−1
y y y y
−1
−2 -1
y ! yh(x)
! h(x) y ! f (x)
−3 y ! h(x)
Figure
−2 4.1.5
6 y
5 y y y
EXAMPLE 4.1.3 In partsx (a)x – (c), identify the x -value
4 x at which any absolute extreme value x
0 0 a ac1 cc12 c2b b 0 a c b 0 a b 5
occurs. 3 1 1
2 y = 2x2 − 8x + 5
y y y y y y x
1 x
y ! g(x) x -1 -1 1 1
! f (x)
y ! yf (x) y ! g(x)-1
−1 −1 1 2 y ! yh(x)
3 h(x) 4
! -1
−2
−3
−4 y y 0
x x x x x x
0 0a a c c b b 0 a 0c 0 a ab b b 0 a c5 5 b
3 y
(a) ! (b) (c)
y y 2 y= (6x −y4)2 − 2
5 y

y ! yg(x)
! g(x) Figure 4.1.6 (6, 2)
1 y ! yg(x)
! g(x) -3
Solution x
a. There is an absolute maximum
−1 1 at 2x 3 c , 4and5 there
6 is7 no absolute minimum Local maximum.
because
"1 #
−1 , −1 x x
the function is not x a andLocal
x maximum.
b. 0 0 2 2
x defined at the points
2
x "2 # x x
0 0 a ac c b b −2 , −2 0 a a c c
3 0 b b
y ! f (x)
b. There are no absolute extreme values. Note that this function is not continuous.
−3
c. There is an absolute minimum at x c , and absolute maximum at x a.
5 y

4 Local minimum.
RELATED PROBLEM 1 In parts (a) – (c), identify the x -value at which
Local
Local any absolute extreme
maximum.
maximum.
3
value occurs.
Local
Local maximum.
maximum. 2

f (x) 1 ! f (x)
y ! yf (x)
226 x y
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
Local
Local minimum.
minimum. f ′(c) !
5
 x
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2
"1 #
−1 2
, −1 f (x) 1
"2 # x
−2 , −2
−3CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
3
−2 −1 1 2 3
−3 −1

7 y
5 y 5 y
6
4 4
5
3 3 4
g(x) 3
2 2
h(x)
2
f (x) 1 1
1
x x x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
−1 −1

(a)
5 y
(b) 2 y (c)

4 1
Figure 4.1.7 3 2
(0, 0) y = 2x − 3x x
3
Answers
g(x) −1 1 2
2
a. Absolute maximum at x 2 , and absolute minimum at x 0.
−1
(1, −1)
1
−2
b. There are no absolute
x extrema.
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−3
c. Absolute
−1 maximum at x 2, 2 and there is no absolute minimum.
3 y
The previous examples show that the existence of a maximum or a minimum value may depend
y = |x − 1|
2 gives the conditions
on the domain of the function and its continuity. The following theorem
under which a function has extreme values. 1

x
THEOREM 4.1.1 (Extreme Value Theorem) −2 −1 1 2 3 4

If f is a continuous function defined on a closed interval I , then f attains its

[a, b ]−1
maximum and minimum values on I . y
129
!1 "
16 4
, 129
16

The importance of Theorem 4.1.1 is that it guarantees the existence of extreme values of a
(2, 5)
5
continuous function on a closed interval; however, it does not explain how to find them. In
(1, 3)
order to find the extrema of a function, we introduce the local extrema.
3
2
y = x2 +
x x
LOCAL EXTREMA AND CRITICAL POINTS 1
4
1 2

Sometimes we look at the behavior of a function in small open interval (local area) where the

function has a maximum or a minimum value in this small interval. Figure 4.1.8 illustrates the

graph of the function f (x ) 2x 3 3x 2 . If we look at the interval ( 1,1) , then the function

has a maximum at the point (0, 0) . But if we look at the interval (0, 2) , then the function has

a minimum at the point (1, 1) . These points are called local extrema and defined as follows.

227
 4
3
h(x)
2
1
SECTION 4.1 EXTREMA OF FUNCTIONSAbsolute maximum.
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 f (d) 3
−1

2 y y ! f (x)

1
3 2
Absolute minimum. f (a) (0, 0) y = 2x − 3x x
−1 1 2
−1 x
a c e (1, −1) d b

y −2
y ! h(x)
−3

Figure 4.1.8
3 y y y
x
0 a c1 c2 b y = |x − 1| 2
DEFINITION 4.1.2 2 1
y y x
Let c be in the domain of a function f . -1 1
y ! f (x) x
1 y ! h(x) -1 -2 0 2
a. f (c) is a local maximum of f if there exists an open interval (a, b) containing c
x
such that f (c) f (x )−2for −1
all x in (1a, b) .2 3 4 y y
x x
0 a c b 0 a b 5 2 (1,2)
b. f (c) is a local minimum of f−1if there exists an open interval (a, b) containing c
y y
such that f (c)
y ! g(x)
f (x ) for all x in (a, b) .
y x
y ! g(x) -3 2
129
!1 129
"
16 4
, 16
We can see from Definition 4.1.2 that we localize our attention to a small open interval such
x
(2, 5) 0 2
that the x
0 function has its maximum 5(or minimum) in this interval, even though, the function
x
a c b 0 a c b
may take larger (or smaller) valued outside (1,
this3) interval, see Figure 4.1.9.
3
2
y = x2 +
x x
Local maximum.
1
4
1 2
Local maximum.
y ! f (x)

Local minimum.

Figure 4.1.9
y

To find the local extrema of a function, we introduce the critical numbers and
f ′(d)show that
does not a local
exist
f ′(c) !
extrema appears at those critical numbers. y ! f (x)

DEFINITION 4.1.3
Let f : [a, b ] be a function defined at c (a, b) , then c is a critical number of f
0 c d x
if either f (c) 0, or f (c) does not exist. The point (c, f (c)) is called a critical point.

228
 Local maximum.

Local maximum.
y ! f (x)
CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

Local minimum.

In Figure 4.1.10, the derivative of the function

x f exists at c and f (c) 0 , however, the
function is not differentiable at d ; consequently, x c and x d are critical numbers of f .
y

f ′(d) does not exist

f ′(c) !
y ! f (x)

0 c d x

Figure 4.1.10

EXAMPLE 4.1.4 Find the critical numbers of the following functions:

a. f (x ) x2 10x 3.
b. f (x ) 2x 3 6x 2 18x .
c. f (x ) x.
d. f (t ) t(t 1)1/3 .

e. g(x ) x 1

f. f (t ) t 1
t 1
g. f (x ) sin2 x cos x , where x [0, 2 ]

Solution
a. In order to find the critical numbers of f , we need to find the derivative, then we look
at the number(s) c at which f (c) 0 or f (c) does not exist. We have

f (x ) x2 10x 3
f (x ) 2x 10

Since f exists for all x , the only critical numbers are those for which f (x ) 0 , that
is:
2x 10 0
2x 10
x 5
Thus, f has the critical number x 5.

b. We find the derivative of f (x ) 2x 3 6x 2 18x ,

f (x ) 6x 2 12x 18

229
SECTION 4.1 EXTREMA OF FUNCTIONS

Since f exists for all x , the only critical numbers are those for which f (x ) 0 , that
is:

6x 2 12x 18 0
2
6(x 2x 3) 0
(x 3)(x 1) 0

So, x 3 and x 1 are the critical numbers for the function f .

c. By differentiating f (x ) x , we obtain
1
f (x ) .
2 x
Note that f does not equal to zero since the numerator does not equal to zero.
However, f does not exist at zero of the denominator x 0 . Thus, there is no critical
numbers of f since x 0 is an endpoint.

d. Differentiating f (t ) t(t 1)1/3 , we obtain

1 2/3 t 3(t 1)2/3 (t 1)1/3

f (t ) t(t 1) (t 1)1/3
3 3(t 1)2/3
t 3(t 1)
2/3
3(t 1)
4t 3
3(t 1)2/3

3
Therefore, f (t ) 0 when 4t , and the derivative f (t ) does not
3 0 , so, t
4
3
exit at t 1 . So, f has the two critical numbers t and t 1 .
4

e. We can rewrite the function g as follows

x 1, x 1
g(x ) x 1
1 x, x 1
By differentiating, we get
1, x 1
g (x )
1, x 1

and the function is not differentiable at x 1 (why?). We note that g (x ) 0 ; therefore,

the critical number is x 1.

t 1
f. By differentiating f (t ) , we obtain
t 1

230
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

(t 1) (t 1)
f (t )
2
(t 1)
2
(t 1)2

Note that f does not equal to zero since the numerator does not equal to zero. Even
though f does not exist at the zero of the denominator t 1 , the number t 1 is
not in the domain of the function f ; therefore, the function f does not have a critical
number.

g. Differentiating f (x ) sin2 x cos x gives the following

f (x ) 2 sin x cos x sin x sin x (2 cos x 1)
Therefore, f (x ) 0 when:
sin x 0 or 2 cos x 1 0
1
sin x 0 or cos x
2
5
x 0, , 2 or x ,
3 3
5
Thus, the critical numbers of f are x , , and .
3 3

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Find the critical numbers of the following functions

a. f (x ) 2x 3 3x 2 .
b. f (x ) x (4 x )3 .
c. f (t ) t 5/3 2t 2/3 .
d. f (t ) sin2 t cos t , where x [0, 2 ] .

Answers
a. x 0, x 1 b. x 1, x 4
4 d. t 2 4
c. t 0, t , , and
5 3 3

The following theorem determine when a function has local extrema.

THEOREM 4.1.2
If f has a local maximum or minimum at x c , then c is a critical number of f .

The converse of Theorem 4.1.2 is not true, for example, x 0 is a critical number of f (x ) x 3,
nevertheless, the point (0, 0) is not a local maximum nor a local minimum.

231
SECTION 4.1 EXTREMA OF FUNCTIONS

In Section 4.3, we will explain how to determine where the critical number is a local maximum
or minimum.

FINDING ABSOLUTE EXTREMA ON A CLOSED INTERVAL

To find the absolute maximum or minimum of a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b ],
we note that either it is a local maximum or minimum or it occurs at an endpoint of the
interval. We explain the procedure in the following guidelines:

1. Find the critical numbers of f in (a, b) .

2. Evaluate f at each critical number in (a, b) .

3. Evaluate f (a ) and f (b) .

4. The greatest of these values is the maximum and the least is the minimum.

The following examples show how to apply the previous guidelines.

EXAMPLE 4.1.5 Let f (x ) 2x 2 8x 5 . Find the absolute extrema of f on [0, 3] .

Solution In order to find the extrema of the function f (x ) 2x 2 8x 5 on [0, 3] , we need

to follow the four steps.

1. Find the critical numbers of f by differentiating f (x ) :

f (x ) 4x 8

Since the derivative exists for all x , the critical number is the number for which the
derivative equals zero. Therefore,
f (x ) 4x 8 0
x 2

2. Evaluate f at the critical number x 2,

f (2) 3.

3. Find the values of f at the endpoints 0 and 3

f (0) 5, f (3) 1.

4. Finally, the maximum value is the largest value, which is f (0) 5 , and the minimum

value is the smallest value, which is f (2) 3 , as illustrated in Figure 4.1.11.

232
 x
−2 −1 1 2
−1

−2
CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
−3

6 y
5
4
3
2 y = 2x2 − 8x + 5
1
x
−1 −1 1 2 3 4
−2
−3
−4

Figure 4.1.11
3 y
!
5
2 y= (6x − 4)2 − 2
(6, 2) 1
EXAMPLE 4.1.6 Let f (x ) 5
(6x 1 4)2 2 . Find the absolute extrema of f on ,6 .
2
x
Solution We follow the four steps
−1 in the 4 to 5find6 the7 extrema of f .
1 procedure
2 3
# "1
−1 , −1
1. Find the critical numbers by differentiating 2
"2 #
−2 3
, −2
f (x ) 5
(6x 4)2 2 (6x 4)2/5 2.
−3

So,
5 y
2 3/5 12
f (x ) (6)(6x 4)
4
5 5(6x 4)3/5
3
Then, f (x ) 0 for every x and f does not exist when the denominator of f is 0 ,
2
i.e.,
f (x) 1
6x 4 0 x
−3 −2 −1 21 2 3
−1x
3
5 y
2 1
Thus, the only critical number is x 4 ,6 .
3 2
3
g(x)
2 2
2. Find the function value at x which is
3 1
2
f 2 x
−3 −2 −1 3 1 2 3
−1 1
3. Find the function values at the endpoints x and x 6 which are
2
1
f 1 and f 6 2.
2
2
4. Finally, f has the maximum value f (6) 2 and the minimum value f 2 , as
3
illustrated in Figure 4.1.12.

233
 2 y = 2x2 − 8x + 5
1
x
−1 −1 1 2 3 4
−2
SECTION 4.1 EXTREMA OF FUNCTIONS
−3
−4

3 y
!
5
2 y= (6x − 4)2 − 2
(6, 2)
1
x
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
"1 #
−1 , −1
2
"2 #
−2 3
, −2

−3
Figure 4.1.12
5 y

4
2 1
EXAMPLE 4.1.7 Let f (x ) x2 . Find the 3absolute extrema of f on ,2 .
x 4
2
Solution We follow the four steps in the procedure to find the extrema of f .
f (x) 1

1. Find the critical numbers by differentiating f (x ) . So,x

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1 2 3
2x 2
f (x ) 2x
2 2
x
5 y
x
Therefore, f (x ) 0 means that 4
3
2x 2 30
g(x)x 3
21
1
x 11 ,2 ,
4 x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
and the derivative f (x ) does not exist at x 0 ; however, the function is not defined at

x 0 . So, f has only x 1 as a critical number.

2. Find the function value at x 1,

f 1 3

1
3. Find the function values at the endpoints x and x 2,
4
1 129
f 8.0625 and f 2 5
4 16

1
4. Finally, f has the maximum value f 8.0625 and the minimum value f 1 3,
4
as illustrated in Figure 4.1.13.

234
 1

x
−2 CHAPTER
−1 1 4 2APPLICATIONS
3 4 OF DIFFERENTIATION
−1

y
129
!1 "
16 4
, 129
16

(2, 5)
5
(1, 3)
3
2
y = x2 +
x x
1
4
1 2

Figure 4.1.13

RELATED PROBLEM 3 Find the maximum and minimum values of f on the given interval.

a. f (x ) 2x 3 3x 2 12x 1 on [ 2, 3] .

b. f (x ) x 4 x 2 on [ 1, 2] .
1
c. f (x ) x on [0.2, 3] .
x
d. f (x ) 2 cos x sin(2x ) on 0, .
2
Answers
a. f ( 1) 8 maximum, f (2) 19 minimum.
b. f 2 2 maximum, f ( 1) 3 minimum.

c. f (0.2) 5.2 maximum, f (1) 2 minimum.

d. f 3
3 maximum, f 0 minimum.
6 2 2

235
 ! f (x) !
y ! f (x)

m.
m. ff (a) . ..
(a)
.
SECTION 4.1 EXTREMA OF FUNCTIONS
x xx
aa ccd b ee dd bb
x
e d b
EXERCISES 4.1
In Exercises 1-4, find the absolute extreme values and where they occur
1. 2.
y yy yy
y
xx y y
2 22
1 11 2
yy 1
x xx
-1 1 x -1
-1 11 xx
)) -1 1 -1 x 00
y ! h(x) yy !
! h(x)
h(x) -1 -1 -1-2 0 2 x -2
-2 22
y ! h(x) -2 0 2

y y yy yy
xx 3. xx y y 4.
x x00 aa cc bb (1,2)
55
ac bc b 5 5 2 2
(1,2)(1,2) 22 (1,2)
yy
x x-3 xx
y ! g(x) yy !
! g(x)
g(x) 22
y ! g(x) -3 -3 2 2 -3

x xx
0 x 00 22
xx 0 2xx 2
x x00 aa cc bb
ca c b b
In Exercises 5-14, find the critical numbers of the function

5. f (x ) 2x 4 64x 100 6. f (x ) x 1 x2
a 1
Local maximum. 8. f (x ) x 2/3 (x 2
LocalLocal
maximum.
maximum. 7. f (aLocal
) maximum. 4)
2
a a 1
Local
Local maximum.
maximum.
yy9. f (x ) 4x 5/3 2x 2/3 10. f (x ) 4x 3
y ! f (x)
y ! f (x) ! ff (x)
! (x)

11. f (t ) 25 t2 12. f (x ) x sin x

. Local ..
Local minimum. .
minimum. Local minimum.
minimum.
13. f (x ) 3 5 cos x 14. f (x ) 4x tan x
x x xx
In Exercises 15-22, find the absolute extrema of f on the given interval.

15. f (x ) 3x 2 6x 3 on [0, 3] .
y y yy
16. f (t ) t3 6t 2 9t 1 on [ 1, 4] .
′(d) does
f ′(d)fdoes not
not exist
ff ′( exist ′(dd)) does
ff ′( does not
not exist
exist
f ′(c) !
f ′(c) ! ′(cc)) !
!
17. f (w ) w4 2
2w 3 on [ 2, 2] .
! f (x)
y ! yf (x) ! ff (x)
yy ! (x)
18. f (t ) 1/3
t (8 t ) on [0, 8] .
x
19. f (x ) on [0, 2] .
2
x 1
0 c 00 d d cc x x dd xx
0 c
20. f (x ) 2 x on [ 1, 3] .

21. f (t ) sin2 t cos t on [0, 2 ].

22. f (x ) 2 3x 4 sin x on [0, 2 ] .

236
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

x
23. Find the value of k so that f (x ) x2 has a critical number x 3.
k

24. Let f (x ) x2 ax b . Find values of a and b such that f (1) 3 is an extreme value
of f on 0, 2 .

237
SECTION 4.2 THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM

Section 4.2

The mean value theorem is an important tool in calculus and it helps to prove many theorems.
Most of the results in this chapter depend on this theorem. In order to introduce the mean
value theorem, we need Rolle’s Theorem as a tool to prove it.

ROLLE’S THEOREM
In Section 4.1, we have defined the critical numbers and showed that critical numbers can help
to find the absolute extrema of a function on a closed interval. However, there is no guarantee
that such numbers exist. The French mathematician Michel Rolle (1652-1719) gave sufficient
conditions for the existence of a critical number.

THEOREM 4.2.1 (Rolle’s Theorem)

Let f be a function defined on a closed interval [a, b ] that satisfies the following
properties:

a. f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b ] .

b. f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b) . y

c. f (a ) f (b) .
f (c) 0

Then there is at least a number c in (a, b) such that f (c) 0.

y f(x)

Rolle’s Theorem states that if the three conditions are satisfied, then there is at least a number
x
c such that the tangent line of the function at the point 0(c, f (ac)) is horizontal
c b as shown in
Figure 4.2.1(a). However, there might be more than one point as illustrated in Figure 4.2.1(b).
y y
y
f (c) 0 f (c3) 0 Slope f (c)
f (c1) 0
f (c2) 0 y f(x)
y f(x)
f(a)

x x
0 a c b 0 a c1 c2 c3 b 0 a c
f(x)
(a) (b) to Secant Line
Tangent Parallel
y
y y
Figure 4.2.1
f (c3) 0 Slope f (c) f(b)
f (c1) 0 (x)
f (c2) 0 y f(x) f(b) - f(a)
238
Slope
b-a
f(a)
x x
0 a c1 c2 c3 b 0 a c b
f(x)
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

PROOF
Let f (a ) f (b) k , where k is a constant, then we have three cases:
1. f (x ) k for all x [a, b ] , then f is a constant function and hence f (x ) 0 for all
x (a, b) . We can choose c to be any number in (a, b) .

2. f (x ) k for some x (a, b) . In this case the maximum value of f in [a, b ] is greater
than f (a ) and f (b) ; therefore, it must occur at some number c (a, b) . Since the
derivative exists, we conclude from Theorem 4.1.2 that f (c) 0.

3. f (x ) k for some x (a, b) . In this case the minimum value of f in [a, b ] is less than
f (a ) and f (b) ; therefore, it must occur at some number c (a, b) . Since the derivative
exists, we conclude from Theorem 4.1.2 that f (c) 0.

EXAMPLE 4.2.1 Show that the function f (x ) x2 2x 1 satisfies the conditions of Rolle’s
Theorem on the interval [ 1, 3] , then find the number c such that f (c) 0.

Solution The function f is a polynomial, therefore, it is continuous and differentiable for all
x . In particular, it is continuous on the closed interval [ 1, 3] and differentiable on the open
interval ( 1, 3) , and

f ( 1) ( 1)2 2( 1) 1 2
2
f (3) 3 2. 3 1 2

Hence, f ( 1) f ( 3) 2 . Consequently, f satisfies the conditions of Rolle’s Theorem.

Therefore, there is a number c ( 1, 3) , such that f (c) 0. 1
Now, f (x ) 2x 2 , and we have
KING SAUD UNIVERSITY
f (c) 2c YEAR
PREPARATORY c 1,
2 0DEANSHIP

Since 1 ( 1, 3) , so c
1BASIC
satisfiesSCIENCE
the Rolle’sDEPARTMENT
theorem, as shown in Figure 4.2.2.
y

x
−1 1 3

−2
y = x2 − 2x − 1

y Figure 4.2.2
10

239
y = x4 − 4x3 + 4x2 + 1
SECTION 4.2 THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM

EXAMPLE 4.2.2 Show that the function f (x ) x4 4x 3 4x 2 1 satisfies the conditions of

Rolle’s Theorem on the interval [ 1, 3] , then find the numbers c such that f (c) 0.

Solution The function f is a polynomial, therefore, it is continuous and differentiable for all
x . In particular, it is continuous on the closed interval [ 1, 3] and differentiable on the open
interval ( 1, 3) , and

f ( 1) ( 1)4 4( 1)3 4( 1)2 1 10

4 3 2
1
f (3) (3) 4(3) 4(3) 1 10
KING SAUD UNIVERSITY
Hence, f ( 1) f ( 3) 10 . Consequently, f satisfies the conditions of Rolle’s Theorem.
PREPARATORY YEAR DEANSHIP
Therefore, there is at least a number c ( 1, 3) , such that f (c) 0.
BASIC SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
Now, f (x ) 4x 3 12x 2 8x , and we have
y

f (c) 4c 3 12c 2 8c 0
42c(c 2 3c 2) 0
4c(c 1)(c 2) 0x
−1 1 c3 0,1, 2
−2
Since {0,1, 2} ( 1, 3) , hence c 0,1, 2 satisfies the 2Rolle’s Theorem. So in the interval ( 1, 3),
y = x − 2x − 1
the derivative is zero at three different points as shown in Figure 4.2.3
y
10

y = x4 − 4x3 + 4x2 + 1

x
−1 1 2 3

Figurey 4.2.3
10

RELATED PROBLEM 1 Show that the function f (x ) x4 2x 2 2 satisfies the conditions of

Rolle’s Theorem on the interval [ 2, 2] , then find the numbers c such that f (c) 0.
2
y = x − 4x + 5
Answer c 1, 0,1
2
x
As we mentioned in the beginning of −1
this section, we are
1 going to use Rolle’s Theorem to prove
the mean value theorem.
y
4

240 2

y = x3 − 3x + 2
x
 f (c) 0
f (c) 0

y f(x)
y f(x)

x
CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
c b x
0 a c b

Tangent Parallel to Secant Line

THE MEAN VALUE
y THEOREM
y
Tangent Parallel to Secant Line
y
f (c3) 0 The mean value theorem
f (c ) 0
Slope f is(c)one of f(b)
Slope f (c)the most
f(b) important theorems in calculus, and it will be
3
) 0 (x)
f (c1) 0
f (c2) 0 used
f(x) to establish many fundamental results inf(b)
(x)- f(a)
f(b) calculus. Geometrically, the mean value theorem
f (c2) y0 y f(x)Slope - f(a)
b-a bSlope
-a
states that if f is f(a)
continuous on [a, b ] and differentiable on (a, b) , then there is at least a
f(a)
x c such
number x that the tangent of the function
x at xthe point (c, f (c)) is parallel to the secant
1 0 a c2 c 1 c3 c
2
b c3 b 0 a0 c a bc b
line through the f(x)
points (a, f (af(x)
)) and (b, f (b)) , as shown in Figure 4.2.4.

y y y y

y f(x) y f(x)

y f(x) y f(x)

0 a 0 a c c b x b x 0 a 0 ac¡ c¡ c™ bc™ xb x

(a) (b)
Figure 4.2.4

y y y y y y
THEOREM 4.2.2 (Mean Value Theorem)
5 5
5 Let f be a function
5 defined on [a, b ] that 4satisfies4 the following properties:
y g(x) 3 y h(x) y (x)
y g(x) y h(x) y (x)
1. f is continuous
3 on the closed interval [a, b ] .
1 1 on the open interval (a, b1) .
2. f is differentiable
1 1 1
x x x
2 x 4 2 3.3 4x 2 3 4x
2 4 2 3.3 4 2 3 4
Then, there is a number c in (a, b) such that
y
y f (b) f (a ) ,
f (yc)
y b a y
or equivalently, y (x) y
y (x) 5
5
y =ƒ f (b) f (a ) f (c)(b a) . y f (x)
y =ƒ y f (x)
x
-1 0 1 2 3 6
x4
-1 0 1 2 3 4 6
1 PROOF 2
1 2 x
0 1In Figure 4.2.5, the equation
x of the secant line connecting the points
1 (a, f (a )) and
x6 (b, f (b)) is
0 1 x 1 6
y f (a ) f (b) f (a )
,
x a b a
or equivalently,

f (b) f (a )
y f (a ) (x a) .
b a

241
 f (c) 0

y f(x)

SECTION 4.2 THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM

x
0 a c b

Tangent Parallel to Secant Line

y
y
f (c3) 0 Slope f (c) f(b)
f (c1) 0 (x)
f (c2) 0 y f(x) f(b) - f(a)
Slope
b-a
f(a)
x x
0 a c1 c2 c3 b 0 a c b
f(x)
Figure 4.2.5
y y

Let g(x ) be the distance between y and f (x ) , hence y f(x)

f (b) f (a )
g(x ) f (x ) y f (x ) fy(a )f(x) (x a) .
b a

Now, we show that g satisfies the three properties of Rolle’s Theorem.

b x it is the 0sum
1. The function g0 is acontinuous con [a, b ] because a of f and
c¡ b ofx
a polynomial
c™
degree 1 .

2. The function g is differentiable on (a, b) because it is the sum of two differentiable

functions, f and a polynomial of degree 1 .
y y y

53. 5 4
f (b) f (a )
y g(x) g(a ) 3 f (a ) f (a ) y h(x) (a a) 0 y (x)
b a
1 1 f (b) f (a ) 1
x
g(b) f (b) f (a ) xa
(b a )
b x
2 4 2 3.3 4 2 3 4
f (b) f (a ) f (b) f (a ) 0
y
Therefore, g(a ) g(b) .
y
y
y (x)
5
Since g satisfies the conditions of Rolle’s Theorem, there is a number c (a, b) such that
y =ƒ y f (x)
g (c) 0 . Differentiating g , we obtain x
-1 0 1 2 3 4 6
f (b) f (a )
1 g (x ) f (x ) , 2
b a x
0 Now,
1 if g (c) 0 , we have x 1 6

f (b) f (a )
g (c) f (c) 0.
b a
So, we have
f (b) f (a )
f (c) .
b a

242
 1

KING SAUD4UNIVERSITY
CHAPTER APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
PREPARATORY YEAR DEANSHIP
BASIC SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
EXAMPLE 4.2.3 Show that the function f (x ) x2 4x 5 satisfies the conditions of the
y
mean value theorem on the interval [ 1,1] , then find a number c that satisfies the conclusion
of the theorem.
2
Solution The function f is a polynomial, therefore, it is continuous
x and differentiable for all
x . So, it is continuous on the closed −1
interval 1[ 1,1] and
3 differentiable on the open interval
−2
( 1,1) . Consequently, f satisfies the conditions of 2the mean value theorem and there is a
y = x − 2x − 1
f (1) f ( 1)
number c ( 1,1) such that f (c) .
1 y ( 1)
10
Now, f (x ) 2x 4 , and f ( 1) 10, f (1) 2 , we obtain

2 10
2c 4 4
1y =(x4 1)
− 4x3 + 4x2 + 1
2c 0
c 0,
x
and c ( 1,1) , so c 0 as illustrated
−1in Figure
1 2 4.2.6.
3

y
10

y = x2 − 4x + 5

2
x
−1 1

Figure y4.2.6
4
EXAMPLE 4.2.4 Show that the function f (x ) x3 3x 2 satisfies the conditions of the
mean value theorem on the interval [0, 2] , then find a number c that satisfies the conclusion
2
of the theorem.
y = x3 − 3x + 2
Solution The function f is a polynomial, therefore, it is continuous
x and differentiable for all
√2 2
x . So, it is continuous on the closed interval [0, 2] and3differentiable on the open interval (0, 2).

Consequently, f satisfies the conditions of the mean value theorem and there is a number
f (b) f (a )
c (0, 2) such that f (c) .
b a

Now, f (x ) 3x 2 3 , and f (0) 2, f (2) 4 and we obtain

243
 y = x4 − 4x3 + 4x2 + 1

SECTION 4.2 THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM x

−1 1 2 3

4y 2
3c 2 3 1
010 2
3c 2 4
4
c2
3
y = x2 − 4x + 5 2
c
2 3
2 2 x 2
Notice that, c (0, 2) , while −1 (0, 2) , hence,
1 c . See Figure 4.2.7.
3 3 3
y
4

y = x3 − 3x + 2
x
√2 2
3

Figure 4.2.7

RELATED PROBLEM 2 Show that the function f (x ) x3 2x 2 4 satisfies the conditions

of the mean value theorem on the interval [ 1, 0] , then find a number c that satisfies the
conclusion of the theorem.
1
Answer c
3

244
 y y y y to Secant Line
Tangent Parallel
y
5 f (c3) 0 5 Slope f (c) f(b)4
f (c1) 0 (x)
y h(x) f(b) - f(a)
y fg(x)
(c2) 0 y 3f(x) CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS
Slope
b-a
OF DIFFERENTIATION
y (x)
f(a)
1 1 x 1 x
a c3 a
EXERCISES 4.2
c1 c2
0 x b 0 x x c b
2 4 2 3.3 4 2 3 4f(x)
1. Verify that the function f shown in the graph below satisfies the conditions of Rolle’s
y
Theorem on the interval y
[ 1, 6] . Then find the values of c such that f (c) 0.
y y f(x)
y
y (x)
y f(x)
5
y =ƒ y f (x)
x
-1 0 1 2 3 4 6

0 a c b x 02 a c¡ c™ b x
Figure 4.2.8
x
1 x 1 6
2. Explain why functions g, h and k shown in the graphs below do not satisfy the conditions
of Rolle’s Theorem on the interval [2, 4] .
y y y

5 5 4
y g(x) 3 y h(x) y (x)

1 1 1
x x x
2 4 2 3.3 4 2 3 4

Figure 4.2.9
y
y
y
In Exercises 3-7, determine whether Rolle’s Theorem (x) be applied to f on the indicated
y can
5
interval [a, b ] .
y =ƒ y f (x)
3. f (x ) 2 |x 1 |, [ 2, 0] -1 0 4.1 f2(x3) 4| x6 1x|, [0, 2]

1 1 2
5. f (x ) , [ 2, 2] 6. f (x ) x2 3x 4, [0, 3] x
2
x x
0 1 1 6
2
7. f (x ) x 3 , [ 1,1]

In Exercises 8-9, find the x intercepts of the function f , and show that there is a number c
between the two x intercepts such that f (c) 0.
8. f (x ) x2 4x 3 9. f (x ) x (x 2)

In Exercises 10-15, show that the function f satisfies the conditions of Rolle’s Theorem on [a, b ]
, and find all numbers c (a, b) such that f (c) 0.
10. f (x ) 3, [ 3, 4] 11. f (x ) x2 2x 2, [0, 2]

12. f (x ) x4 2x 3 , [0, 2] 13. f (x ) sin x , [0, ]

245
 0 a c b x 0 a c¡ c™ b x

SECTION 4.2 THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM

y y

5 4
1 1
(x) 3
14. yf (x )h(x) x , ,3 y (x) 15. f (x ) x (x 1)(x 2), [0, 2]
x 3

1 16. Verify that the 1 function f shown in the graph below satisfies the conditions of
x x x
4 2 3.3mean
4 value theorem on 2the3 interval
4 [1, 6] . Then estimate the value of c such that
f (b) f (a )
f (c) .
y b a
y
y (x)
5
y f (x)
x
-1 0 1 2 3 4 6

2
x
x 1 6

Figure 4.2.10

In Exercises 17-22, show that the function f satisfies the conditions of the mean value theorem
f (b) f (a )
on [a, b ] , and find all numbers c (a, b) such that f (c) .
b a
17. f (x ) 2x 3, [ 2,1] 18. f (x ) x2 3x 1, [1, 3]
5x 4
19. f (x ) , [1, 4] 20. f (x ) x3 3x 2 x , [0, 2]
x

21. f (x ) x, [1, 4] 22. f (x ) sin x , 0,

2

f (b) f (a )
In Exercises 23 and 24, explain why that there is no value c (a, b) such that f (c)
b a
, and explain why this does not contradict the mean value theorem.
1 24. f (x ) 2x 1, [0, 3]
23. f (x ) , [1, 4]
2
x 3

25. Show that the equation x 3 x 1 0 has exactly one real root.
[Hint: Use Intermediate Value Theorem on [0,1] to show that a root exist, then use
Rolle’s Theorem and suppose that there are two roots a and b , i.e., f (a ) f (b) 0.
Then there is a contradiction.]

26. If f (2) 4 and f (x ) 3 for all 2 x 5 , then show that f (5) 13 .

[Hint: Use the mean value theorem]

246
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

27. Prove that if a, b , then

| sin a sin b | | a b|
[Hint: Apply the mean value theorem to f (x ) sin x ].

28. Let f (x ) tan x . Show that f (0) f ( ) , but there is no number c in (0, ) such that
f (c) 0 . Is this a counterexample to Rolle’s theorem? Why or why not?

x3 x2
29. Let f (x ) on 0, 2 . Show that there is no value of c such that
x 1
f (2) f (0)
f (c) . Is this a counterexample to the mean value theorem? Why or why
2 0
not?

247
SECTION 4.3 INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

Section 4.3

In this section, we are going to look at how the sign of the derivative of f can be used to
determine on which interval the function f is increasing and those on which it is decreasing.
Such information leads us to locate the local extrema points of the function f . The reason
behind studying such a behavior of a function is to help us to sketch the graph of the function
y
f. 5 y y
4 (x, y)
3
INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS
2
1
(−x, y) (x, y)
x x
Figure 4.3.1
−4 −3 −2 −1 represents
−1
1 2 3 a sketch of the graph of a function f for all x in the closed interval
4

[x1, x 4 ] . The
−2
−3
figure shows that as a point moves along the curve from A to B
x , the function
(x, −y)
value increases
−4 as the x - coordinate increases. When a point moves along the curve from B to
−5
C , the function value decreases as the x - coordinate increases.
y
y B(x2 , y2 ) D(x4 , y4)
(x, y)
A(x1 , y1 )
x x
x1 x2 x3 x4
(−x, −y)

C(x3 , y3 )

Figure 4.3.1
6 y

We say that5 f is increasing on the closed interval [x1, x 2 ] and f is decreasing on the closed
2
4 =x
interval [x 2 , x 3 ] . They following is the precise definitions of increasing and decreasing functions
3
on an interval.
2
Decreasing 1 Increasing
DEFINITION 4.3.1 (Increasing
x and Decreasing Functions)
1 2 3 4 5
a. A −1function f defined on an interval I is said to be increasing on I if
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1

f (x1 ) f (x 2 ) whenever x1 x 2 , for all x1, x 2 I.

f$g

f to be decreasing on I if and only if

b. Agfunction f is said

f (x1 ) f (x 2 ) whenever x1 x 2 , for all x1, x 2 I.

x g(x) fÓ˝Ô

248
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

Note that the definitions of increasing and decreasing functions must be satisfied for every pair
of points x1 and x 2 in I with x1 x 2 . Because we use the inequality < to compare the function
values, instead of , it is sometimes said that ƒ is strictly increasing or decreasing on I.

DEFINITION 4.3.2 (Monotonic Function) y

5 y y
If a function f defined on an interval I is either increasing or decreasing(x,on
4 y) an interval,
3
then it is said to be monotonic on this interval I . 2
(−x, y) (x, y)
1
x x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
EXAMPLE 4.3.1 Let f (x ) 2
x . Determine: −2 x
−3
(x, −y)
a. The intervals on which f is increasing.
−4
−5

b. The intervals on which f is decreasing.

y
y B(x2 , y2 ) D(x4 , y4)
Solution
(x, y)
A(x1 , y1 )
a. If 0 x2 x1 , then x 22 x12 . Thus f (x 2 ) f (x1 ) , and hence f is increasing on the
x x
interval [0, ) as shown in Figure 4.3.2. x1 x2 x3 x4
(−x, −y)

b. If x 2 x1 0 , then x12 x 22 . Thus f (x1 ) f (x 2 ) , and hence f is decreasing on the

C(x3 , y3 )
interval ( , 0] . See Figure 4.3.2.
6 y
5
4 y = x2
3
2
Decreasing 1 Increasing
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1

Figure 4.3.2
f$g

g f
RELATED PROBLEM 1 Let f (x ) x 2 . Determine:

a. The intervals on which f is xincreasing. g(x) fÓ˝Ô

b. The intervals on which f is decreasing.

Answer
a. ,0 b. 0,

INCREASING AND DECREASING TEST

We can see from Figure 4.3.3 that the slope of the tangent line of f is positive in the intervals
(A, B ) and (C , D ) , thus f (x ) 0 for all x in these intervals. Hence, we can show that the

249
SECTION 4.3 INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

function f is increasing on those intervals. Also, the slope of the tangent line is negative in the
interval (B,C ) , thus f (x ) 0 for all x in this interval. Hence, the function f is decreasing
on this interval. Furthermore, the slope of the tangent line of f is zero in the interval (D, E ) ,
thus f (x ) 0 for all x in the interval. Hence f is constant on this interval.

Ne Slope
ga
tiv
e eS
op pe
Sl
lop
e e Slo
ive s itiv
sit Po
Po
f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) < 0 f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) 0
Increasing Decreasing Increasing Constant
x
A B C D E

Figure 4.3.3

The following theorem shows that this is always true.

(+) (−)
f ′(c) = 0
(−) f ′(c) = 0 (+)
THEOREM 4.3.1
Let f be a continuous function on the interval a, b and differentiable on the interval
f ′(x) < 0 f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) < 0
a, b . Then a c b a c b

a. If f (xRelative
) 0 minimum
for every x in the interval aRelative maximum
, b , then f is increasing on the interval

a, b . f ′(c) = 0 (−) f ′(c) = 0

(+)
(+) (−)
b. If f (x ) 0f ′(x)
for>every
0 xf ′(x) 0 interval a, b , then
in >the f ′(x) <f0 is decreasing
f ′(x) < 0 on the interval
a, b . a c b a c b

Neither relative minimum nor relative maximum

c. If f (x ) 0 for every x in the interval a, b , then f is constant on the
interval a, b .
y!
2 (x) 2 (x) 5
PROOF
1 1
a. Let x1 and x 2 be any two numbers in the interval a, b , where x1 x 2 . We need to
1
show that f is increasing on a, b , i.e., f (x1 ) f (x 2 ) whenever x1 x2 .
x
"4 "2 "1 2 4

Since f is2 differentiable on x1, x 2 , let f (x ) 0 , for every x in the interval x1, x 2 .
Therefore, we can apply the mean value theorem and obtain
(x) y!
2 (x) f (x 2 ) f (2x1 ) f (c)(x 2 x1 ), (1)
1 1
20
where c is in the interval x1, x 2 . Now, we are going to show that the right-hand
10

250 "4 "2 2 4 x

"10
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

side of equation (1) is positive. We have f (x ) 0 and x1 x 2 which leads to

x2 x1 0 . Thus

f (c)(x 2 x1 ) 0

so, we obtain

f (x 2 ) f (x1 ) 0 f (x 2 ) f (x1 ).

Hence, we showed if f (x ) 0 for every x on the open interval a, b , then f is

increasing on the closed interval a, b .

b. We can prove part (b) similarly.

c. This case is left as an exercise.

Procedure of Determining the Increasing and Decreasing Intervals

1. Find the domain of f .

2. Find f (x ) .

3. Find the critical numbers of f , that are the values of x for which f (x ) 0 or for
those that f (x ) does not exist. Make sure that these values of x are in the domain
of f .

4. The test intervals can be determined using both the critical numbers c , i.e. which
form two intervals one with c at the right end of the interval and at the left end of
the other interval, and where the function f is undefined.

5. Check the sign of f (x ) for each interval by choosing one point from each interval,
and find the value of f at each point.
6. Apply Theorem 4.3.1.

To be clearer in step 5 in the above procedure, we check the sign of f (x ) as follows: we choose
a number k on the interval and compute f (k ). Now, Theorem 4.3.1 states that if f (k ) 0
then f is increasing while if f (k ) 0 then f is decreasing. We will call f (k ) a test value of
f for the interval.

EXAMPLE 4.3.2 If f (x ) 3x 4 24x 2 3 , find where f is increasing and where it is decreasing

on the interval [ 1.5, 3.5] .
Solution In order to find the increasing and decreasing intervals of the function f we follow
the steps in the procedure. Note that the function f is a polynomial, then it is defined on

251
SECTION 4.3 INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

[ 1.5, 3.5] . So, we begin by differentiating f :

f (x ) 12x 3 48x .

We need to solve f (x ) 0 . So, we have

f (x ) 12x 3 48x 0
12x (x 2 4) 0
x 0, x 2 4
x 0, x 4 2.

Hence, the critical numbers are x 0, 2 . We exclude the number x 2 , because

x 2 [ 1.5, 3.5] . Therefore, we form the following intervals:
[ 1.5, 0),(0, 2) and (2, 3.5] .

Since f is polynomial, then f is continuous and the derivative of f has no zeros on these
intervals, so, f (k ) must be bigger than zero or less than zero for any number k on the interval
(test value). We are going to look at where the function f is increasing or decreasing on the
intervals: [ 1.5, 0),(0, 2) and (2, 3.5] as in the following chart

Interval 1.5, 0 0, 2 2, 3.5

Test value k 1 1 3

Value of f (k ) f ( 1) 36 0 f (1) 36 0 f (3) 180 0

Sign of f (x )
increasing on decreasing on increasing on
1.5, 0
Behavior of f 0, 2 2, 3.5
1

KING SAUD UNIVERSITY

Thus, by Theorem 4.3.1, PREPARATORY
f is increasing on YEAR 1.5, 0 and 2, 3.5 and decreasing
DEANSHIP
the intervals
on the interval 0, 2 . Moreover,
BASICthe f can be seen in Figure 4.3.4
graph of DEPARTMENT
SCIENCE
180 y
x = 3.5
150
120
90
60
y = 3x4 − 24x2 − 3
30
x
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
−30
x = −1.5 −60 x=2

Figure
4 4.3.4
y

252 2 y = x 3 − x2

x
−2 −1 x= 2 1 2
3
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

In the next example, we will study where the function f is increasing or decreasing on an
infinite interval.

EXAMPLE 4.3.3 If f (x ) x3 x 2 , find the interval(s) on which f is increasing and on which

f is decreasing.

Solution In order to find the increasing and decreasing intervals of the function f we follow
the steps in the procedure. Since f is a polynomial, then it is defined on . The derivative
of f is
f (x ) 3x 2 2x x (3x 2).
f (x ) 3x 2 2x x (3x 2).

In order to find the critical numbers, we solve f (x ) 0 . So,

x 0, 3x 2 0
2
x 0, x .
3
As in the previous example, we are going to study the increasing and decreasing for the function
2 2
f on the intervals ( , 0) , 0, and , which have been determined by these critical
3 3
numbers. We can summaries the testing of the intervals in the following chart

2 2
Interval ( , 0) 0, ,
3 3

Test value k 1
1 1
3

1 1
Value of f (k ) f ( 1) 5 0 f 0 f (1) 1 0
3 3

Sign of f (x )
increasing on decreasing on increasing on
,0 2 2
Behavior of f 0, ,
3 3

2
Therefore, f is increasing on the intervals , 0 and , and decreasing on the interval
3
2
0, , as illustrated in Figure 4.3.5.
3

253
 90
60
y = 3x4 − 24x2 − 3
30
x

SECTION 4.3 INCREASING AND −30DECREASING FUNCTIONS

−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

x = −1.5 −60 x=2

4 y

2 y = x 3 − x2

x
−2 −1 x= 2 1 2
3

−2

−4
Figure 4.3.5
30 y
20 y = 2x4 − 16x2 + 10

RELATED PROBLEM 2 If f (x ) x4 2x 2 , find

10 where f is increasing and where f is decreasing.
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
Answer Increasing: 1, 0 , 1, . −10
−20
Decreasing: , 1 ,x0,1
= −2. x=2
−30

3
In Section 4.1, we defined the local extremay of a function f in Definition 4.1.2. However, we do
2
not explain how to determine if a function f has a local
!
2/3
extrema,
" and if it has, is it a maximum
y=3 x −x
or a minimum? Now, after we study the1 increasing
8
and decreasing of the function f , we will
x= 27
be able to find the local extrema of f if they exist. x
−1 1 2
−1
LOCAL EXTREMA (THE FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST)
2
We recall from Theorem 4.1.2 that, if f has a ylocal maximum or minimum at x c , then
c is a critical number of f . However, we know that − 1 every critical number of f is a local x2
y = not
3
Ne Slope 1 x Ne Slope

e
ga
extrema,
tiv
e see Example
e
we√3can see that the tangentgatline
4.1.2(b). From Figure 4.3.6,x = ive at c is
op Sl p e Sl e
Sl op Slo op op lop
e ive x Sl e eS
ve horizontalP since we have f (c)
osi
t 0 . Also, from Theorem 4.3.1, weit can obtain a local extrema
ive tiv
s iti P osi
Po
s
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 Po
if the sign of the first derivative, f (xx)=, − √
changes form positive to negative
f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) < 0 f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) 0
3 f ′(x) > 0 or from
f ′(x)negative
<0 to
f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) 0
Increasing Decreasing Increasing Constant Increasing Decreasing Increasing Constant
A B positiveC at x c . Moreover,
D
x
ifE the sign of −1
f (x ) does not change,
A
then theB function f does D
C
not have a local extrema. The following theorem (The First Derivative Test) shows how to
−2
determine the local extrema of a function f if they exist.

(+) (−) (+)

f ′(c) = 0 f ′(c) = 0
) f ′(c) = 0 (+) f ′(c) = 0 (+)
(−)

f ′(x) < 0 f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) < 0 f ′(x) < 0 f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x)
c b a c b a c b a c
ive minimum Relative
(a) maximum
Local maximum Relative
(b)minimum
Local minimum Relative maximum

f ′(c) = 0 (−) f ′(c) = 0 (−)

f ′(c) = 0 f ′(c) = 0
(+) (+)
254 (−) (+)
f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) < 0 f ′(x) < 0 f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) < 0 f ′(x)
c b a c b a c b a c
Neither relative minimum nor relative maximum
 (+) (+) (−) (−)
f ′(c) = 0 f ′(c) = 0
(−) f ′(c) = (−)
0 (+) f ′(c) = 0 (+)

f ′(x) < 0 f ′(x)

f ′(x)> <0 0 f ′(x) > 0f ′(x) > 0
CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS f ′(x)< >0 0 OF DIFFERENTIATION
f ′(x) f ′(x) < 0
a ca b c a b ca bc b
Relative minimum Relative minimum Relative maximum Relative maximum

f ′(c) = 0 f ′(c) = 0 (−) f ′(c) = 0 (−) f ′(c) = 0

(+) (+)
(+) (+) (−) (−)
f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x)f >
′(x)
0>0 f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) < 0 f ′(x)
f ′(x)
< 0< 0 f ′(x) < 0
a ca bc a b ca bc b
(c) Neither
Neither local
Neithermaximum
relative minimum nor
relative
relative nor Local
minimum
maximum minimum
nor relative maximum
Figure 4.3.6

y! y!
2 THEOREM
(x)
4.3.2
2 (The First Derivative
(x) 2 Test) 2
(x) (x) 5 5
1 Suppose 1
that a function f 1is continuous 1at a critical number c . Then
a. If f changes from positive to negative sign at the critical number
1
c , then 1f
has a local maximum at c , see Figure 4.3.4(a). x x
"4 "2 "1 "4 2 "2 4"1 2 4

b. If2 f 2
changes from negative to positive sign at the critical number c , then f
has a local minimum at c , see Figure 4.3.4(b).
(x) (x) y! y!
2 (x) 2 (x) 2 2
c. If f has the same sign from the left and right of the critical number c , i.e.,
1 1 1 1
positive or negative sign, then f has no local extrema at c , see Figure
20 4.3.4(c).20
10 10
PROOF
We are going to show (a) and similar argument can be used to prove (b) and (c).
"4 "2 "4 2
"2 4 x 2 4 x
"10 "10
For (a), since f changes from positive to negative sign at a critical number c , that means
there is an open interval (a, c) where f (x ) 0 for all x (a, c) , see Figure 4.3.4(a). Also, there
is an open interval (c, b) where f (x ) 0 for all x (c, b) . Since f is continuous, and from
Theorem 4.3.1 f is increasing on (a, c) and decreasing on (c, b) . Thus,

f (x ) f (c) for every x (a, c) (c, b) .

Hence, f (c) is a local maximum for the function f .

FINDING A LOCAL EXTREMA OF FUNCTION

To find the local maximum or minimum of a function, we note that if a function f has a local
extrema at c , then c has to be a critical number. We explain the procedure of obtaining a local
extrema for f as follows: we use the procedure of determining the increasing and decreasing
intervals. After that, we apply Theorem 4.3.2.

EXAMPLE 4.3.4 If f (x ) 2x 4 16x 2 10 , find the local extrema of f .

Solution Note that f is defined and differentiable on . The derivative of f is

255
SECTION 4.3 INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

f (x ) 8x 3 32x 8x (x 2 4) , 1

We have f (x ) 8x (x 2 4) . Thus,
0KING x UNIVERSITY
SAUD 0 or x 2 . The critical numbers for the
function f are x 2, 0 and 2 . Hence, the test
PREPARATORY YEARintervals can be formed as (
DEANSHIP , 2) , ( 2, 0)
, (0, 2) and (2, ) . The following
BASIC chart summarizes
SCIENCE the testing of these intervals.
DEPARTMENT
180 y
Interval ( , 2) ( 2, 0) x (0, 2)
= 3.5 (2, )
150
Test value k 3 120 1 1 3
90
Value of f (k ) f ( 3) 120 0 f ( 1) 24 0 f (1) 24 0 f (3) 120 0
60 4 2
y = 3x − 24x − 3
Sign of f (x ) 30
x
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
decreasing on −30increasing on decreasing on increasing on
Behavior of f ,x =2−1.5 −60 2, 0 x=2 0, 2 2,

4 y

Hence, we can see from the previous chart that2 the sign x3 −f x2changes from negative to positive
y = of

at x 2 and x 2 . Also, the sign of f changes from positive to negative at x 0 . Using

x
the first derivative test, we obtain
−2 −1 f has a local
that minimum at2 x
x= 21
2 and x 2 , and a
3

local maximum at x 0 , as shown in Figure 4.3.7.

−2

Thus, the local minimum value of f is f ( 2) 22 and f (2) 22 , while the local maximum
value is f (0) 10 . −4

30 y
20 y = 2x4 − 16x2 + 10

10
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−10
−20
x = −2 x=2
−30
Figure 4.3.7
3 y

EXAMPLE 4.3.5 If f (x ) 3 x 2/3 x , 2find the local

! extrema
" of f .
y = 3 x2/3 − x
Solution We can notice that the function
1 f is defined on . The derivative of f is
8
x= 27
x
2 1/3
−1f (x ) 3 x 11 2
3
−1
1/3 2 3x 1/3
2x 3
2 y x 1/3
By setting f (x ) 0 , we have
x2 − 1
y=
1 x3
√
x= 3
256 x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
√
x=− 3
−1
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

2 3x 1/3
f (x ) 0
x 1/3
0 2 3x 1/3
1
2
x 1/3
KING SAUD UNIVERSITY
3
8
PREPARATORY YEARx DEANSHIP
27
8 BASIC SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
Thus, x . Moreover, we have f (x ) does not exists when x 1/3 0 , so x 0 . Thus, f has
27 180 y
8 x = 3.5
critical numbers at x 0 and x 150. As in the previous example, the following chart shows
27
120
the testing intervals determined by these critical numbers.
90
60
y = 3x4 − 24x28− 3 8
Interval ( , 0) 30 0, ,
27 x
27
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Test value k −30 1
1 1
x = −1.5 −60 x8= 2

4 y 1
Value of f (k ) f ( 1) 5 f 1 f (1) 1
8
2 y = x 3 − x2
Sign of f (x )

8x 8
decreasing on ,0 increasing2 on 0, decreasing on ,
−2 −1 1 27 2 27
Behavior of f x= 3

−2

We see from the above chart that the sign of f−4changes from negative to positive at x 0 . Also,
8
the sign of f changes from positive to negative
30 at x . Using the first derivative test, we
y
4
27 2
20 y = 2x − 16x + 10 8
obtain that f has a local minimum at x 0 . Moreover, f has a local maximum at x .
10 27
x
Figure 4.3.8 shows the behavior of f .
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−10
−20 and maximum of f as follow:
Furthermore, the values of the local minimum
x = −2 x=2
−30 8 4
Local minimum: f (0) 0 , Local maximum: f .
27 9
3 y

2 ! "
y = 3 x2/3 − x
1
8
x= 27
x
−1 1 2
−1
Figure 4.3.8
2 y

y=
x2 − 1 257
1 x3
√
x= 3
x
SECTION 4.3 INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

RELATED PROBLEM 3
a. If f (t ) 2t 3 3t 2 12t . Find the local extrema of f .
4 1
b. If f (x ) x3 4x 3 . Find the local extrema of f .
2
c. If f (x ) (x 2)3 , Find the local extrema of f .

Answer

a. Local maximum 20 at t 2 , Local minimum 7 at t 1.

b. Local minimum 3 at x 1.

c. Local minimum 0 at x 2.

In the next example, we are going to look at a rational function. In particularly, we will find
the local extrema of a function, where such function is not defined on the real numbers line.

x2 1
EXAMPLE 4.3.6 If f (x ) , find the interval(s) on which f is increasing or decreasing
3
x
and find the local extrema of f .

Solution Since x 0 makes the denominator of the function f equals to 0. Therefore, f is

defined and continuous for 0 . We begin by differentiating f

x 3 (2x ) (x 2 1)(3x 2 ) 2x 4 3x 4 3x 2
f (x )
(x 3 )2 x6
2 2
x (2x 3x 2 3) 3 x 2

6 4
x x

Then, we have f (x ) 0 if 3 x2 0 . So, x 3 . Since f (x ) does not exist when x 0

, but, we are not going to consider x 0 as critical number because 0 is outside the domain
of f . The critical numbers for the function f are x 3 and x 3 . Hence, the test
intervals formed as follow
, 3 , 3, 0 , 0, 3 and 3, .

In the next chart we summarize the testing of these intervals.

Interval , 3 3, 0 0, 3 3,

Test value k 2 1 1 2

1 1
Value of f (k ) f ( 2) 0 f ( 1) 2 0 f (1) 2 0 f (2) 0
16 16
Sign of f (x )

258
 4 y

2 y = x 3 − x2
CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
x
−2 −1 x= 2 1 2
3

Interval , 3 3, 0 0, 3 3,
−2

decreasing on increasing on increasing on decreasing on

−4
, 3 3, 0 0, 3 3,
Behavior of f
30 y
20 y = 2x4 − 16x2 + 10

10
Therefore, f is increasing on the intervals 3, 0 and 0,x 3 while decreasing on the
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−10
intervals , 3 and 3, , as illustrated in Figure 4.3.7.
−20
x = −2 x=2
−30
We see from the previous chart that the sign of f changes from negative to positive at
3 y
x 3 . Also, the sign of f changes from positive to negative at x 3 . Using the first
2 ! "
derivative test, we obtain that f has a local minimum
y = 3 x2/3 −at
x x 3 . Moreover, f has a local
1
maximum at x 3 . Thus, we have x= 8
27
x
−1 1 2
2 3 2 3
Local minimum: f ( 3) , Local
−1 maximum: f ( 3) .
9 9
2 y
x2 − 1
y=
x3 1 √
x= 3
x
−8 −6 −4 −2 √ 2 4 6 8
x=− 3
−1

−2
Figure 4.3.9

x 1
EXAMPLE 4.3.7 If f (x ) , find the local extrema of f .
x 2
Solution Since 2 makes the denominator of the function f equal 0. The function f is defined

and continuous for all x 2 . The derivative of f is

(x 2)(1) (x 1)(1) 1
f (x )
2
(x 2) (x 2)2
We note that f (x ) 0 for any x in the domain of f and that f (x ) does not exist at x 2.
However, the number 2 is outside the domain of f . Thus, f has no critical numbers. According
to Theorem 4.1.2, the function f has no local extrema. The graph of f is sketched in Figure
4.3.10.

259
SECTION 4.3 INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS
2
3 y

1
x−1
y=
x−2
x
−1 1 2 3 4 5

−1
Figure 4.3.10
8 y 5π
x= 3

RELATED PROBLEM 4 6 x = 2π
x2
a. If f (x ) , find the local extrema of f .
x2 9 4

x 3 y = x − 2 sin x
b. If f (x ) , find the 2local extrema of f .
2
x
Answer x
π 2π π 4π 5π 2π
a. Local maximum 0 at x −10 . x 3
= π3
3 3 3

1
b. Local maximum at x 4.
16

Now, we are going to look at the local extrema of functions involving a trigonometric function.

EXAMPLE 4.3.8 Let f (x ) x 2 sin x , where x 0, 2 . Find the local extrema of f .

Solution It is easy to check that f is defined and differentiable on the interval 0, 2 . Then,
we obtain the critical numbers by differentiating f .
f (x ) 1 2 cos x

So, we have
1
f (x ) 1 2 cos x 0 cos x .
2
5
Thus, the critical numbers are x or x
. The following chart summarizes the testing
3 3
of the intervals which have been determined form the critical numbers.

5 5
Interval 0, , ,2
3 3 3 3

Test value k 11
4 2 6

260
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

5 5
Interval 0, , ,2
3 3 3 3

11
Value of f (k ) f 1 2 f 1 f 1 3
4 2 6

Sign of f (x )

5 5
decreasing on 0, increasing on , decreasing on ,2
Behavior of f 3 3 3 3 2
3 y

We see from the chart that the sign of f changes from negative to positive at x . Also,
2 3
5
the sign of f changes from positive to negative at x . Thus, using the first derivative
1
3
test, we obtain that f has a local minimum aty x= x − 1 . Moreover, f has a local maximum at
x −3
2
x
5
x . Figure 4.3.9 shows the −1
behavior1 of the
2 function
3 4 5 f . The value of the local maximum
3
5 5
of f is f 3 and the−1value of the local minimum of f is f 3.
3 3 3 3
8 y 5π
x= 3

6 x = 2π

2 y = x − 2 sin x

x
π 2π π 4π 5π 2π
−1 x 3
= π3
3 3 3

Figure 4.3.9

RELATED PROBLEM 5
a. If f (x ) 3 cos x sin x , x 0, 2 . Find the local extrema of f .

b. If f (x ) csc2 x 2 cot x , x 0, . Find the local extrema of f .

Answer
7
a. Local maximum 2 at x , Local minimum 2 at x .
6 6

b. Local minimum 0 at x .
4

261
 f ′(c) =(+)
0 f ′(c) = 0
(−) f ′(c) = 0 (+) (−) f ′(c) = 0
(+) (−) (+)
f ′(c) = 0 f ′(c) = 0 (−)
(−) f ′(c) = 0 (+) f ′(c) = 0 (+)
(−)
f ′(x) < 0 f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) < 0 f ′(x) > f0′(x) > 0 f ′(x) < 0
f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) < 0
f ′(x) > 0 ab f ′(x) < 0a
a c
f ′(x) < 0
f ′(x)f>′(x)
0 > c0 cb
f ′(x) < 0 ab f ′(x) > 0 c b
f ′(x) < 0
SECTION 4.3 INCREASINGa NAND
Relative DECREASING
eg minimum c b FUNCTIONS
Slope
Relative minimum
Relative
a c maximum c b Relative maximum
at a
ive a b c b
pe Sl pe
o Relative minimum
op lo Relative maximum
Relative minimum
Relative
(−) maximum
Sl e eS
ive tiv (−)
sit
si 0
f ′(c) = 0 f ′(c) = 0
f ′(c)Po= f ′(c) = 0
Po
EXERCISES 4.3
(+) (+)
f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) < 0 f ′(c) f=′(x)
0 >0 f ′(x) 0 (−) f ′(c) = 0 (−)
(+)Decreasing (+)Constant f ′(c) = 0 f ′(c) = 0 (−)
Increasing Increasing (+) (+) (−)
In Exercises 1 – 4,A find the interval(s) f ′(x) > 0on which
f ′(x) > 0the function is fincreasing
D(+)
f ′(x) > 0 ′(x)
′(x) x< 0
f > 0 or
f ′(x)decreasing,
<0 f then
′(x) < 0 f ′(x) < 0
B (+) C E (−) (−)b
identify the local extrema of the a ′(x) > 0 ab f ′(x) > a0
f ′(x) > 0 c(if fany).
function c f ′(x) < 0 c
f ′(x) > 0
bf ′(x) < 0 ab
f ′(x) < 0
c
f ′(x) < 0
1. a Neither
c relative aminimum
b 2. Neither
nor arelative
c relativec minimum
maximum b nor
a relative
b maximum c b

Ne Slope Neither relative minimum nor relative

Neithermaximum
relative minimum nor relative maximum
ga
tiv
eS
pe (+) (−) y! y!
lop Slo f ′(c) = 0
e tive (−) f ′(c) = 0 (+)
2
Posi 2 (x) 2 2(x) (x) (x) 5 y! 5
y!
1 1 1 1
f ′(x) < 0 f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) 0 f ′(x) 2< 0 (x) f ′(x) > 0 2 2 (x) 2 5
f ′(x)
(x) > 0 f ′(x) < 0 (x) 5
Decreasing Increasing Constant 1 1
a x c b 1 1
B C D E a c b 1 1
Relative minimum Relative maximum x
"4 "2 "1 1 2 4"4 "2 "11
2 (−) 2 =0 x
f ′(c) = 0 f ′(c) "4 "2 "1 2 4
"4 "2 "1
(+)
2 2
(+) 3. (+)
(−) (x)
4. (−) (x)
f ′(c) = 0 f ′(x) > 0 y! y
0 (+) 2 (x)f ′(x) > 0 2 f ′(x)
2 <0
(x) f ′(x) < 0 2
a 1 c b 1 c 1 a (x) b
(x) 1 y!
2 (x) (x)2 2 2 20 20y
f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) < 0 1 Neither relative minimum nor relative 1maximum
1 1
b 1020 10
20
a c b
Relative maximum y! 10 10
"4 "2 2 "4 4 x
"2
2 (x) 2 (x) 5
(−) 1 f ′(c) = 0 "10 "10
0 1
(+) "4 "2 2 "4 4 "2 x
"10
you are given the graph of the derivative f of a 1function f .
In Exercises 5 and 6(−) "10
f ′(x) > 0 f ′(x) < 0 f ′(x) < 0
b a
a. Determine
c
the bintervals on which f is increasing, constant,
"4 "2 or
"1decreasing.
2 4
x

her relative minimum nor relativeb. Find 2the x -coordinates of the local maxima and local minima of f .
maximum

5. (x) 6. y!
2 (x) 2
y!
1 1
2 (x) 5 20
1
10

1
x "4 "2 2 4 x
"4 "2 "1 2 4
"10

In Exercises 7 - 27, find the interval(s) on which the function is increasing or decreasing, then
(x)
2 identify the local minimum yand
! maximum values of the function if any.
1
7. f (x ) x2 3x 320 8. f (t ) 3t 2 9t 1 9. f (x ) 2x 3 18x
10. f (x ) 3x 2 4x 3 10 11. f (t ) (t 5)3 12. f (x ) 4x 3 3x 2 6x 1
13. f (a ) 5 a 5 14. f (x ) x4 4x 3 4x 2 15. f (x ) (x 1)2 (x 3)
"4 "2 2 4 x
16. f (r ) 15r 3 r5 "10 17. f (x ) x 6 x 1 18. f (x ) 4 x x2 3

x2 3
19. f (x ) x 8 x2 20. f (x ) x2 5 x 21. f (x )
x 2

262
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

x3 x
22. f (x ) 23. f (x ) 24. f (x ) x 1/3 (x 8)
2 2
3x 1 x 1
25. f (x ) x 2/3 (x 2 4) 26. f (x ) x 2/3 (x 5) 27. f (x ) x 1/3 (x 2 7)

In Exercises 28 - 36, find the interval(s) on which the function is increasing or decreasing, then
identify the local minimum and maximum values of the function if any.

28. f (x ) sin(2x ), 0 x

29. f (x ) sin x cos x , 0 x 2

30. f (x ) 3 sin x cos x , 0 x 2

31. f (x ) sin2 x 2 cos x , 0 x 2

x x
32. f (x ) 2 sin , 0 x 2
2 2
33. f (x ) cos2 x 2 cos x , x

34. f (x ) 2x tan x , - x
2 2
2
35. f (x ) sec x 2 tan x , - x
2 2
sin x
36. f (x ) , 0 x 2 .
1 cos2 x

x
37. Find a value of constant k so that f (x ) x2 will have a local extrema at x 3.
k

38. Let f (x ) x2 ax b . Find values of a and b such that f (1) 3 is an extreme value
of f on 0, 2 . Is this value a maximum or a minimum?

263
 SECTION 4.4 CONCAVITY

Section 4.4
y y

18

f !(x) 9 f(x)

−1 1 2 3 4

In the previous
y section, we illustrated some
y properties of a function f , namely, the −9
intervals
x (2, -16)
−18
where f is increasing or decreasing, 18
and the
−2 local
−1 extrema.1 In particular,
2 we used the first
−27
derivative test to find 9 f is increasing orf(x)
f !(x)where a function decreasing and to tell us whether

a local extrema occurs at some critical numbers. In this section, we will look at the sign of
x
−1 1 2 3 4
the second derivative f which tells us where the derivative f increasing or decreasing.
y By y
−9
the function f bends which
determining these facts,x we can tell how the graph(2,of-16) 1 is called 1
−18
−2 −1 1 2
concavity. Moreover, we may be able−27
to study the local extrema using the second derivative

f . 0 x 0
"1 1 "1
FIGURE 22
The Second Derivative Test is not "1 "1
CONCAVITY y useful when the second derivative
y 4 y
y ! "x
is zero at a critical number cy.! x 4 y ! x3
The sign of the second derivative 1
1 f will be used to tell us where 1
the graph of the function
f is increasing or decreasing. If f (x ) 0 on an open interval I , then f (x ) is increasing
on I , and the slope of the 0 line of1 f xincreases"1
"1tangent as x increases.
0y 1Hence,
x the graph
"1 of 0f 1 x
FIGURE 22 Concave
is concave upward, which is illustrated in Figure 4.4.1(a). On the other
The Second Derivative Test is not upwardhand, if f (x ) 0
"1 "1 "1
useful when
on the
an second derivative I , then f (x ) is decreasing
open interval on I and the slope of the tangent line of f
y ! f (x)
y ! "x 4
is zero at a critical number c. x
decreases as x increases, which is illustrated in Figure 4.4.1(b). Hence, the graph of f is
concave downward. Increasing slopes

y y
y ! f (x)
Concave
upward Concave
downward
y ! f (x)
x x

Increasing Slopes
Increasing slopes Decreasing slopes
Decreasing Slopes
y (a) (b)
y ! f (x)
Concave Figure 4.4.1
downward

264 x

Decreasing slopes
 CU
CD
I.P. I.P. I.P.
CU
CD CU

CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

0 x 0 x 0 x

3 y
5
y = 2x 2

1
x
−2 −1 1 2
−1 10 y
y −2 8
y 5 5 1 sin x y = 6x4 − 8x3
6 6
CD −3
5 Concave
CU
4 Figure 4.4.2 upward
4
Concave
3 2 upward

x
In Example 4.1.2(b), we have xshown that the function f 2x 5 is increasing on . However,
Concave
0 p 2p −1 1 2
if we– 1draw the tangent lines of f for some points in the interval ( , 0) , −2
then, we see
x = 23that
downward

the curve of the function f lies below the tangents. Hence, f is called concave
−4 downward
on the interval ( , 0) , as illustrated in Figure 4.4.2. However, for the interval (0, ) , the
curve of the function f lies above the tangent lines. Hence, f is called concave upward on
the interval (0, ) , as illustrated in Figure 4.4.2.

The next definition shows the relation between the monotonicity of f and the concavity of
f .

DEFINITION 4.4.1
Let a function f be differentiable on an open interval I . The graph of f is

a. Concave upward on I , if f is increasing on I .

b. Concave downward on I , if f is decreasing on I .

As it has been illustrated in the beginning of this section, we have shown that where a
function f is concave upward and where it is concave downward using increasing and
decreasing of f respectively. In other words, if f (x ) 0 on an open interval then f is
increasing on the interval and we say that f is concave upward on this interval. However,
if f (x ) 0 on an open interval then f is decreasing on the interval and we say that f is
concave downward on this interval. In the next theorem, we use the second derivative test
for concavity.

THEOREM 4.4.1 (The Second Derivative Test for Concavity)

Let f be a function. If the second derivative f exists on an open interval I , then
the graph of the function f is
a. Concave upward on the interval I , if f (x ) 0 on I .
b. Concave downward on the interval I , if f (x ) 0 on I .

265
SECTION 4.4 CONCAVITY

PROOF
a. Let us assume f (x ) 0 for all x on the open interval I . Then, according to Theorem
4.3.1, f is increasing on the closed interval I . Now, by applying Definition 4.4.1, the
graph of the function f is concave upward on the open interval I .

b. Similar way can show (b).

REMARK
The case where f (x ) 0 for all x I implies f is linear on I . So, it is neither
concave upward nor concave downward.

We are going to denote concave upward by CU and concave downward by CD. The following
procedure shows how to determine intervals on which the graph of a function is concave
upward or concave downward.

Procedure of Determining the Concave Upward and Concave Downward Intervals

1. Find the domain of f .

2. Find f (x ) and f (x ) .

3. Find the values of x for which f (x ) 0 or for those f (x ) does not exist. Make
sure that these values of x are in the domain of f .
4. The test intervals can be determined using both the values of x obtained in step
3 and where the function f is undefined.

5. Check the sign of f (x ) for each interval by choosing one point from each
interval, and find the value of f at each point. This is what we call the test
value of f (k ) , where k is in the interval.
6. Apply Theorem 4.4.1.

Let us now apply this procedure in the following examples.

EXAMPLE 4.4.1 If f (x ) 6x 4 8x 3 , determine the interval(s) on which f is concave upward

or concave downward.

Solution Since f is polynomial, then f is defined for all x . Then, we need to find the
second derivative of f . Hence, we have
f (x ) 24x 3 24x 2 24(x 3 x 2 ),
f (x ) 24(3x 2 2x ) 24x (3x 2).

266
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

2
By solving f (x ) 0 , we obtain x 0 or x . Hence, we form the intervals as
3
2 2
( , 0), 0, and , , which we determined from the values of x .
3 3

Since f is polynomial, then f is continuous and f has no zeros on these intervals, so, f (k )
must be bigger than zero or less than zero for any number k on the interval (test value).
By applying Theorem 4.4.1, we are going to look at where the function f is concave upward
2 2
or concave downward on the intervals: ( , 0), 0, and , as in the following chart.
3 3

2 2
Interval ( , 0) 0, ,
3 3

Test value k 1
1 1
3

1
Value of f (k ) f ( 1) 120 0 f 8 0 f (1) 24 0
3

Sign of f (x )
Concave upward on Concave downward on Concave upward on
( , 0) 2 2
Behavior of f 0, ,
3 3

1
2
Thus, the graph f is concaveKING
SAUDUNIVERSITY
upward on ( , 0) and , . Moreover, it is concave
3
2 PREPARATORY
YEAR DEANSHIP
downward on 0, , as it can be seen in Figure 4.4.3.
3 BASICSCIENCE DEPARTMENT
10 y

6 y = 6x4 − 8x3

CU 4

2
CU
x
−1 CD 1 2
−2 x= 2
3
−4

Figure
3 y4.4.3

CU 2 CU

1
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 267
CD
−1
x2
−2 y= 2
SECTION 4.4 CONCAVITY

x2
EXAMPLE 4.4.2 If f (x ) , discuss the concavity of f .
x2 1

Solution It is clear that f is defined and continuous for all x in { 1,1} . Hence, by
differentiating f twice, we obtain

(x 2 1)(2x ) x 2 (2x )
f (x )
(x 2 1)2
2x 3 2x 2x 3 2x
,
2 2 2
(x 1) (x 1)2

(x 2 1)2 ( 2) ( 2x )2(x 2 1)(2x )

f (x )
(x 2 1)4
2 2
(x 1)( 2x 2 ( 8x 2 )) 6x 2 2
(x 2 1)4 (x 2 1)3
2
2(3x 1)
.
(x 2 1)3

2(3x 2 1)
Since f (x ) , there are no real numbers that make 2(3x 2 1) 0 . However, f
2 3
(x 1)
does not exist at x 1 . Also, the function f is not defined at x 1 . So, we have the

intervals as follow ( , 1),( 1,1) and (1, ) . By applying Theorem 4.4.1, we summarize

our result in the following chart.

Interval , 1 1,1 1,

Test value k 2 0 2

26 26
Value of f (k ) f ( 2) 0 f 0 2 0 f (2) 0
27 27
Sign of f (x )
Concave upward on Concave downward on Concave upward on
( , 1) 1,1 1,
Behavior of f

Hence, the graph of f is concave upward on ( , 1) and 1, . Moreover, It is concave

downward on 1,1 . The graph of the function f can be seen in Figure 4.4.4.

268
 6 y = 6x − 8x

CU 4

2
CU
x
−1 CHAPTER
CD 4 APPLICATIONS
1 2 OF DIFFERENTIATION
−2 x= 2
3
−4

3 y

CU 2 CU

1
x
−3 −2 −1 CD 1 2 3
−1
x2
−2 y=
x2 − 1
−3

Figure
15 4.4.4 y
(−1, 15)
y = 3x3 − 9x + 9 CD 10 I.P.
(0, 9)
EXAMPLE 4.4.3 If f (x ) sin x 5 , discuss the concavity on the interval [0, 2 ] .
5 CU
Solution We have that f is defined on the interval(1,[0,
3) 2 ] . Hence,
x
by differentiating f twice,
we obtain −3 −2 −1 1 2 3

f (x ) −5 cos x ,
f (x ) sin x .
−10

Since f (x ) sin x , then by setting f 15(x )y sin x 0 x . As in the previous

! " # !"
examples, we have the intervals as− follow
6 801
,
5 125
0,12 and , 62, 801 #. By applying Theorem 4.4.1, we
(0, 9) 5 125
9
can summaries the testing of such intervalsCDin the CD following chart.
CU I.P. 6 I.P. CU
√ √
(− 2, 5) y = x63− 3x4 + 9 ( 2, 5)
Interval 0, ,2
x
−2 −1 1 2 3
Test value k −3
2 2

3
Value of f (k ) f 1 0 f 1 0
2 2

Sign of f (x )

Concave downward on 0, Concave upward on ,2

Behavior of f

Therefore, the graph f is concave downward on 0, and upward on ,2 . The behavior

of f can be shown in Figure 4.4.5.

269
 3 y
y = 2x5 2

SECTION 4.4 CONCAVITY

x
−2 −1 1 2
−1 10 y
y −2 8
y 5 5 1 sin x
6 6
CD −3
5 Concave
CU 4
4 upward
3 2

x Co
0 p 2p −1
–1 −2 do

Figure 4.4.5 −4

RELATED PROBLEM 1
a. If f (x ) x4 4x 3 12 , find the interval(s) on which f is concave upward or concave
downward.
x
b. If f (x ) , find the interval(s) on which f is concave upward or concave
2
x 1
downward.

c. If f (x ) 2x tan x , discuss the concavity on the interval , .

2 2
Answers
a. Concave upward: ( , 0),(2, ) , Concave downward: (0, 2) .

b. Concave upward: ( 1, 0),(1, ) , Concave downward: ( , 1),(0,1) .

c. Concave upward: , 0 , Concave downward: 0, .

2 2

EXAMPLE 4.4.4 Figure 4.4.6 shows the graph of f . Find the intervals on which f is concave
upward or concave downward.
y
y y " x4
2
15 y
CU CU
10 f (x) 3
1
5 2
CD
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
!5
!1 0 1 x !4 !3 !2 !1
!10
!15 FIGURE 14 FIGURE 15
f !(0) " 0, but (0, 0) is not an t! is discontinuous
inflection point of f. is not an inflection p
Figure 4.4.6
y y
Solution Since the graph of f is increasing on (0,1) and
f !(c) "(4,
0 ) , then the graph of f is
f #(c) $ 0
concave upward on these intervals. However, the graph of f is decreasing on (1, 4) , so, the
graph of f is concave downward on this interval. f #(c) < 0 f!(c) " 0

( ) ( )
0 a c b x 0 a c b x

270 (a) f has a relative maximum at c. (b) f has a relative minimum at c.

y y y
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

y
y y " x4
POINTS OF INFLECTION 2
15 y
In Example 4.4.3, we have studied the concavity
CU CUthe function f (x )
for sin x 5 . From
10 f (x) 3 y " x 2/3
1
Figure5 4.4.5, we can see that the curve changes from concaving downward2 to concaving
CD CD
1
x
upward0 at 1the2 point
3 4 5, 5 6. Such a point is called a point of inflection. In other words, the
!5 x
!1 0 1 x !4 !3 !2 !1 1 2 3 4
points
!10 in the curve where the slope of tangent lines change from increasing to decreasing or
!15 FIGURE 14 FIGURE 15
vice versa, are called inflection points. f !(0) " 0, but (0, 0) is not an t! is discontinuous at 0, but (0, 0)
inflection point of f. is not an inflection point of t.

DEFINITION
y 4.4.2 y
f !(c) " 0
Let f be a continuous function on the interval fa#(c)
, b $ and
0 c (a, b) . If the graph of
f is concave upward on a, c and downward on c, b or vice versa, then the point
f #(c) < 0 f !(c) " 0
c, f (c) is called an inflection point of the graph of f .
( ) ( )
0 a c b x 0 a c b x
Figure 4.4.7 shows some types of inflection points if they exist. We denote the point of
(a) f has a relative maximum at c. (b) f has a relative minimum at c.
inflection by (I.P.).

y y y

CD
CU
CD I.P. I.P. I.P.
CU
CD CU

0 x 0 x 0 x

Figure 4.4.7
3 y
5
y = 2x 2
If f (x ) 0 or f (x ) does not exist at some c in the domain of f ; it is not necessary that
1
the point c, f (c) is an inflection point of this function, as illustrated in Figure 4.4.8.
x
y y
−2 −1 4 1 2
y y f(x) " x 4 f(x) " x
2 −1 10 y
2
15 y y
y −2 CU 8 g(x) " x 2/3
f (x)y 5 5 1 sin x CU CU CU y = 6x4 − 8x3
f (x) 10 g(x) " x 2/3 3
6
3
1 1 −3 6
5 CD 2 2
5 CD Concave CD
CU CD CD 1 4
4 1
1 2 3
0
4 5 16 2x 3 4 5 6 x upward
Concave
!5 3 x upward
0 1 !2x!1 1!42!33!24!1x 1 22 3 4
!10 !1 0 1!1 x !4 !3
x
!15 0 pFIGURE 14 2p x FIGURE 14 FIGURE 15 FIGURE −115 Concave 1 2
–1 a. f (0) 0 , but (0, 0) isf not
!(0) "an
f !(0) " 0, but (0, 0) is not an 0, inflection
but (0, 0) is not an
b. g (0) t! is discontinuous
t! is discontinuous at 0, but (0,not
does 0) exist,at −2
0, but(0,
but (0, 0)
0) is not
downward
2 an
inflection point of isf. not an inflection point
is not point of t. x= 3
point ofinflection
f . point of f. inflection of an. inflection
tpoint of g . −4
y y y y
f!(c) " 0 f !(c) " 0 Figure 4.4.8
f #(c) $ 0 f #(c) $ 0

f #(c) < 0
f #(c) < 0 f !(c) " 0 f !(c) " 0
271
( ( ) ( )
0 0) a x c b 0 x ( 0) a x c b x
a c b a c b
SECTION 4.4 CONCAVITY

EXAMPLE 4.4.5 If Figure 4.4.9 shows the graph of f , find:

a. The intervals on which f is concave upward or downward.
b. The x -coordinate of the inflection points of f .
y y

18

f !(x) 9 f(x)

x
−1 1 2 3 4

−9
x (2, -16)
−18
−2 −1 1 2
−27

Figure 4.4.9

Solution
y y
a. The function f is concave upward when the graph of f lies above the x -axis, and y ! x4
1 1
concave downward when the graph of f lies below the x -axis. Thus, f is concave
upward on ( 2, ) and concave downward on ( , 2) .
"1 0 1 x "1 0 1 x "
b. The point of inflection is the point at which f 22equals zero or f
FIGURE does not exist and
the function changes itsThe Second Derivative Test is not
concavity we can see that x
at such point. Hence, "1 2 "1is
useful when the second derivative
y ! "x 4
the x -coordinate of the inflection
is zero at a point, whilec.
critical number 1, f (1) is not an inflection point in
spite of f (1) 0 ; because the function does not change its concavity at this point.

y
As we have seen above, the method of finding the inflection points for the curve f is by
Concave
testing the concavity and determining c , where f (c) 0 .ward
up However, the point of inflection
y ! f (x)
may occur where f does not exist. We conclude our argument in the following Theorem.
x

Increasing slopes

Let c, f (c) y
be a point of inflection of the graph of the function
y ! f (x)
f . Then, either
Concave
f (c) 0 or f (c) does not exist. downward

x
Now, we are going to find the inflection points for Example 4.4.1.
Decreasing slopes
4 3
In Example 4.4.1, we have f (x ) 8x . From the chart in the solution of this example,
6x
2
we can see that the concavity changes the direction at x 0 and x and these numbers
3
are in the domain of f . So, we can locate the points of inflection which are 0, f 0 and
2 2 2 32
,f . Hence, we have 0, 0 and , are the points of inflection of the function
3 3 3 27

272
 8

5
y = x2/3 − x5/3
CU 2
4
CHAPTER
#
1
! 1 "2/3 $4I.P. APPLICATIONS
! 3"
1, 2 OF DIFFERENTIATION
−2, 3 2
CD CD x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2
f . Figure 4.4.10 illustrated the inflection points of the graph of f .
10 y

6 y = 6x4 − 8x3

CU 4

2
CU
I.P. x
−1 CD I.P. 1 2
−2 x= 2
3
−4

Figure 4.4.10

In the preceding section, we have found the local extrema of a function f using the first
derivative test, Theorem 4.3.2. We may be able to use the second derivative of f to identify
the local extrema.

THE SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST

We have used the second derivative of f to test the concavity. Moreover, under some
conditions, we are going to use the second derivative of f to test the local extrema of the
function. This is another method of identifying the local extrema of a function f . The
following theorem states the second derivative test for local extrema.

THEOREM 4.4.3 (The Second Derivative Test)

Suppose that a function f is continuous on the interval a, b . Let c be in the
interval a, b and f (c) 0.

a. If f (c) 0 , then f has a local maximum at c .

b. If f (c) 0 , then f has a local minimum at c .

c. If f (c) 0 , then the test fails. So, the function f may have a local maximum,
local minimum, or neither. In such case, we may use the first derivative test.

PROOF
For part (a). We have f (c) 0 , where c is in the interval a, b . If f (c) 0 , then the
function f is concave downward near c . Moreover, f (c) 0 then, the tangent line at the
point c, f (c) is horizontal, which was illustrated in Figure 4.4.11(a).

273
 y y
y y y "x 4 y " x4
2 2
15 15 y y
SECTION
10
4.4 fCONCAVITY
(x)10 f (x) CU CU
CU CU
3 y"
3x
2/3
y " x 2/3
1 1
5 5 2 2
CD CD CD CD
1
From the0 above
1 2argument,
30 4 1 5 we
2 6 can
3 x 4 obtain
5 6 that
x the graph of the function f lies 1under the
!5 !5 x1 x
horizontal tangent line at the point c, f (c) !1
. Hence,
0 the 1 0x f has1!4
!1function a !3
local
x !2 maximum 2at!1
1 !2
!1 !4 !3 3 4 2 3 4
!10 !10
c. !15 !15 FIGURE 14 FIGURE 14 FIGURE 15 FIGURE 15
f !(0)
f !(0) " 0, but (0, 0) is"not an (0, 0) is t!
0, but notisan t! isatdiscontinuous
discontinuous 0, but (0, 0) at 0, but (0, 0)
inflection point inflection
of f. point of f. is not an inflectionis not an of
point t.
inflection point of t.
Part (b) can be proved similarly, which was shown in Figure 4.4.11(b).
y y y y
f !(c) " 0 f!(c) " 0
f #(c) $ 0 f #(c) $ 0

f #(c) < 0 f #(c) < 0 f !(c) " 0 f!(c) " 0

y y y y y y
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 a 0c b a c xb 0 x a 0c b a c x b x
18 18 18

f(x) f(x) (a) f(x)f has a relative(b)

(b)
(b)
f !(x) f !(x)(a) f !(x)
has a relative
9 (a) maximum 9at c. maximum
9f has a relative at c. minimum at c. minimum at c.
f has a relative
Figure 4.4.11
y y x x x y
y− 1 4 y y
−1 1− 1 21 32 1 34 2 43
For part (c), we −only
9
need − 9examples of functions which have f (c)
−9
f (c) 0 . We can
CD CD
4 4 CU 3
have fx(x ) x x , xCD
f (x ) x and f(2,
(2, -16) (x -16) . They
) (2,x -16) f (c)
all have CU f (c) 0 , where c 0.
− 18 −18
I.P. −CD
18 I.P. I.P.
I.P. 4 I.P. I.P.
−2 −1
−2 −1−2 1 −1 However,
21 2 1 we
2 can show easily that f (x ) x has a local minimum at 0 , f (x ) x 4 has a
− 27 −27
CU − 27 CU
local maximum at 0 and f (x ) x 3 does not have local
CD extrema, CD
which was shown
CU in Figure
CU
4.4.12.
0 0 x 0 x 0 x 0 x 0 x x
y y y y y y y y y
y ! x y ! x4 y ! x4
4
y ! x y ! x y ! x3
3 3

1 1 1 1 13 1 1 1 1
y 3 y
y = 2x5 2y = 2x5 2
y ! x3 y ! x3 y ! x3
"1 "10 "10 1 0x 1 x 1"1 x "10 0
"11 1 0x 1 x 1"1 x "10 "10 1 0x 1 x 1 x
FIGUREFIGURE
22 FIGURE
22 22 1
e Second
The Second
Derivative
The Second
Derivative
TestDerivative
is Test
not is not
Test is not x x "1
"1 "1 "1 "1 "1 "1 "1 "1
ful useful
when thewhen
useful
second
the
when
second
derivative
the second
derivative
derivative −24 −1 −2 −1 1 2 1 2
y ! "xy4 ! "x 4y ! "x x 1 x 1 x
is zeroisatzero
a critical
at
is azero
critical
number
at a critical
number
c. number
c. c. −1 −1 10 y 1
10 y
y
y Figure
−2 4.4.12 −2 8 8y = 6x4 − 8x3
y 5 5 1 sin x y = 6x4 −
y 5 5 1 sin x
6 6
CD 6 −3 −3 6
y 5y y CD Concave
5 CU Concave
4 ConcaveConcaveConcave CU upward
4 4
EXAMPLE
3
upwardup4.4.6
4
If f (x )
ward upward 3x 3 9x 9 , find the local extrema of f using the second
upward Concave
upward
Concav
3 2 2 upward
y ! f (x)y ! f (x) y ! f (x)
derivative test. Discuss the concavity of f and find the point(s) of inflection. x
x x xx
0 p 2p x −1 Concave 1Concave 2
Solution 0 2p −1 find f and 1
–1 f is a polynomial, then f is continuous for every x in
Since . −2
We
–1 p downward
Increasing
Increasing
slopes
Increasing
slopes slopes −223
x= downward
x= 2
3
f as follows −4
−4
y y y
y ! f (x)y ! f (x) y ! f (x)
f (x ) 9x 2 9, f (x ) 18x .
ConcaveConcaveConcave
downward
downwarddownward
First, we are going to find the local extrema of f . We have to find the critical numbers using
x x x
the first derivative. If f (x ) 9x 2 9 0 , then x 1 . Therefore, by applying Theorem
4.4.3 (the
Decreasing second
Decreasing
slopes slopesderivate
Decreasing slopes test) we obtain that

274
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
1

KING
SAUDUNIVERSITY
f (1) 18 0 and f ( 1) 18 0.
PREPARATORY
YEAR
DEANSHIP
Hence, the function f has a local maximum atDEPARTMENT
BASICSCIENCE ( 1,15) and local minimum at (1, 3) .

Secondly, in order to find the intervals on

10 which
y f is concave upward or concave downward;
f (x ) 0 if x 0 . Thus, we obtain the 8intervals , 0 and 0, . By applying Theorem
4.4.1, we summarize our result in the following
6 chart.
y = 6x4 − 8x3

CU 4
Interval ( , 0) 0,
2
CU
Test value k x
1 1
−1 CD 1 2
f ( 1) −2
18 0 f 1 18 0
Value of f (k ) x= 2
3
−4
Sign of f (x )
Concave downward on ( 3 ,y0) Concave upward on 0,
Behavior of f
CU 2 CU

1
Thus, the graph of f is concave downward on ( , 0) and concave
x
upward on 0, , as it
can be seen in Figure 4.4.13. −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
CD
−1
Finally, we are going to find the point(s) of inflection if they
x2 exist. Since the concavity
−2 y=
changes the direction at x 0 , so, the point of inflection is x0,
2−1
9 . The graph of the function
f can be seen in Figure 4.4.13. −3

15 y
(−1, 15)
y = 3x3 − 9x + 9 CD 10 I.P.
(0, 9)

5 CU

(1, 3) x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−5

Figure 4.4.13
−10

In the next example we are going to look at a15function

y f where the second derivative test
! "
fail to determine the local extrema of f . #
− 6 , 801
12 !"
6 801
#
5 125 ,
5 125
(0, 9)
9
EXAMPLE 4.4.7 If f (x ) x 6
3x 9 , find theCDlocal extrema of f using the second
4 CD
CU I.P. 6 I.P. CU
√ the concavity of f and √
derivative test if applicable. Discuss find the point(s) of inflection.
(− 2, 5) y = x63− 3x4 + 9 ( 2, 5)

x
−2 −1 1 2 275
−3
SECTION 4.4 CONCAVITY

Solution Since the function f is a polynomial, then it is defined and continuous for all real
numbers. By differentiating f twice, we obtain
f (x ) 6x 5 12x 3 ,
f (x ) 30x 4 36x 2 6x 2 (5x 2 6).

First, we are going to find the local extrema of f . The critical numbers can be found by the
first derivative. We solve f (x ) 0 . As f (x ) 6x 3 (x 2 2) 0 then, x 0 or x 2.
Thus, the critical numbers for the function f are 2, 0 and 2 . Hence, by applying the
second derivate test, Theorem 4.4.3, we obtain

f 2 48 0, f 0 0 and f 2 48 0.

Hence, the function f has a local minimum at 2, 5 and 2, 5 . However, the second
derivative test fails at x 0 , because f 0 0 . Therefore, we have to use the first
derivative test, Theorem 4.3.2. Since f is continuous, we can use the test value for the
intervals 2, 0 and 0, 2 . We are studying such intervals, because we want to show if
f (x ) changes the sign at x 0 , as indicated in the following chart.

Interval 2, 0 0, 2

Test value k 1 1

Value of f (k ) f ( 1) 6 0 f (1) 6 0

Sign of f (x )

We can see that the sign of f (x ) changes from positive to negative at x 0 , then f has a
local maximum at (0, 9) .

Secondly, we are going to discuss the concavity of f . We have, f (x ) 0 if x 0 or

6 6 6 6
5x 2 6 0 x . So, we get the intervals as , , , 0 , 0, and
5 5 5 5
6
, . By applying Theorem 4.4.1, we summarize our result in the following chart.
5

6 6 6 6
Interval , ,0 0, ,
5 5 5 5

Test value k 2 1 1 2

Value of f (k ) f ( 2) 336 0 f (1) 6 0 f (2) 336 0

f 1 6 0
Sign of f (x )

276
 2
CU
x
−1 CD 1 2
−2 x= 2
3
CHAPTER
−4 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

3 y
6 6 6 6
Interval , CU 2 ,0 CU 0, ,
5 5 5 5
1
Concave upward Concave downward Concave downward Concave upward
x
−3, 6−2 −1on CD 6, 0 1 2 6 6
Behavior of f on on 30, on ,
5 −1 5 5 5

x2
−2 y=
x2 − 1
6 6
Therefore, the graph of f is concave upward
−3 on , and , . Moreover, It is
5 5

6 6 15
concave downward on , , as it can be yseen in Figure 4.4.14.
5 5 (−1, 15)
y = 3x3 − 9x + 9 CD 10 I.P.
(0, 9)
Finally, we locate the points of inflection if they exist. The chart above shows the concavity
5 CU
6 6 6 6
of f . So, the points of inflection are , f (1, 3) and ,f , because the
5 5 x 5 5
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
6 6
concavity changes the direction at x −5 and x . Hence, the points of inflection
5 5
6 801 6 801
are , and , of the function f can be shown in Figure 4.4.14.
. The graph−10
5 125 5 125
15 y

! " # !" #
12
− 65 , 801
125 6 801
,
(0, 9) 5 125
9
CD CD
CU I.P. 6 I.P. CU
√ √
(− 2, 5) y = x63− 3x4 + 9 ( 2, 5)

x
−2 −1 1 2
−3

Figure 4.4.14

2 5
5 3
EXAMPLE 4.4.8 If f (x ) x x 3 , find the local extrema of f . Discuss the concavity of f
2
and find the points of inflection.

Solution The function f is defined and continuous for all real numbers. By differentiating

f twice, we obtain

277
SECTION 4.4 CONCAVITY

1 2
5 5 3 5 1 x
f (x ) x 3 x ,
3 3 3 1
x3
4 1
5 10 5 1 2x
f (x ) x 3 x 3 .
9 9 9 4
x3

First, we are going to find the local extrema of f . The critical numbers can be found by

5 1 x
obtaining the first derivative. We have to solve f (x ) 0 . If f (x ) 0 , then,
3 1
x3
x 1 . Also, f (x ) does not exists, when x 1/3 0 , so x 0 , and 0 is in the domain of f

. Thus, the critical numbers for the function f are x 0 and x 1 . Hence, by applying
5
the second derivate test, Theorem 4.4.3, we have f 1 0 . Thus, the function f
3
3
has a local maximum at 1, . Whereas, the second derivative test not applicable at x 0
2
, because f 0 is undefined. Hence, we have to use the first derivative test, Theorem 4.3.2.

Since f is continuous we can use the test value for the intervals , 0 and 0,1 as shown

in the following chart.

Interval ,0 0,1

Test value k 1
1
8

10 1 35
Value of f (k ) f ( 1) 0 f 0
3 8 12

Sign of f (x )

We can see that the sign of f (x ) changes from negative to positive, then f has a local

minimum at (0, 0) .

Secondly, we are going to discuss the concavity of f . We have, f (x ) 0 when

1
1 2x 0 x and f (x ) does not exist, when x 0 . Hence, we obtain the following
2
1 1
intervals , , ,0 and 0, . By applying Theorem 4.4.1, we summarize our
2 2
result in the following chart

278
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

1 1
Interval , ,0 0,
2 2

Test value k 1
1 1
8

5 1 20 5
Value of f (k ) f ( 1) 0 f 0 f (1) 0
9 8 3 3

Sign of f (x )
Concave upward on Concave downward on Concave downward on
1 1 0,
, ,0
Behavior of f 2 2

1
Therefore, the graph f is concave upward on , . Moreover, it is concave downward
2
1
on , 0 and 0, , as it can be seen in Figure 4.4.15.
2

Finally, we locate the points of inflection if they exist. The above chart shows the concavity of
1 1 1
f . Since the concavity changes the direction at x , the point of inflection is ,f
2 2 2
2/3
1 1
which is ,3 . The graph of the function f can be seen in Figure 4.4.15.
2 2 2
12 y

5
y = x2/3 − x5/3
CU 2
4
# $ I.P. ! "
! " 2/3 1, 32
− 12 , 3 12
CD CD x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2

10 Figure
y
4.4.15
8

6 y = 6x4 − 8x3
RELATED PROBLEM 2
CU 4
a. If f (x ) x3 3x 2 24x 32 , find the local extrema of f using the second derivative
2
CU
I.P. on which f is concave xupward or concave downward
test. Also, find the open interval(s)
−1 CD I.P. 1 2
and find the points of inflection.
−2 x= 2
3
−4

279
SECTION 4.4 CONCAVITY

b. If f (x ) 3x 5 5x 3 2 , find the local extrema of f using the second derivative

test (if applicable). Also, find the open interval on which f is concave upward or
concave downward and find the points of inflection.

c. If f (x ) 3x 5/3 5x , find the local extrema of f using the second derivative test.
Also, find the open interval on which f is concave upward or concave downward and
find the points of inflection.
Answers
a. Local minimum -48 at x 4 , Local maximum 60 at x 2 . Concave downward on
( ,1) and concave upward on (1, ) . Inflection point: (1, 6) .

b. Local minimum 0 at x 1 , Local maximum 4 at x 1 . Concave upward on

1 1 1 1
, , 0, and concave downward on ,0 , , . Inflection point:
2 2 2 2
1 7 1 7
(0, 2), ,2 , ,2 .
2 4 2 2 4 2

c. Local minimum -2 at x 1 , Local maximum 2 at x 1 . Concave upward on

0, and concave downward on , 0 . Inflection point: (0, 0) .

280
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
yy 1.
1. yy 2.
2. yy
yy
66
44
44 EXERCISES 4.4
In Exercises 1xx – 4, the graph of f xx is shown. State the signs of f and f on the interval
−2
−2 22 44 −−6
6 −−44 22 44 66 ff
2) .
(0,−2
−2 −−2
2
ff
−−4
4
−4
−4
−−6
6 ff′′ xx xx
1. 2. 3. 11 22 4. 11 22
yy
yy yy
1. 1.y y 2. 2.y y 3.
3. 4.
4.
22
ff′′′′
11

xx
x x ππ ππ ππ ππ ff
42 64 6 44 22 22 f f
f f ff
−−2
2
f′ f′ x x x x xx xx
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 11 22 11 22

3. 3.y y 4. 4.y y

In Exercises 5 - 9, given the graph of the first derivative of a function f . Find:

y
y 1. y 2. y

f f 6
4
f f 4

x x x x
1 1 2 2 x1 1 2 2 x
−2 2 4 −6 −4 2 4 6 f
−2 −2
f
−4
−4
−6 f′ x
1 2 1
y
Figure 4.4.16 3. y 4. y
y 1. y
2 y
5. The critical numbers of f .
f ′′ 6
1
6. The x -coordinate of the local extreme
4 values. 4
x
7. The intervalsπ onπ which
π πf is decreasing or increasing. f
4 2 2 x x
8. The intervals on which f is−2concave2 upward
4 or concave
−6 −4
downward.
2 4 6 f
−2 −2
− 2 f
9. The x -coordinate of the inflection points of f . −4 x
−4 1 2 1
−6 f′
In Exercises 10 - 11, given the graph of the second derivative of a function f . Find: 1 2
y
3. y

2
f ′′
1

x
π π π π f
4 2 2

−2

Figure 4.4.17 1 2

10. The intervals on which f is concave upward or concave downward.

11. The x coordinate of the inflection points of f .

281
SECTION 4.4 CONCAVITY

In Excesses 12 – 23, determine the interval(s) on which the graph is concave upward or
concave downward.

12. y x2 x 2 13. y x3 3x 2 2 14. g(x ) 3x 2 x3

24
15. f (x ) x2 9 x2 16. f (x ) x3 6x 2 9x 1 17. f (x )
2
x 12

x2 x2 1 3x 5 40x 3 135x
18. f (x ) 19. f (x ) 20. f (x )
2 2 270
x 1 x 1

21. g(a ) a2 2a 22. y x 2 cos x , [0, 2 ] 23. y 2x tan x , ,

2 2

In Exercises 24 - 35, discuss the concavity of the graph of the function and find the points
of inflection
1 4
24. f (x )
2
x 2x 3 25. f (x ) x3 6x 2 12x 26. f (x ) 1 4
x 2x 2
4

27. f (x ) 2x 4 8x 3 28. f (x ) x (x 4)3 29. f (x ) (x 2)3 (x 1)

4
30. f (x ) x x 3 31. f (x ) x 9 x 32. f (x )
2
x 1

x 1 x 35. f (x ) sin x cos x , [0, 2 ]

33. f (x ) 34. f (x ) sin , [0, 4 ]
x 2

In Exercises 36 - 46, find all local extrema. Use the Second Derivative Test where applicable.

x , if x 0
36. f (x ) (x 5)2 37. f (x ) x 38. f (x ) x4 4x 3 2
x, if x 0

39. f (x ) x 2 (6 x )3 40. f (x ) 1
(x 2)2 (x 4)2 41. f (x ) x2 1
8

4 x
42. f (x ) x 2/3 3 43. f (x ) x 44. f (x )
x x 1

45. f (x ) x cos x , [0, 2 ] 46. f (x ) 2 sin x cos(2x ), [0, 2 ]

1
47. Find k given that f (x ) kx 2 has 1, f (1) as an inflection point.
x2

48. Find a and b given that the graph of f (x ) ax 3 bx 2 passes through 1,1 and has
1
an inflection point at x .
3
b
49. Find a and b given that the graph of f (x ) a x has 1, 4 as an inflection
x
point.

282
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

Section 4.5

In the previous sections, we have studied some particular aspects of functions such as: extreme
values, intervals of increasing and decreasing, concavity and points of inflection. This information
can be used to sketch the graph of the function; consequently, understand the behavior of such
function. The following guidelines help us to sketch the graph of y f (x ) .

Guidelines for Sketching the Graph of the Function y f (x )

1. Find the domain of the function.

2. Find x -intercepts by solving f (x ) 0 if any, and y -intercept by computing f (0) if

it exists.

3. Determine the symmetry of the function. If f is even (i.e., f ( x ) f (x ) ), then the

graph is symmetric with respect to the y -axis. If f is odd (i.e., f ( x ) f (x ) ), then
the graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.

4. Find the critical numbers, local extrema and determine intervals of increasing and
decreasing. First, find f (x ) then find the critical numbers where f (x ) 0 or f (x )
does not exist. Then, classify the local extrema. Finally, determine whether the
function is increasing ( f (x ) 0 ) or decreasing ( f (x ) 0 ).

5. Determine concavity and find the inflection points. First, find f (x ) then find
its roots. The function is concave upward if f (x ) 0 and concave downward if
f (x ) 0 . If f is continuous at c and f (x ) changes sign at c then (c, f (c)) is a
point of inflection.

6. Find the horizontal asymptote ( y L if lim f (x ) L or lim f (x ) L ) and the

x x

vertical asymptote ( x a if lim f (x ) or lim f (x ) is either or ).

x a x a

7. Plot key points, such as the intercepts and the points found in 4 and 5, and plot the
asymptotes (if any), then sketch the curve.

Note that not every item is relevant to every function, for instance a polynomial does not
have an asymptote. We start with a polynomial function and apply the guidelines to plot the
function.

283
SECTION 4.5 CURVE SKETCHING

EXAMPLE 4.5.1 Sketch the graph of the function f (x ) 6x 4 8x 3 .

Solution
1. The function is a polynomial; therefore, Df .

2. To find x -intercept, solve f (x ) 6x 4 8x 3 0 , and we obtain

4
2x 3 (3x 4) 0 x 0, x
3
4
hence, the function intersect the x -axis at the points (0, 0) and , 0 . Then, we find
3
y -intercept by computing f (0) and we obtain the point (0, 0) .

3. The function is neither an even nor an odd because f ( x ) 6x 4 8x 3 which does not
equal to f (x ) nor f (x ) .

4. We compute the derivative of the function

f (x ) 24x 3 24x 2
then find the critical numbers:
f (x ) 24x 2 (x 1) 0 x 0, x 1

Interval ( , 0) 0,1 1,

Test value k 1
1 2
2

1
Value of f (k ) f ( 1) 48 0 f 3 0 f (2) 96 0
2

Sign of f (x )
decreasing on decreasing on increasing on

Behavior of f ,0 0,1 1,

Using the first derivative test for local extrema, we see that there is no extrema at
x 0 and a local minimum at x 1 , and f (1) 2 is a local minimum.

5. In order to find the intervals on which f is concave upward or concave downward, we

need to find the second derivative:

f (x ) 24(3x 2 2x ) 24x (3x 2)

2
Therefore, f (x ) 0 if x 0 or x , and we have:
3

284
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

2 2
Interval ( , 0) 0, ,
3 3

Test value k 1
1 1
3

1
Value of f (k ) f ( 1) 120 0 f 8 0 f (1) 24 0
3

Concave upward Concave downward Concave upward

2 2
Behavior of f on ( , 0) on 0, on ,
3 3

2 32 1
Moreover, the points (0, 0) and , are points of inflection.
3 27
KING SAUD UNIVERSITY
6. The function is a polynomial;
PREPARATORYtherefore, it does
YEAR not have asymptotes.
DEANSHIP
1
BASIC SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
7. The curve is sketched in Figure 4.5.1.
KING
10 SAUD UNIVERSITY
y
PREPARATORY
8 YEAR DEANSHIP
BASIC SCIENCE
6 yDEPARTMENT
= 6x4 − 8x3

4
10 y
2
8
x
4 !4 3 "
−1 6 1 − 8x
y = 6x
3
,0 2
−2 ! 2 −32 "
4 ,
3 27
(1, −2)
−4
2
Figure 4.5.1 x
40 y !4 "
−1 1 3
,0 2
30 −2 !2 "
RELATED PROBLEM 1 Sketch the graph of the function
3
,0 (1,f (−2)
x) x 4
12x 3 48x 2 64x .
20 −4
Answer
10 y = x4 − 12x3 + 48x2 − 64x
40 y x
−1 30 1 2 3 4 5 6
−10
20
−20
10 y = x4 − 12x3 + 48x2 − 64x
−30
x
−1 1 23 3 4 5 6
−10 y

−20 2

−30 1

Figure 4.5.2 x
3 y
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1 2
285
−2
1
−3 x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
SECTION 4.5 CURVE SKETCHING

In the following examples, we sketch the graph of rational functions.

x2
Example 4.5.2 Sketch the graph of the function f (x ) .
x2 1
Solution
1. The function is a rational function; therefore, the
Df {x | x 2 1 0} {x | x 1} {1, 1} .

x2
2. To find x -intercept, we solve f (x ) 0 , and we get
x2 1
x2 0 x 0

Hence, the function intersects the x -axis at the point (0, 0) . Then, we find y -intercept
by computing f (0) and we obtain the point (0, 0) .

3. The function is an even function because

( x )2 x2
f ( x) f (x )
( x2) 1 x2 1

So, the function is symmetric with respect to the y –axis.

4. We compute the derivative of the function

(x 2 1)(2x ) x 2 (2x )
f (x )
(x 2 1)2
3
2x 2x 2x 3
(x 2 1)2
2x
(x 2 1)2
then find the critical numbers:
2x 0 x 0

Since the function is not defined at 1, 1 , the only critical number is x 0 . Thus, we
study the sign of the derivative at the intervals ( , 1) , 1, 0 , 0,1 , 1,

Interval ( , 1) 1, 0 0,1 1,

Test value k 1 1
2 2
2 2

4 1 16 1 16 4
Value of f (k ) f ( 2) 0 f 0 f 0 f (2) 0
9 2 9 2 9 9

Sign of f (x )

286
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

Interval ( , 1) 1, 0 0,1 1,

increasing on increasing on decreasing on decreasing on

Behavior of f ( , 1) 1, 0 0,1 1,

The only critical number is x 0 . Using the first derivative test, we see that there is
a local maximum at x 0 , and f (0) 0 is a local maximum.

5. In order to find the intervals on which f is concave upward or concave downward, we

need to find the second derivative:

(x 2 1)2 ( 2) ( 2x )2(x 2 1)(2x )

f (x )
2 4
(x 1)
2 2
(x 1)( 2x 2 ( 8x 2 ))
(x 2 1)4
6x 2 2
.
2
(x 1)3
Since 6x 2 2 0 , and f is not continuous at x 1 , we look at the intervals
( , 1),( 1,1) and (1, ).

Interval , 1 1,1 1,

Test value k 2 0 2

26 26
Value of f (k ) f ( 2) 0 f 0 2 0 f (2) 0
27 27
Concave upward Concave downward Concave upward
Behavior of f on ( , 1) on on 1,
1,1

Moreover, there are no points of inflection.

6. To find the horizontal asymptote, we find the limits:

x2 x2
lim 1, lim 1
x x2 1 x x2 1
Therefore, the line y 1 is a horizontal asymptote.

To find the vertical asymptote(s), we compute the limits at the zeros of the denominator
x 1:
x2 x2
lim , lim
x 1 x2 1 x 1 x2 1

287
 3
,0 (1, −2) x
−4 !4 "
−1 1 3
,0 2
−2 !2 "
3
,0 (1, −2)
40 y −4

SECTION 4.5 CURVE SKETCHING

30
40 y
20
30 y = x4 − 12x3 + 48x2 − 64x
10
20 2 x
x x2
lim
−1
10
1 y = x,42− 12x33+ 48x
lim
24
− 64x 5 6
x x2 1
1 −10 x 1 x2 1
x
−20
Therefore, the lines−1x −101 and 1x 2
1 are3vertical
4 5 6
asymptotes. This information about
−30
asymptotes is summarized in Figure 4.5.3
−20

−30 3 y

2
3 y
1
2
x
−3 −2 −1 1 1 2 3
−1 x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−2
−1
−3
−2
Figure 4.5.3
−33 y
7. The curve is sketched in Figure 4.5.4.
2
3 y
1
2
x
−3 −2 −1 1 1 2 3
−1 x
−3 −2 −1 1 2x 2 3
−2 y=
−1 x2 − 1
−3 x2
−2 y=
x2−1
−3
Figure 4.5.4

2(x 2 9)
RELATED PROBLEM 2 Sketch the graph of the function f (x ) .
x2 4 2
Answer
8 y

4 2(x2 − 9)
y=
x2 − 4
2
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−2

−4

Figure 4.5.5
6 y

288 5

4
x2
y=√
! " x−1
3 √
4 16 3
,
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

x2
EXAMPLE 4.5.3 Sketch the graph of the function f (x ) .
x 1
Solution
1. The function is a quotient of two functions and it contains a square root; therefore,
Df {x | x 1 0} {x | x 1} (1, ).

x2
2. To find x -intercept, we solve f (x ) 0 , and we get
x 1
x2 0 x 0

however, x 0 is not in the domain of f ; therefore, the curve does not intersect with

the axis nor the y -axis.

3. The function is not an even nor an odd (why?).

4. We compute the derivative of the function

1 4x (x 1) x2
2x x 1 x2
2 x 1 2 x 1 3x 2 4x
f (x )
x 1 (x 1) 2(x 1)3/2

then find the critical numbers by setting f (x ) 0.

3x 2 4x 0
x (3x 4) 0
4
x 0, x
3
Notice that x 0 is not in the domain of f . The function is not defined at the zero of
4
the denominator x 1 , therefore, the critical number is x .
3

4 4
Interval 1, ,
3 3

Test value k 10
2
9

10
Value of f (k ) f 10 0 f 2 2 0
9

Sign of f (x )

4 4
decreasing on 1, increasing on ,
Behavior of f 3 3

289
SECTION 4.5 CURVE SKETCHING

4
Using the first derivative test, we see that there is a local minimum at x , and
3
4 16 3
f 3.08 is local minimum.
3 9

5. In order to find the intervals on which f is concave upward or concave downward, we

need to find the second derivative:

2(x 1)3/2 (6x 4) 3(3x 2 4x )(x 1)1/2

f (x )
4(x 1)3
(x 1)1/2 2(x 1)(6x 4) 3(3x 2 4x )
4(x 1)3
3x 2 8x 8
.
5/2
4(x 1)
The denominator is always positive. Setting f (x ) 0 , we obtain 3x 2 8x 8 0.

Since b2 4ac 64 96 32 , the equation 3x 2 8x 8 0 does not have

a real solution; therefore, the numerator is always positive because the coefficient of
x 2 is 3 0 . Thus, f (x ) 0 for all x in the domain of f , which means that f is
concave upward on the interval 1, , and there are no points of inflection.
2
6. The function does not have a horizontal asymptote because:
8x 2y
lim
x x6 1
To find the vertical asymptote, we compute
4 the2 −limit
2(x 9) at the zero of the denominator
y=
x 1 x2 − 4
2
x2 x
lim
−4 −3 −2x 1−1 x 1 1 2 3 4
−2
Therefore, the line x 1 is a vertical asymptote.
−4
7. The curve is sketched in Figure 4.5.6.
6 y

4
x2
y=√
! " x−1
3 √
4 16 3
3
, 9
2

1
x
−1 1 2 3 4
Figure 4.5.6
6 y

290 5

3
 5

4
x2
y=√
! " x−1
3 √

CHAPTER3 ,4 9 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

4 16 3

1
2x 2
RELATED PROBLEM 3 Sketch the graph of the function f (x )x .
−1 1 2 3 4 x 1
Answer
6 y

2
2x2
1 y=√
x+1
x
−2 −1 1 2 3

Figure
12
4.5.7
y
x2
9 y=
1 x
x −sin
EXAMPLE 4.5.4 Sketch the graph of the function
6 f (x ) on the interval (0, 2 ) .
(2, 4) 1 cos x
Solution 3 y =x+1
x
1. The function is a quotient of two functions; therefore,
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6
Df {x (0,−3
2 ) | 1 cos x 0}
{x (0,−6
2 ) | cos x 1}
{x 2 )|x
(0,−9 0, 2 }
(0, 2 ).

sin x
2. To find x -intercept, we solve f (x ) 0 , and we obtain
1 cos x
sin x 0 x .

Hence, the function intersects the x -axis at the point ( , 0) . There are no y -intercept
because x 0 is not in the domain of the function f .

3. Since the function is defined on (0, 2 ) which is not symmetric about the origin, there
is no meaning to study the symmetry of the function.

4. We compute the derivative of the function and find the critical numbers:
sin x
f (x )
1 cos x
(1 cos x )cos x sin x (sin x )
(1 cos x )2

291
SECTION 4.5 CURVE SKETCHING

cos x cos2 x sin2 x

(1 cos x )2
cos x (cos2 x sin2 x )
(1 cos x )2
cos x 1
(1 cos x )2
cos x 1
(cos x 1)2
1
.
cos x 1
Since the numerator does not equal to zero, and the function is not defined at the zeros
of the denominator, the function does not have critical numbers. We study the sign of
the derivative at the interval (0, 2 )

Interval (0, 2 )

Test value k
2

Value of f (k ) f 1 0
2

Sign of f (x )

decreasing on (0, 2 )
Behavior of f

5. In order to find the intervals on which f is concave upward or concave downward, we

need to find the second derivative:
sin x
f (x )
(1 cos x )2
Therefore, f (x ) 0 if sin x 0 , so x , and we have:

Interval (0, ) ,2

Test value k 3
2 2

3
Value of f (k ) f 1 0 f 1 0
2 2

Concave upward on Concave downward on

Behavior of f (0, ) ,2

292
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

Moreover, the point ( , 0) is a point of inflection.

sin x 3
6. The function does not have a horizontal asymptote because lim does not
x 1 cos x
exist. 12 y

9 x2 + 4
y=
To find the vertical asymptote, we compute
6 the2xlimits at the zeros of the denominator
x 0, 2 : 2
y = x cos(3x)
3
sin x sin x x 3
lim , lim
1 cos−4
x 0 −6 x −2 x 22 1 4 cos x 6
12
−3 y
Therefore, the lines x 0 and x 29 are vertical
x2 + 4 asymptotes.
−6 y=
2x
6
−9
7. The curve is sketched in Figure 4.5.8. y = x 2
cos(3x)
3
8 y x
−6 −4 6 −2 2 4 6
−3 sin x
4 y=
1 − cos x
−6
2
−9 x
π 2π
−2
8 y
−4
6
−6 sin x
4 y=
1 − cos x
−8
2
Figure 4.5.8 x
0.6 y π 2π
−2 (2π, 0.5)
0.4 cos x
−4 y= cos x
Related Problem 4 Sketch the graph of the 2function
− sin x f (x ) on the interval [0, 2 ] .
0.2 −6 2 sin x
Answer −8 x
π π 3π 2π
2 2
−0.2
0.6 y
(2π, 0.5)
−0.4
0.4 cos x
y=
2 − sin x
−0.6
0.2
x
π π 3π 2π
2 2
−0.2

−0.4

−0.6

Figure 4.5.9

293
SECTION 4.5 CURVE SKETCHING

SLANT ASYMPTOTE
The graph of a rational function whose numerator exceeds the degree of the denominator by
exactly 1 has a slant asymptote. We can find the slant asymptote by using the long division
then write the function as the sum of a first degree polynomial ( mx b ), where m 0 and
another rational function, and we have
lim [ f (x ) (mx b)] 0
x

Then y mx b is a slant asymptote because the distance between the graph of the function
y f (x ) and the line y mx b approaches 0 as x as shown in Figure 4.5.10. ( A
similar situation exists if we let x ).

y
y ! f (x)

81. y
y ! mx " b y ! f '(x)
A

0 x x

Figure 4.5.10 y ! f ''(x)

x2
EXAMPLE 4.5.5 Find the slant asymptote of the function f (x ) .
x 1
x2 1
Solution We use the long division and we obtain f (x ) x 1 . Then, the
x 1 x 1
slant asymptote is y x 1 , because

x2
lim [ f (x ) (mx b)] lim (x 1)
x x x 1
1
lim x 1 (x 1)
x x 1
1
lim
x x 1
0

x2
In Example 4.5.6, we are going to graph the function f (x ) .
x 1

x2 2x 4
RELATED PROBLEM 5 Find the slant asymptote of the function f (x ) .
x 2
Answer y x

x2
EXAMPLE 4.5.6 Sketch the graph of the function f (x ) .
x 1

294
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

Solution

1. The function is a rational function; therefore,

Df {x | x 1 0} {x | x 1} {1} .

x2
2. To find x -intercept, we solve f (x ) 0 , and we get
x 1
x2 0 x 0
hence, the function intersect the x -axis at the point (0, 0) . Then we find y -intercept by
computing f (0) 0 and we obtain the point (0, 0) .

3. We compute the derivative of the function and find the critical numbers:
x2 2x
f (x ) 0
(x 1)2
x2 2x x (x 2) 0
x 0, x 2

Thus the critical numbers are x 0 and x 2.

Interval ( , 0) (0,1) (1, 2) (2, )

Test value k 1 3
1 3
2 2

3 1 3 3
Value of f (k ) f ( 1) 0 f 3 0 f 3 0 f (2) 0
4 2 2 4

Sign of f (x )
increasing on decreasing on decreasing on increasing on
( , 0] [0,1) (1, 2] [2, )
Behavior of f

Using the first derivative test for local extrema, we see that there is local maximum at

x 0 and f (0) 0 , and a local minimum at x 2 , and f (2) 4.

4. In order to find the intervals on which f is concave upward or concave downward, we

need to find the second derivative:
2
f (x )
(x 1)3

Since the numerator equals 2 , f (x ) 0 , and the function does not have an inflection
point.

295
 2
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−2

SECTION 4.5 CURVE SKETCHING −4

6 y

Interval 5 ,1 1,

Test value k 4 0 x2 2
y=√
x−1
Value of f (k ) f 3(0) 1! 4 , 160√3 "
f (2) 2 0
3 9
2
Concave downward on ( , 1) Concave upward on 1,
Behavior of f
1
x
5. The function does not have
−1 a horizontal
1 asymptote
2 3 because:
4

x2
lim
6 y
x x 1
5
To find the vertical asymptote, we compute the limits at the zero of the denominator
4
x 1:
x2 3 x2
lim , lim
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
2
Therefore, the line x 1 is a vertical asymptote.
y=√
2x2
1
x+1
From Example 4.5.5, the function has a slant asymptote
x y x 1.
−2 −1 1 2 3
6. The curve is sketched in Figure 4.5.11.
12 y
x2
9 y=
x−1
6
(2, 4)
3 y =x+1
x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6
−3

−6

−9
Figure 4.5.11

x2 4
RELATED PROBLEM 6 Sketch the graph of the function f (x ) . 3
2x
Answer
12 y

9 x2 + 4
y=
2x
6
y = x2 cos(3x)
3
x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6
−3

−6

−9

Figure 4.5.12
8 y
6
sin x
296 4 y=
1 − cos x
2
x
π 2π
−2
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

EXERCISES 4.5
In Exercises 1-27, sketch the graph of the function.
1. y x2 5x 4 2. y 4 x2
3. y x3 3x 3 4. y 2x 3 6x 2 3

5. y 1 9x 6x 2 x3 6. y (x 2)3 1

7. y x4 2x 2 8. y x4 6x 2 4

9. y x5 5x 4 10. y x 1/5
x 1 x
11. y 12. y
x 2
1 2x 1

13. y 2x 3x 2/3 14. y x 4 x2

x2 3 2
15. y 16. y x2
x 2 x
5 x
17. y 18. y
4 2
x 5 x 4
2 x 3
x 4
19. y 20. y
x2 1 x 2
x x2 x
21. y 22. y
2 2
x 3x 2 x 4
2
2x x
23. y 24. y
2
9 x x 1
2 cos(2x )
(x 1)
25. y 26. y cos x , x [0, 2 ]
1 x2 2
1
27. y , x ( 2 ,2 )
1 cos x
In Exercises 28-31, the first derivative of a continuous function y f (x ) is given. Find y and
sketch the graph of the function y f (x ) .
28. y 2 x x2 29. y x (x 2)2
30. y (x 2 2x )(x 3)2 31. y (x 1) 2/3

y
32. y !The
f (x) following is a graph of the first and second derivative of a function y f (x ) find
the graph of the function y f (x ) that passes through the point A .
81. y
y ! mx " b y ! f '(x)
A

0 x x

y ! f ''(x)

Figure 4.5.13

297
SECTION 4.6 OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS

Section 4.6

In this section, we use differentiation to find the maximum or minimum values of a function

in real life applications such as great profit, least cost, optimum size, and least distance. These

extreme values are called optimal values because they are the best values, and we call the

problem of finding these values an optimization problem. In such a problem we convert the

word problem to a problem of the form y f (x ) , then we find the critical numbers, and the

absolute maximum (or minimum) of the function as required in the problem. We can summarize

the steps of solving an optimization problem in the following guidelines:

Guidelines to Solve Optimization Problems

1. Read the problem and understand what is given and what is unknown quantity to be
optimized.

2. Draw a diagram and identify the given and required quantities on the diagram.

3. Write the constraints (conditions) on the variables.

4. Write the optimization problem, then reduce it –if needed- to a function in one variable
of the other variables, and determine the domain.

5. Find the derivative of the function and find the critical numbers.

6. Evaluate the function at the critical numbers and at the endpoints to find the optimal
solution.

We illustrate the method in the following example.

EXAMPLE 4.6.1 What are the dimensions of a rectangle with perimeter equals 20 cm which

has maximum area?

298
 y " 9 ! x2
(x, y)

CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

!3 !2 !1 1 2 3 x

Solution Let x , y be the dimensions of the rectangle as shown in Figure 4.6.1.

Area 2{π
y
Figure 4.6.1

Now the constraint is the condition that the perimeter equals 20 cm.
The perimeter 2x 2y
and we have
2x 2y 20
x y 10
where 0 x 10 and 0 y 10 because both values are nonnegative.

The area of the rectangle is

A xy

Now, we have to write the area in single variable; therefore, we use the condition x y 10
and find the value of y .We have
y 10 x

then we rewrite the area

A xy
x (10 x)
10x x2
and the domain of A is 0 x 10 . Now we find the derivative of A ,
dA
10 2x
dx

then we find the critical number(s) of A ,

10 2x 0 x 5

We notice that x 5 lies in the domain. Now we evaluate the function at the critical point
and the endpoints and we get
Critical number value: A(5) 25
Endpoints Values: A(0) 0, A(10) 0

The maximum area is 25 cm 2 when x 5 . To find y , we substitute in y 10 x , and we

have y 5.

299
SECTION 4.6 OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS x

x Area: x 2
RELATED PROBLEM 1 What
2
isy the maximum area of a rectangle with perimeter equals 100
y=x 4
cm? Perimeter: 4x
?
2
Answer A 625 cm
d
r
EXAMPLE 4.6.2 An open-top box with(x,ay)rectangular base is to be constructed from a rectangular
2
2 Area: π r
sheet 15 cm wide and 24 cm long by cutting small congruent squares from each corner and
πr
bending up the resulting sides. How large should the squares cut from the Circumference:
corners to 2produce
a box having the largest possible volume?
x
−1 1
Solution We start with a picture as illustrated in Figure 4.6.2, where x is the length of the
r
side of the square to be cut from each corner.
x x
x x x h
h side

15 15 ! 2x 15 ! 2x
w
2r 2πr
x x
24 − 2 x
x 24 ! 2x x
l
24

Figure 4.6.2
The volume of the box is: y
V (x ) lwh
5
(24 2x )(15 2x )x
3 2
4x 78x 360x h
y " 9 ! x2
(x, y)
Since the smallest side of the sheet is 15 cm, we have 0 2x 15 or 0 x 7.5 .
r
To find the critical numbers, we first differentiate V and we get:
2πr
x r
!3 !2 !1 dV 1 2 3
12x 2 156x 360
dx
12(x 3)(x 10)
h
dV
Then 0 , and we have the critical numbers x 3, and x 10 . Since 10 is outside the
dx x

domain of V , the only critical number is 3 . The values of V at the critical number and the
Area 2{πr@} Area (2πr)h
end points are y
V (0) 0
V (3) 486
V (7.5) 0

Therefore, the maximum value is V 486 cm 3 , when we cut a 3 cm square from each corner.

300
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

RELATED PROBLEM 2 An open-top box with a square base is to be constructed from a square
sheet 12 cm by 12 cm by cutting small congruent squares from each corner and bending up the
resulting sides. How large should the squares cut from the corners to produce a box having the
largest possible volume?

Answer V 128 cm 3

EXAMPLE 4.6.3 A 20 cm wire is to be used to form a square and a circle. How much of the wire
should be used for the square and the circle to get the minimum total area?

Solution We have to find the total area of the two shapes as shown in Figure 4.6.3, where x
is the length of the side of the square and r is the radius of the circle.

x Area: x 2
y
y = x2 4
Perimeter: 4x
?

d
r
(x, y)
2 Area: π r 2

Circumference: 2π r

Figure 4.6.3
x
−1 1 area is given by:
The total
A area of square + area of circle r

A x2 r2
x x
x Since the length
x of the wire is 20 cm, we have x
h side h
20 = perimeter of square + perimeter of circle
5 15 ! 2x 15 ! 2x
20 4x 2 r
2r 2πr
x From this condition
x we have
24 − 2 x
x 24 ! 2x x 20 2 r
24 x .
4
Then we substitute in the total area to get:
2
20 2 r
y A r2
4
5 1 2
r2 5 r 25
4
h
y " 9 ! x2
(x, y) 301
r

2πr
SECTION 4.6 OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS

To find the domain of this function, the circumference of the circle should be less than or equal
10
to 20, i.e., 2 r 20 , therefore, 0 r 3.18 .

To find the critical number, we find the zeros of the derivative:

dA 1 2
2 r 5
dr 2
1
2 r 5
2
dA
If 0 , then
dr
1
2 r 5 0
2
5 10
r 1.4
1 4
2
2

10
The critical number is r 1.4 . The values of A at the critical number and the end
4
points are:

A(0) 25
10 100
A 14
4 4
10 100
A 31.83

100
Therefore, the minimum value is A 14 cm 2 .
4

Note that the maximum area occurs when all the wire is used for the circle.

RELATED PROBLEM 3 A 50 cm wire is to be used to form a square and a circle. How much of
the wire should be used for the square and the circle to get the maximum total area?

625
Answer A cm 2

EXAMPLE 4.6.4 What is the closest point on the graph y x2 4 to the point (0, 6) ?

Solution In Figure 4.6.4, we illustrate the plot of the function and the location of the point.

302
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
x

x Area: x 2
y
y = x2 4
Perimeter: 4x
?

d
r
(x, y)
2 Area: π r 2

Circumference: 2π r

x
−1 1

Figure 4.6.4

x x
x 6) and the point (x , yx) is given by:
The distance between the point (0,
x
h

15 15 ! 2x D (x 0)2 (y 6)2 15 ! 2x
2r
But we have y x2 4 , therefore, we substitute y and we obtain
x x
24 − 2 x
Dx x24
2 ! 2x 2
(x 4x 6)2
24
x2 (x 2 2)2
x4 3x 2 4
y

The minimum value of D appears at the minimum

5 value of the expression inside the radical.
Therefore, we need to find the critical numbers of f (x ) x4 3x 2 4 . The domain of this
h
function is all real numbers (why?);y "
therefore,
9 ! x2 we do not have endpoints to consider. Now, we
(x, y)
find the critical numbers by differentiating f and setting f (x ) 0.
r
f (x ) 4x 3 6x 2x (2x 2 3) 0
!3 !23 !1 3 1 2 3 x r
x , 0,
2 2
We use the second derivative test to determine the maximum and minimum values.
f (x ) 12x 2 6
x
3
f 12 0
2
Area 2{πr@} Are
f (0) y 6 0
3
f 12 0
2
3 3
Thus the function has minimum values at the numbers x , and the points closest
2 2
3 11 3 11
to the point (0, 6) are , and , .
2 2 2 2

303
 x
SECTION 4.6 OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS
x Area: x 2
RELATED PROBLEM 4 What is the closest point on the graph y 4 x 2 to the point (0, 2) ?
3 Perimeter:
5 3 5
Answer , and 4x , .
? 2 2 2 2

r
EXAMPLE 4.6.5 A cylindrical can is to be made to hold 500 cm 3 of water. What are the

2 dimensions of the Area:

can that
π r 2 will minimize the cost of the metal to manufacture the can?
Solution Figure 4.6.5 illustrates the can where r is the radius and h is the height measured
Circumference:
in centimeters. 2π r area is the sum of the two circles (top and bottom) 2 r 2 and
The total surface
the side of the can 2 rh .

A 2 r2 2 rh

x
h side h

15 ! 2x
2r 2πr

24 − 2 x

Figure 4.6.5

Thus the surface area is:

A 2 r2 2 rh (1)

Now, we have the volume condition which is

500 r 2h (2)
h
To express the surface area in one variable, we solve (2) for h and we obtain
500
h
r2
r
Then we substitute h in equation (1) and we get:
2πr
x 500
r A 2 r 2
2 r( )
r2
1000
2 r2
r
h
The domain of this function is r 0 . Now we find the critical number of A by differentiating
A

304
Area 2{πr@} Area (2πr)h
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

dA 1000
4 r
dr r2 ,
dA
then solving 0 , we obtain
dr
1000
4 r 0
r2
4 r3 1000
250
r3
250 2
r 3 5 3

We use the second derivative test and we obtain,

d 2A 2000
4
dr 2 r3

d 2A
12 0
dr 2 r 3
250

2
Therefore, the function A has an absolute minimum at r 5 3 . To find h , we substitute
500
in h , and we have
r2

500 2
h 10 3 cm
4
25 3
2

RELATED PROBLEM 5 A cylindrical can is to be made to hold 2000 cm 3 of water. What are the
dimensions of the can that will minimize the cost of the metal to manufacture the can?
10 20
Answer r cm and h cm
3 3

305
SECTION 4.6 OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS

EXERCISES 4.6
1. Find the maximum value of z if z xy and x y 20 .

2. Find the minimum value of w if w s2 t 2 and (s 2 1)t 20 .

3. Find two positive numbers whose sum is 100 and whose product is a maximum.

4. Find two positive numbers whose product is 150 and whose sum is a minimum.

5. What is the length and width of a rectangle which has perimeter 40 cm and has a x
maximum area?
x Area: x 2
y
6. What is the length and widthyof 2 rectangle which has area 90 cm 2 and has a minimum
= xa 4

perimeter? Perimeter: 4x
?

7. What is the closest point on the graph f (dx ) x 2 to the point (3, 0) ?
r
(x, y)
8. Find the point on the curve y x that is closest to the point (3,2 0) . Area: π r 2

2π r
9. The sum of two positive numbers is 16. What is the smallest possible value of theCircumference:
sum
of their squares?
x
−1 1
10. A box with a square base and open top must have a volume 32,000 cm 3 . Find the
dimensions of the box that minimizes the amount material used.
x x
11. If 1,200 cm 2 of material is xavailable to make a boxx with a square base and an open top,
x
h
find the largest possible volume of the box.
15 15 ! 2x 15 ! 2x

12. Find dimensions of the rectangle of largest area that can be inscribed in a circle of 2r
x x
radius 5. 24 − 2 x
x 24 ! 2x x
24
13. A rectangle is bounded by the x -axis and the semicircle y 9 x 2 as shown in
Figure 4.6.6. What is the length and width of the rectangle that has a maximum area?
y

h
y " 9 ! x2
(x, y)

!3 !2 !1 1 2 3 x r

Figure 4.6.6

306 x

Area 2{πr@} A
y
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

Section 4.7

In calculus, the related rates were used to introduce the derivative as the rate of change.

Moreover, one of the applications of implicit differentiation, Section 3.5, is the related rates

problems. In this section, we present the related rates problems as the problems of finding the

rate of change from other known rates of changes. For instance, let x and y be two functions

of t , which are related, where t denotes the time. If we can tell how x changes with respect to
dx dy
the time t , i.e. then, we may be able to know the change in y with respect to t , i.e. .
dt dt

ILLUSTRATION
Figure 4.7.1 shows that oil is draining from a conical tank. V , r and h are functions of t ,
and all of them are decreasing over time t . These variables are related by the equation of the
volume which is
V r 2h . (1)
3

Now, our aim is to find the rate of change of volume of the oil with respect to the time t . Since
V , r and h are functions of t , we can take the derivative of both side of equation (1) with
respect to time implicitly. Hence, we obtain

d d
V r 2h
dt dt 3
dV dh dr
r2 h 2r
dt 3 dt dt
dh dr
= r2 2rh .
3 dt dt

dV dh dr
In order to find at a specific time t , we need to know r , h , and at such time
dt dt dt
t.

307
 SECTION 4.7 RELATED RATES

10 cm Ladder

r
r 5m
y
15 cm h
h

Floor
x
Figure 4.7.1

The most important key for solving suchx example is by sketching the right picture which shows
x
the geometrical meaning. Such a picture helpsx to understand the relation between the variables.

The following guidelines explain the procedure for solving related rates problems.

r
Procedure for Solving Related Rate Problems
h1
1. Describehall
2
given quantities and quantities that need to be determined.
m
2. Sketch a picture or diagram and label the quantities if possible.
8m

r
3. Write an equation involving the variables which rates of change either are given or need
to be determined.

4. Differentiate both sides of the equation obtained in step 3, using the chain rule,

implicitly, with respectB to the time t .

5. Substitute into the resulting equation in step 4 for given values of the variables and

their rates of change. Then, determine the required rate of change.

500 cm
D

3 km EXAMPLE 4.6.1 A conical tank of radius 10 cm and 15 cm deep is full of water. The water
180 cm
3
is being drained at the rate of 24 cm min . The rate of change
C of the height of the water is
A F
3 x of the water radius
y
cm min . What is the rate of change when the water is exactly 6 cm
x 2
deep with radius 4 cm ?

Solution Let r be the radius of the water in the conical tank and h is the depth of the water

at time t , as illustrated in Figure 4.7.2.

308
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

10 cm Ladder

r 5m
y
15 cm
h

Floor
x

Figure 4.7.2
x

dV dh 3 x
Given: 24 cm 3 min , cm min
dt dt 2

dr
Find: when h 6 cm and r 4 cm (we can find r using similarity of triangles). r
dt
h1
h2
Equation: As we see in the illustration above,5mthe volume of the water is given by

V r 2h 8m
3

Differentiating this equation with respect to time, we obtain

dV dh dr
r2 2hr
dt 3 dt dt
x
when h 6 cm , r 4 cm , then we have B

3 dr
24 (4)2 2(6)(4)
3 2 dt
48 dr
24 48
3 2 dt 500 cm
dr
24 8 y 16 3 km
dt 180 cm
dr
16 8 24
dt A
dr 16 1 x
cm min
dt 16 x

Hence, the rate of change of the water radius when h 6 cm and r 4 cm is

1
cm min .

Notice that the rate of change of the water is negative because it is decreasing.

309
SECTION 4.7 RELATED RATES

h1
h2
EXAMPLE 4.6.2 The length of a side of a square is decreasing at the rate of 1 m min . How
5m
fast is the area decreasing when the length of the side is 2.5 m ?
8m
Solution Let x denote the length of the side of the square and A denotes its area, as
illustrated in Figure 4.7.3.

x
Figure 4.7.3
dx
Given: 1 m min
dt
dA
Find: when x 2.5 m
dt
Equation: The area of a square is given by 500 cm
2
A x
y
By differentiating both sides with respect to t , we obtain 3 km
dA dx
2x
dt dt A
Substituting into the last equation when x 2.5 m , we have
dA x
2(2.5)( 1) 5 m2 min .
dt
The negative sign in the answer tells us that A is decreasing.

RELATED PROBLEM 1 The base of a triangle is decreasing at the rate of 1.5 m sec , and the
3
altitude is increasing at the rate of m sec . How fast the area changing when the base is
4
6 m and the altitude is 1.2 m ?

Answer 1.35 m2 / sec .

EXAMPLE 4.6.3 Ladder of length 5 m is leaning against a wall. If the bottom of the ladder is
pulled along the ground away from the wall at a constant rate of 0.5 m sec , how fast will the
top of the ladder be moving down the wall when it is 2 m above the ground?

Solution Let x be the distance in meter from the base of the ladder to the wall and y be the
distance in meter from the top of the ladder to the floor, as illustrated in Figure 4.7.4.

310
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

10 cm Ladder

r
r 5m
y
15 cm h
h

Floor
x

Figure 4.7.4

dx x
Given: Length of ladder = 5 m , 0.5 m sec . x
dt x
dy
Find: when y 2 m.
dt
Equation: Using Figure 4.7.4, we can apply Pythagorean Theorem to obtain the following
r
equation:
h1
x2 yh22 25 (1)
5m
8m
Differentiating both sides with respect to t , we obtain
dx dy r
2x 2y 0 (2)
dt dt

when y 2 , it follows from Equation (1) that

x
x2 (2)2 25 x2 21 x 21 .
B
dx
Moreover, we are given that 0.5 , so from equation (2) we have
dt
1 dy
2 21 2 2 0
2 dt
Thus, 500 cm
D
dy 21
y 1.15 m sec .
3 km dt 4 180 cm

The negative sign in the answer tells us that y is decreasing. C

A F
x y
x
RELATED PROBLEM 2 The base of a 4 m ladder that is leaning against a wall begins to slide
from the wall. When the base is 3.5 m from the wall and moving at the rate of 2 m sec , how
fast is the top of the ladder sliding down the wall?
14
Answer m sec
15

311
 r
h1
SECTION 4.7 RELATED
h RATES 2

5m
8m
EXAMPLE 4.6.4 A student 180 cm tall walks away from a 500 cm tall light post above the
r
ground at rate of 160 cm/sec , as illustrated in Figure 4.7.5.

a. At what rate is the length of his shadow changing?

b. At what rate is the tip of his shadow changing?
x
B

500 cm
D
y
3 km
180 cm

C
A F
x y
x
Figure 4.7.5

Solution Let x be the distance from the base of the light post to the student, y be the length
of the shadow and L equals to x y.

dx
Given: Student height: 180 cm , height of light post: 500 cm , 160 cm/sec.
dt
dy
a. Find: .
dt

Equation: Using Figure 4.7.5, we can see from the similarity of triangles ABC and
FDC that
500 x y
,
180 y
Thus, we obtain
9
y x
16
Differentiating both sides with respect to the time t , we obtain
dy 9 dx
dt 16 dt

dx
Since 160 cm/sec , so, we have
dt
dy 9
(160) 90 cm/sec.
dt 16

312
 CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

dL
b. Find: .
dt
Equation: From Figure 4.7.5, we have that L x y . Thus, by differentiating both
sides with respect to the time t , we obtain
dL dx dy
dt dt dt
160 90 250 cm/sec.

RELATED PROBLEM 3 A student 160 cm tall walks toward a 500 cm tall light post above the
ground at rate of 120 cm/sec , as illustrated in Figure 4.7.6.

a. At what rate is the length of his shadow changing?

b. At what rate is the tip of his shadow changing?

500 cm
8
u
160 cm x

x y

Figure 4.7.6

Rocket
dy 960 dL 3000
Answer 56.5 cm/sec , 176.5 cm/sec.
dt 17 dt 12 m 17
h
EXAMPLE 4.6.5 r
An airplane flies at an altitude of 8 km kilometers toward a point directly
15 m
over an observer, as illustrated in Figure 4.7.7. The speed of the plane is 18 km min . Find the f
h 3000 ft
rates at which the angle of elevation is changing when the angle is 45 ? Camera

5 y
4
8
3
u 2 2x2 −
160 cm x 1
x
12 ft. −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
Figure 4.7.7
x y −2
u −3
Solution Let x be the horizontal distance travelled by the airplane, be the angle of the −4 (
elevation. −5

Rocket

12 m
313
x
h 300 cm
r
 8
SECTION 4.7 RELATED RATES u
160 cm x

dx
Given: 18 km min , Altitude of the plane = 8 km
x dty
d
Find: when 45 .
dt
Equation: From Figure 4.7.7, we have: Rocket
8
12 m tan (1)
x
Differentiating both sides of equation (1) with respect to the time t , we
h obtain
r
d 8 dx
sec2 (2)
15 m dt x 2 dtf
h By substitution 45 in Equation (1), we obtain 3000 ft
Camera
8 8
tan 45 1 x 8.
x x
dx
Moreover, we are given that 18 , so from Equation5(2) we have
dt y
4
d 8
sec2 45 183
dt 82 2 2x2 − y 2 = 2
d 18 1
2 x
x dt 8
. Thus, −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
d 18 9
1.125 radian
−2 min
dt 16 8
u −3
−4 (3, −4)
RELATED PROBLEM 4 A fish is reeled in at a rate of 30−5cm sec from a point 300 cm above
the water, as illustrated in Figure 4.7.8. At what rate is the angle between the line and the
water changing when there is a total of 750 cm of line from the end of the rod to the water?

x
300 cm

Figure 4.7.8
d 2
Answer radian/min .
dt 25 21

314
 5m
y
15 cm h

CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

Floor
x
EXERCISES 4.7
1. A 5m ladder is leaning against a wall when its base starts to slide away from the wall. By
the time its base is 4m from the wall, the base is moving at the rate of 1 m sec . How fast
is the top of the ladder sliding down the wallxthen?
m x
2. In calm water, the oil spilling from the8 ruptured hull
x of grounded tanker spreads in all
directions. Assuming that theu polluted area is circular, determine how fast the area is
160 cm x
increasing when the radius of the circle is 2m and is increasing at the rate of 0.2 m sec ?
x y

r
Rocket

12 m
h2

Figure 4.7.9 h
r Ladder
153.
m
8m
A point moves along the curve 2fx 2 y 2 2 . When the point is at (3, 4) , its x
h r 3000 ft
5m
-coordinate is increasing at the r is its y -coordinate
rate of 2 units per second. How fast
Camera
y that instant of time?
changing at
h
5 y
4
3
2 2x2 − y 2 = 2
Floor
x 1
x
x
12 ft.
B
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5
−2
u −3
x −4 (3, −4)
−5
x
x
Figure 4.7.10

4. Oil spilling from a ruptured

500 cmtanker spreads in a circle on the surface of an ocean. The area
of the spill increases at a rate of3009 cmm 2x min . How fast is theD
radius of the spill increasing
when the radius is 10m ? r
3 km
180 cm
h25. A spherical snowball with an outer layer of ice melts so that the volume of the snowball
C
decreases at a rate of 2 cm 3 min . How fast is the radius changing when diameter of the
8m snowball is 10cm ? A F
x y
r

Figure 4.7.11

B
315
SECTION 4.7 RELATED RATES

6. The volume of a cube is changing at the constant rate of 75 cm 3 min . Find the rate of
change of the surface area when the surface area is 24cm 2 .

7. A hypothetical cube shrinks so that the lengths of its sides are decreasing at a rate of
2 m min . At what rate is the volume of the cube changing when the sides are 2m each?
10 cm Ladder
8. A conical water tank with vertex down has a radius of 10ft at the top and is 24ft high.
r
If water flows into the tank at ra rate of 20 ft 3 min , how
5 m fast is the depth of the water
y
increasing when the water is 16ft deep?15 cm h
h

9. Two cylindrical swimming pools are being filled simultaneously at the same rate in m 3 min
Floor
x
. The smaller pool has a radius of 5m and the water level rises at a rate of 0.5 m min .
The larger pool has a radius of 8m . How fast is the water level rising in the larger pool?
x
x
x

r
h1
h2
5m
8m

Figure 4.7.12

10. A point P is moving along the curve whose equation is y 2x . How fast is the distance
x
between P and the point 3, 0 changing at the instant when P is 3,B6 if x is decreasing
at the rate of 2 units sec at that instant?
500 cm
11. The radius of a right circular cylinder is increasing at the rate of 4 cm sec but its total 8
2 500 cm
surface area remains constant at 600 cm . At what rate is the height changing whenDuthe
y 160 cm x
radius is 10cm ? 3 km
180 cm

C
A
12. A water tank has the shape of an invertedx right circular cone,
y with radius at xthe top F15my
x
and depth 12m . Water is flowing into the tank at the rate of 2 m 3 min . How fast is the
depth of water in the tank increasing at the instant when depth is 8m ?
Rocket

12 m

h
r
15 m f
h 3000 ft
Camera

Figure 4.7.13 5 y
4
3
316 2 2x
1
x
12 ft. −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2
−1
−2
 x
x
x

CHAPTER 4 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

r
h1
h2
13. Let l be the length of the diagonal
5m
of a rectangle whose sides have lengths x and y ,
and assume that x and y vary with time. If x increases8mat a constant rate of 15 cm sec
, and y decreases at a constant rate of 10 cm sec , how fast is the length of the diagonal r

changing when x 120cm and y 50cm ? Is it increasing or decreasing?

14. A plane is flying directly away from you at 500 km hr at an altitude of 3km . How fast is
x
the plane’s distance from you increasing at the moment when the plane is Bflying over a
point on the ground 4km from you?

500 cm
D
y
3 km
180 cm

C
A F
x y
x

Figure 4.7.14

15. A particle is moving along the curve whose equation is

xy 3 8
1 y2 5
Assume that the x -coordinate is increasing at the rate of 6 units sec . When the particle
is at the point 1, 2 at what rate the y -coordinate changing at that instant? Is it
increasing or decreasing?

16. A spherical balloon is being inflated at a rate of 100 cm 3 sec . How fast is the radius of
the balloon increasing when the diameter is 50cm ?

17. You are inflating a spherical balloon at the rate of 7 cm 3 sec . How fast is its radius
increasing when the radius is 4cm ?

18. A man 1.8 meters tall walks at the rate of 1 m sec toward a streetlight that is 4m above
the ground. At what rate is the tip of his shadow moving? At what rate is his shadow
shortening?

317
318
 ANSWERS OF ODD EXERCISES

Chapter 1

Section
Section 1.1
1.1

1. 3. 5.
4, ,0 0,
7. 9. 11.
1 19 7 1 7
, , , 1 ,
2 2 2 2 3
13. 15. 17.
1 3 7 1, 4
, , , 3 ,
2 10 5
19. 21. 23.
( , ) 3,2 , 3 1, 0

Section 1.2
Section 1.2

1. 3. 5.
Function Function Not function
D: 2, 0,1, 2, 3
R: 3
7. 9. 11.
f (0) 3 , {4}
f ( 1) 5
13. 15. 17.
5, 0, {1} 0, {4}
19.
1, 2
21. 23. 25.
, , 1
, 2 ,
2
27. 29. 31.
{1} { 2, 3} { 4,2}
33. 35.
x intercept : x 2 x intercept : x 0
2 y inercept: y 0
y inercepts: y
3
37. 39.
x intercepts : x 1 x intercept : x 0
y inercept: None y inercept: y 0

319
ANSWERS OF ODD EXERCISES

41. 43.
x intercepts: x 3 Neither
y intercept: y 3
45. 47.
Even Odd
49. 51. 53. 55.

12 4 19 10
57.
f g f g f /g

x 4, D : 2x 1
2x 2 5x 3, D : , D: 3
3 x
59.
f g f g f /g
x2 2x 3 2
, D: {1} 2, D : {1} , D: 1
x 1 (x 1)2
61.
f g f g f /g
t 3/4
t2 t 3/4 3 , D : 0, t 11/4 3t 3/4 , D : 0, , D : 0,
t2 3
63.
g f f g
x2 2x 2, D : x2 2, D :
65.
g f f g
9/2 9/2
x , D : 0, x , D : 0,

67.
g f f g
2 1
10x 3x 1
, {0} , { 2, 5}
2 2
x x 3x 10
69.
g f f g
x 1 2x
, {1} , {0,1}
2 1 x

Section
Section1.3
1.3

1. 3. 5.

Not one-to-one function Not one-to-one function One-to-one function

320
 ANSWERS OF ODD EXERCISES
4 y 5 4
Yy y 5 y
3 Y
7. 4 3 9.
X 11.
4 X
2 2
Not one-to-one function One-to-one function Not one-to-one function
1 3
The pointThe1 3) 3 X
(−2, X 4x 1
x 3)
point (−2,
2 I 1x(x )
−3 −2−3 −1−2 −1 1 22 1 3 2 3 2x
−1
13. 1−1 1
15. 17.
−2
One-to-one function −2 x One-to-one
x function 4
−3
−4 1 −3−4 −22−3 −1−2 −3−1 1 2 1 1 2
f (x ) x −45, Yx 0 g (x ) (x 4)3
−1−4 Y−1
19. 21.

5 0
23. 25.
!
" !
" 5
5 5
5

y " f (x)
y " f(x)
"5 5
5 "5 5
!5
5 y ! f(x)
!5 y ! f(x)

"5
!5 "5
!5

33. 35.

1 11 x f 1
(x ) 2 x, x 2
f (x )
7
37. 39.

1 x 1 f 1
(x ) x3 1
f (x ) , x 1
x 1
41.
1
f (x ) (5x 3) / 2

Section
Section 1.4
1.4
1.
5 2 5 3 7
a. b. c. d. e.
6 3 2 4 2
3.
a. 120 b. 150 c. 135 d. 630 e. 420
5. 7. 9. 11. 13.

20 9 70 2.4
3
15. 17. 19. 21. 23.
0 1 1 2 1
2
25. 27.
0 1 3 1
sin x , csc x , cot x , sec x 3
2 2 2 2 2

321
ANSWERS OF ODD EXERCISES

29. 31.
4 7 4 65 4
sin x , cos x , tan x , sec x x ,
65 65 7 7 3 3
33. 35.
2 4 3 4 3
x 0,2 , , sin x , cos x , tan x ,
3 3 5 5 4
5 5 4
csc x , sec x , cot x .
3 4 3
37.
5 2 5
sin x , cos x , tan x ,
29 29 2
29 29 2
csc x , sec x , cot x .
5 2 5
45.
5
a. b. c. d.
3 3 6 6
47.
5 4
a. b. c. d.
3 6 3 3
49.
2 2
a. b. c. d.
3 3 3 3
51.
5 4
a. b. c. d.
6 3 6 3
53.
a. 2 2 7 5 8 2 56
b. c.
27 33

322
 ANSWERS OF ODD EXERCISES

Chapter 1

Section 2.1
Section 1.1

1.

1 x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1

0.3333 , KING SAUD UNIVERSITY
3 f (x ) 0.3448 0.3344 0.3334 0.3332 0.3322 0.3226
PREPARATORY YEAR DEANSHIP
3. BASIC SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
3
1 x 2.9 2.99 2.999 3.001 y 3.01 3.1
0.0625 , 2
16 f (x ) -0.0641 -0.06266 -0.06252 -0.06248 -0.06234 -0.06098
1 y =x+1
1 x
5. 7. KING−3 SAUD
9. −1 UNIVERSITY
−2 1 2 3
KING SAUD UNIVERSITY −1
9 d.n.e PREPARATORY YEAR 8 DEANSHIP
PREPARATORY YEAR DEANSHIP BASIC SCIENCE
−2
DEPARTMENT
11. 13. 15.
−3
BASIC SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
0 4 3 1y/ 2

17. 3 y
19. 21. 22 y

2 1 y =x+1
1/2 0 11
d.n.e y = x3
x
1 y =x+1
23. x
25. −3 −227.−1 1 2 3
x
KING SAUD UNIVERSITY −1
d.n.e
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 d.n.e −1 2 1
PREPARATORY −1
YEAR DEANSHIP −2
29. 31. −1
−3
BASIC SCIENCE
−2 DEPARTMENT
1 1 −2
−3
3 y 2 y

22 6 y
y 1 y = x3
1 y =x+1 4 1
y=
1 y = x3 x x x
−1 2 1
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1 x x
−1
−1 1 −1 −0.5 0.5 1
−2 −2
−1 −2
−3 −4
33. −2
35. 6−6y
2 y
2 0 4
y=
1
6 y 3 yx
1 y = x3 2
4 1 x
y=
x x −1 −0.5 2 0.5 1
−1 2 1 −2
x
−4 1 y = |x + 1|
−1 −0.5 −1 0.5 1
−2 −6 x
−2 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2
−4
3 y
−6
6 y −1

4 1 2
3y =y x 2 y
2
1 y = |x + 1|
x 1
2
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 ! "x
−2
1 y = |x + 1|
−4 −3 −2 −1 y = sin1 x1 2 x
323
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
x
−6 −1
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2
2 y
 3 y

ANSWERS OF ODD1 EXERCISES

y = |x + 1|

x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2
37. 47.
−1
d.n.e 0.03
L 2,
2 y 3

1
!1"
y = sin x x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−1

−2

Section 2.2
Section 1.2
1. 3. 5.
10 8 2
7. 9. 11.
1
4 d.n.e
2
13. 15. 17.
2 16 1
19. 21. 23.
1
2 d.n.e
2
25. 27. 29.
1
3 1
4
31. 33. 35.
2 27 2
37. 39. 41.
1
1 2
2 7
43. 45. 47.
1
d.n.e 2
9
49. 51. 53.
5 2
55. 57. 59.
25
0 1
3
61. 63. 65.
2 3 1
67. 69. 71.

2 7
4

324
 ANSWERS OF ODD EXERCISES

73.
1
2

Section 2.3
Section 1.3
1. 3. 5.
0 2 1
7. 9. 11.
d.n.e 1
13. 15. 17.
d.n.e 0
19. 21. 23.

25. 27. 29.

31. 33. 35.

2 0
37. 39. 41.
0 1 1
43. 45. 47.
1 1
0
2 6
49. 51. 53.
3 H.A: y 0,
4 V.A.: x 3, x 3
55. 57. 59.
H.A: y 1, H.A: y 1, y 1, H.A: y 0,
V.A.: x 0, x 1 V.A.: None V.A.: x 2
61.
H.A: y 0,
V.A.: None

Section 2.4
Section 1.4

1. 3. 5.
No points of x 1, x 1 x 0
discontinuity
7. 9. 11.
Discontinuous Continuous Discontinuous

325
ANSWERS OF ODD EXERCISES

13. 15. 17.

x 1, x 3 x 2, x 2 No points of discontinuity
19. 21. 23.
x 1 No points of x 2
discontinuity
25. 27. 29.
x n, n integer 8 4 c 19
a ,b
3 3
31. 33. 35.
1 [0, ) ( , )
c
k
37. 39. 41.
[3, ) ( 3, 0) (0, 3) {x }, where
4n 1
x , n
2
43. 45.
2
2x 3x x 1 1
, x 0 , x 0
f (x ) 5x f (x ) x
3 1
, x 0 , x 0
5 2
47. 49. 51.
8 2 1
53. 55. 57.
5 c 3 c 3

326
 ANSWERS OF ODD EXERCISES

Chapter 2

Section 3.1
Section 2.1
1. 3. 5.

2 2x 2 1
32
2x
7. 9. 11.
1 1 y 6x 5
2
2 x x 1
13. 15. 17.
y 2x y 4x 1 x3 2x , x 3
19. 21. 23.
1 3x 2, 3,12 1 1
, x 2 , 2, ,
2x 2 x 2 4
27. 29. 31.

3, 9 2, 0 x2 , x 4 , x 5 , x 7 , x 8
33. 35.

25 m sec 1
, 4 sec
2a 1

Section 3.2
Section 2.2

1. 3. 5.
9x 2 8x 5 4 4x 3 2x
21x 6 x4
3 2
3 x x4 x2 1
7. 9. 11.
4t 3
3t 2
6t 2 60x 3
30x 2
32x 14 4
2
t 2
13. 15. 17.
3 z2 6 4t 2 4t 5
2 4 2
3 2x z 2t 1
19. 21. 23.
y 5x 4 y 1 1
y x 1
2
25. 27. 29.

1 1 y 2x 2 a. 1 , b. 8 , c. 8 , d. 8
y x
4 4
31. 33. 35.

1 2 y 8x 15, y 8x 17
0,
2 3

327
ANSWERS OF ODD EXERCISES

37. 39. 41.

1 1 a 3, b 2
,3 , , 3 a 5, b 3
2 2
43.
4 sec

Section 3.3
Section 2.3

1 3. 5.
csc x (1 x cot x ) x sec x tan x sec x 1 sec x x 1 tan x 1
2
x 1
7. 9. 11.

csc x 0 1
1 csc x 2
1 x tan x
13. 15. 17.

sin x 3 tan x x x sec2 x 2 tan x sec2 x x 2 sin x 2x cos x

x4
19. 21. 23.

sec2 x 3 6 3 6 2 3
y x y 2 3x
2 12 3
27. 29. 31.

1 2k , k 0, 1, 2, 2k 1
ft / sec ,k 0, 1, 2,
2 2
33.

k, k 0, 1, 2,
4 2

Section 3.4
Section 2.4

1. 3. 5.
2 4t
6 2x 3 150x 4 (x 5 10)29
3
t2 1
7. 9. 11.
2 2 5
2 2 6 2x 1 5x 2 x 1 12 cos x sin x 1 cos2 x
3 1 t
t2 t
13. 15. 17.
2
0 0 3x 2 6 2x 1
2
33 x 3 (2x 1)3

328
 ANSWERS OF ODD EXERCISES

19. 21.

9(1 2v)2 3 4
2
24x x 2 1 2 x2 1
(v 1)4
23. 25.
2
4 1 2x sin 1 2x 2 sec2 2x cos tan(2x )

27. 29.

3 sin2 x cos x cos(2x ) 2 sin x sin(2x ) 8t cos3 sin t 2 sin sin t 2 cos t 2
cos 4 2x
31. 33. 35.

y 10x 1 y 0 y 4x 1
37. 39. 41.

y 4x 1 1 3 2
y x 0,1,
2 4 5
43. 45. 47.

3, 3 3 3 5 3 3 3 1
,, , , ,0 m sec
6 2 6 2 2 3

Section 3.5
Section 2.5

1. 3. 5.
2(x y) 2 4(2x y )
3 2xy y
2x 1 x 2y x 4x 2y 1
7. 9. 11.
x2 2y y y csc(xy )
2x y 2
x 2 xy 1 x
13. 15. 17.
y cos x sin y y y 1 cos2 y
x cos y sin x x cos y sin y x 1 cos2 y
19. 21. 23.
y 3x 2 y 2 2x y2 1 1
y x
2xy 2y x x 2 3 3
25. 27. 29.
3 1 y 2x 4 y x
y x
3 2
31. 33.
( 4, 0),( 4,10) 1, 1 , 1,1

329
ANSWERS OF ODD EXERCISES

Section 3.6
Section 2.6
1. 3. 5.

42x 5 24x 2 6x 1 3x 2 2
32
2
t 1
7. 9. 11.

2 3 5 4 3 sin t 2 cos2 t sin2 t

1 x2 x2 2
3 4
x 1
13. 15. 17.

9 2 sin2 (3x ) cos2 (3x ) cos(3x ) 108 3t 1

2 375 52
5t 1
3 8
1 cos(3x )
19. 21. 23.

6 343 cos 7x 1
x 1
4 2
25. 27. 29.

2 2
900 1
y3
31. 33. 35.
64 cos y 1
cos 3 y sin y
3x y
3
sin y 1
3 2
37. 41. 43.
2 6
x g (x ) 2xg (x ) 2g(x ) 4t 3 4, 12t 2
x3 x4 28 m sec, 3 m sec2 , t 0

Section 3.7
Section 2.7
1. 3. 5.

1 1 1
1 cos x
2 6 4
6y 1 7y 5y 1 (x 1) 1 x 2 (x 1)2
7. 9. 11.

cos 1
x 1 x
3/2 2
1 t2 x 1 x2 2

13. 15.

1 1 1 1 1 1
sin sec x tan x sec x
x 2 x 1 x2 2 x x 1
17. 19. 21.

0 2 3 3 y
y x
6 6 2
23.

/6

330
 ANSWERS OF ODD EXERCISES

Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Section
Section 3.1
Section 4.1
3.1
Section 3.1
1.
1. 3.
3. 5.
5.
1. 3. 5.
No abs.
No abs. max.
max. Abs. max ff (0)
Abs. max (0) 55 xx 22
No abs. max. Abs. max f (0) 5 x 2
No abs.
No abs. min.
min. No abs
No abs min.
min.
No abs. min. No abs min.
7.
7. 9.
9. 11.
11.
7. 9. 11.
a 0,
a 0, 22 11 tt 5, 0,
5, 0, 55
a 0, 2 xx 0,
0, 1 t 5, 0, 5
x 0, 55
13. 15. 5 17.
13. 15. 17.
13. 15. 17.
xx kk ,, kk integer
integer ff (3)
(3) 12, ff (1)
12, (1) 00 ff (( 2)
2) ff (2)
(2) 11
11
x k , k integer f (3) 12, f (1) 0 f( 2) f (2) 11
ff (( 1)
1) ff (1)
(1) 22
f( 1) f (1) 2
19.
19. 21.
21. 23.
23.
19. 21. 23.
ff (1) 11 , f (0) 00 ff ff 55
5 55 kk 11
(1) 12 , f (0) 16
f (1) 2 , f (0) 0 f 33 f 33 445 k 6
2 3 3 4 6
ff (( )) 11
f( ) 1
Section
Section 3.2
Section 3.2
4.2
Section 3.2
1.
1. 3.
3.
1. 3.
cc 0,2,
0,2, 44 No, ff not
No, not differentiable at xx
differentiable at 11 (( 2,
2, 0)
0)
c 0,2, 4 No, f not differentiable at x 1 ( 2, 0)
5.
5.
5.
No,
No, ff not
not continuous at xx
continuous at 00 [[ 2,2]
2,2]
No, f not continuous at x 0 [ 2,2]
7.
7.
7.
No,
No, ff not
not differentiable at xx
differentiable at 00 (( 1,1)
1,1)
No, f not differentiable at x 0 ( 1,1)
9.
9. 11.
11. 13.
13.
9. 11. 13.
xx 0, and cc
0, 22 and 11 (0,
(0, 2)
2) cc 11 cc
x 0, 2 and c 1 (0, 2) c 1 22
c
15. 17. 19. 2
15. 17. 19.
15. 17. 19.
33 33 cc any
any number
number in
in cc 22
cc 3 3 3 c any number in c 2
c 3 (( 2,1)
2,1)
3 ( 2,1)
21.
21. 23.
23.
21. 23.
99 ff is
is not
not defined and then
defined and not continuous
then not at xx
continuous at 33 [1, 4]
[1, 4]
cc 94 f is not defined and then not continuous at x 3 [1, 4]
c 4
29. 4
29.
29.
It’s
It’s not
not aa counterexample,
counterexample, since
since the
the Rolle’s
Rolle’s Theorem
Theorem is
is if
if then
then statement.
statement.
It’s not a counterexample, since the Rolle’s Theorem is if then statement.
Section
Section 3.3
Section 4.3
3.3
Section 3.3
1. Dec.:
1. 3.
3. Dec.: 1, 1, 112
Dec.: (( ,, 2],[0,
2],[0, 2]
2] 3.
Dec.:
1. Dec.: ( , 2],[0, 2] Dec.: 1, 122
Inc.: [ 2, 0],[2,
Inc.: [ 2, 0],[2, ) ) Inc.: ((
Inc.: ,, 1], 112 ,, 22 ,(2,
1], ,(2, ))
Inc.: [ 2, 0],[2, ) Inc.: ( , 1], 122 , 2 ,(2, )
Local min:
Local min: ff 22 00 ,, ff 22 33 Local
Local min:
min: ff 2 11
11 ,, Local
Local max:
max: ff 11 22
Local min: f 2 0, f 2 3 Local min: f 122 1 , Local max: f 1 2
Local
Local max:
max: ff 00 11 Local max:
Local max: ff 22 11
Local max: f 0 1 Local max: f 2 1

331
 ANSWERS OF ODD EXERCISES

5. a. Increasing: [ 2, 2] . Decreasing: ( , 2],[2, ).

b. Local min. at x 2 and local max. at x 2.
7. 9. 11.

3 Dec.: 3, 3 Inc.: ( , ).
Dec.: ,
2 No local extrema.
Inc.: , 3, 3,
3
Inc.: ,
2 Local min: f 3 12 3
3 21
Local max.: f Local max: f 3 12 3
2 4
13. 15. 17.

Dec.: 5, 5 Dec.: 1,10

Dec.: ,1
Inc.: ,5 3 Inc.: 10,
Local max.: f 5 5 5 Local min.: f 10 8
Inc.: , ,[1, ).
3
Local min.: f 1 0
5 256
Local max.: f
3 27
19. 21. 23.

Dec.: 8, 2 , 2, 8 Dec.: 1, 2 , 2, 3 Dec.: , 1 , 1,

Inc.: ,1 , 3, Inc.: 1,1
Inc.: 2, 2
Local min.: f 3 6 1
Local min.: f 2 4 Local min.: f 1
Local max.: f 1 2 2
Local max.: f 2 4 1
Local max.: f 1
2
25. 27. 29.

Dec.: , 1 , 0,1 Dec.: 1,1 3 7

Dec.: ,
Inc.: 1, 0 , 1, Inc.: , 1 , 1, 4 4

Local min.: f 1 f (1) 3 Local min.: f (1) 6 3 7

Inc.: 0, , ,2
4 4
Local max.: f 0 0 Local max.: f 1 6
7
Local min.: f 2
4
3
Local max.: f 2
4
31. 33. 35.

Dec.: ,2 Dec.: 0,
Dec.: ,
Inc.: 0, Inc.: ,0 2 4

Local max.: f 2 Local max.: f 0 3 Inc.: ,

4 2
Local min.: f /4 0

332
 ANSWERS OF ODD EXERCISES

37.
1/ 6

Section
Section 4.4
3.4
1. 3. 5.
f 0, f 0 f 0, f 0 3,1, 5
7. 9. 11.
Decreeing: ( , 3],[5, ) 2,1, 4
0, ,
Increasing: [ 3, 5] 2
13. 15.
CU: ( ,1) 1 1
x1 3 9 33 , x 22 3 9 33
CD: (1, ). 1
2 2
CD: ( 3, x 1 ),(x 2 , 3) , CU: (x11, x 22 )
1 2

17. 19. 21.

CU: ( , 2),(2, ). CU: ( , 1),(1, ). CU: ( , 0),(2, ).
CD: ( 2, 2) . CD: ( 1,1) . CD: (0, 2) .
23. 25. 27.
CU: (2, ). CU: ( , ).
CU: ,0 .
2 CD: ( , 2) . No IP’s.
IP: (2, 8)
CD: 0, .
2
29. 31. 33.
3 CD: ( , 9) . CU: (0, 3)
CU: , ,(2, ).
2 No IP’s CD: (3, )
3 4
CD: ,2 . IP: 3,
2 3
3 1
IP’s: , , (2, 0)
2 16
35. 37. 39.
3 7 Not applicable (0, 0) local min.
CU: ,
4 4 (0, 0) local min. 12
, 268.739 local max.
3 7 5
CD: 0, , ,2
4 4
3 7
IP’s: ,0 , ,0
4 4
41. 43. 45.
(0,1) local min. ( 2, 4) local max. No local extrema
(2, 4) local min.
47. 49.
k 3 a 3, b 1

333
 KING
−3 SAUD
−2 −1UNIVERSITY
1 2 3
KING SAUD UNIVERSITY
1
PREPARATORY YEAR
−5 DEANSHIP
5
PREPARATORY YEAR DEANSHIP y
KING SAUD UNIVERSITY BASIC SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
4
BASIC SCIENCE DEPARTMENT 5 y
3
PREPARATORY YEAR DEANSHIP 3 y
ANSWERS3OF y ODD EXERCISES
4
2 2
3
BASIC SCIENCE
2 DEPARTMENT 1
1 21
13 x x
KING SAUD y
UNIVERSITY x −3.5−1
−3 −2.51−2 2−1.53 −14−0.55
1
x 0.5
Section 3.5
Section −1 2
4.5 1 2 3 4 5 −1 −1
PREPARATORY −11 YEAR DEANSHIP −3.5−2
−3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5
−1
0.5
−2 x
BASIC
1. SCIENCE
−1−3 1DEPARTMENT
2 3 4 5 3.
−3 400 y
−1 400 y
3 y−2 20010 y
2 −3 10 y 200
x
1 5 x
x −4 −2 2 4 6
105 y −4 −2 2 4 6
−1 1 2 3 4 5 −200 x
−1 −200
x −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−2 5 −400
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −400
−3 −5
x −600
5. −3 −2 10−1
−5
1 2 3
7. −600
5 y
y
5 0.5 y 1.5
1.5 yy 4
−5 y
5 4 3
11 x
53 y
x −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2 2.5
4 0.5
0.5 1
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 2 −0.5 x x
31 x
−5 x −3.5−2
−3−1.5
−2.5−1
−2−0.5
−1.5 −1 0.5
−0.5 1 0.5 2
1.5
2
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5
−1 −0.5
0.5 −11 1.5 2
−3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.51 0.5
5 y−1 x −0.5
400 y
−3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 4−0.5 0.5 −1.5 −1
400 y −1 −1
9. 3 11. 200
y2
8 y x
200
400 y
2 1 y
0.5 y −4 −2 0.5 2 4 6
1 x y 1
200 x 6
−200 0.5
−4 −2 2 4 6 0.5 xx
−3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 xx
−200 −1 4 −0.5 0.5 1 0.5
−400
−1
−1 −0.5 1.5 21 2.5x
−4 −1 −2
−0.5 0.5 21 1.54 2 2.5 6 −0.5
−200
−400 −1 −600
2 −0.5
−0.5 0.5 1
400−0.5
y −0.5
−1
−400 x
200 −600 −1 1.5
−1 y
−1 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−600 1.5 x
−2 1
y
−4
13.
−2 −1.5 2 4 6
15.
−1.5 2
−200 1.51 y 0.5
1.2 y
0.5 8 y x
−400 8 yy 0.5
1
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2
x x 6 0.9
−600 6 0.5 −0.5
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 x 2 4
−0.541.5 −0.5 −1
0.6
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 y 0.5 1 1.5 2
2
2 1 −0.5−1 y
−1 0.3 x
x 1
0.5 −1 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−2 −1 1 y 2 3 4 5 0.5 x
−1.5 1 y x −2
−2 −4 −2 2 x 4
17.−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.510.5 1 1.5 2 19. −1 −0.5 0.5 1
8−0.5
y x −0.51.2 y
1.2 y
0.5 20 y
−16 −1
−0.5 0.5 1 x −115
−0.5 0.9
−1 −0.5 0.9 0.5 1
4 −0.5
y−1 10
0.6
1 −1 5
2 0.6
x
0.5 x 0.3
x −2 −1 1 2
−2 −1 1 0.3 2 3 4 5 −5
−1 −0.5 0.5 1 x
−2−0.5
x −4 −2 −10 2 4
−4 −2
−1 2 4 −15
1.2 y
20 y
20 y 15 y 15
0.9
15 10
334 0.6 10
10
5
5 5 x
0.3 x −2 −1 1 2
−5 x
−2 −1 1 x2
−5 −1 1 2 3 4
 y
15
2
10
1.5
5
x 1
−2 −1
−5
1 2 ANSWERS OF ODD EXERCISES
0.5
x
−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
−0.5
−15
21. 23.
15 y 4 y
3
4 x=2
10 4 y x =2 23y
IP
x=0 2 x
2 IP
5 −15 −10Loc.−5 5 10 x15
x min
−2
x −15 −10 −5 5 10 15
−15
−1
−10 −5
1 −2 2
5
3
10
4
15
−23
−4
−5 4 −4 −4
y −6
−10 x = −1 IP
2 −6 −6 −8
x
−15 −8 −8
−15 −10 −5 5 10 15 2.5 y
25. −2 27.
2.5 y 2.5225y
y
−4 1.5
2 2
−6 120
1.5 1.5
0.5
−8 1 15
1 x
0.5
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
2.5 0.5
y −0.510 x
x
−8 −6 −4 2−2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
−0.5 5
1.5−0.5
x
1 2
x=2
−2π −π x = π 2π
3 IP
0.5 x=0
IP x=2
x=2 x
29. x= 2 31. x = 23
Loc. min
IP
−8 −6 −4 −2 3
2 IP4 6 8
x=0
y
x−0.5
=0
(xIP
2)(3x 2) 2 IP 5/3
Loc. min y x
Loc. min 1
3

x = −1 IP
2
x=2
x= 3 IP
x = 0x = −1 IP x = −1 IP
IP
Loc. min
25 y

20
25 y 25 y

Section
Section 4.6
3.6x = −1 IP 15
20 20
1. 3. 5.10
15 15
100 50, 50 length = width = 10 cm
5
7. 25 y 9. 11.
10
10
x
1,1 −2π −π 4000 π 3
cm 2π
20
5
128 5
13.
15 x x
−2π
length −π6 , width
3 π 2π −2π −π π 2π
210 2

x
−2π −π π 2π
335
ANSWERS OF ODD EXERCISES

Section 4.7
Section 3.7

1. 3. 5.
4 3 unit sec 1
m sec cm min
3 50
7. 9. 11.

24 m 3 min 25 16 cm sec
m min
128
13. 15. 17.

10 cm sec 60 7
units sec, decreasing cm sec
7 64

336
 REFERENCES

Anton, H. Calculus, Fifth Edition, Wily & Sons, 1995.

Anton, H; Bivens, I & Davis, S. Calculus Early Transcendentals, Ninth Edition, Wily & Sons,
2009.

Bittinger, M; Ellenbogen, D & Surgent, S. Calculus and its Applications, Tenth Edition,
Addison-Wesely, 2012.

Larson, R & Edwards, R. Calculus, Tenth Edition, Cengage Learning, 2014.

Larson, R; Hostetler, R & Edwards, R. Essential Calculus Early Transcendental Functions,

Fifth Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2008.

Smith, R & Minton, R. Calculus Early Transcendental Functions, Third Edition, McGraw
Hill, 2007.

Stewart, J. Calculus, Eighth Edition, Cengage Learning, 2016.

Swokowski, E, W. Calculus with Analytic Geometry. Second Alternative Edition, PWS

Publishers, 1988.

Swokowski, E, W; Olinick, M; Penece, D. Calculus, Sixth Edition, PWS Publishing Company,

1994.

Tan, S., T. Calculus Early Transcendental, International Edition, Cengage Learning, 2011.

Thomas, G; Weir, M & Hass, J. Thomas Calculus, Twelfth Edition, Addison-Wesely, 2010.

Varberg, D; Purcell, E & Rigdon, S. Calculus, Ninth Edition, Pearson Education International,
2007.

337
338
 INDEX

A from the right, 132.

Absolute extrema, 226, 228. on an interval, 131.
Absolute maximum or minimum, 226, 227. Correspondence, 13.
Absolute Cosine function, 49, 53, 54.
extrema, 226. Critical
value, 1, 6, 8, 20, 133. number, 228.
Acceleration, 211, 212. point, 228.
Algebraic function, 100. Cubic function, 16.
Angle, 38, 39, 40, 45. Curve, 141, 142
Arc length, 43, 99. Cylinder, 316.
Arccos, 57. D
Arccot, 60.
Decreasing function, 223, 248.
Arccsc, 63.
Degree measure, 41.
Arcsec, 63.
Dependent variable, 15.
Arcsin, 57.
Derivative(s)
Arctan, 68.
of composite function, 188.
Area, 7, 101.
of a constant function, 164.
of circle, 303.
definition, 146.
of tringle, 103.
higher-order, 208.
of rectangle, 302.
of inverse functions, 217.
of sector, 101.
left hand, 153.
of square, 303.
of powers, 165.
Asymptotes, 113
of a product, 168.
horizontal, 110, 120, 286.
of a quotient, 170.
slant, 297.
as a rate of change, 310.
vertical, 114, 286.
right hand, 153.
Average velocity, 154.
of a sum, 166.
B of trigonometric functions, 179.
Base, 44, 300. Difference of functions, 28, 165.
Bisector, 44. Differentiable function(s), 153, 161, 162.
Differentiation, 61, 150.
C implicit, 198.
Chain Rule, 141, 184, 185. Discontinuity, 125, 131.
Circle, 24, 30, 39. Distance, 3, 6, 61.
unit, 44, 99. Domain, 1, 13, 14.
Codomain, 13. Downward concavity, 267.
Closed interval, 4.
E
Concavity, 223, 264.
Composite function, 133, 134. Element of a set, 13.
Cone, 316. Endpoint, 38.
Constant function, 82, 141, 160. Endpoint extrema, 303.
Continuity, 67, 125, 1126. Equation
from the left, 132. linear, 2.

339
INDEX

quadratic, 8. product of, 28, 168.

graph of, 23. quadratic, 16.
Even function, 286. quotient, 28, 170.
Extrema range of, 13.
endpoint, 303. rate of change of, 310.
of a function, 228, 257, 276. rational, 16, 90.
local, 231, 257, 276. sum of, 28, 165.
trigonometric, 42, 98, 179.
F undefined, 49, 269.
First derivative test, 223, 254. Fundamental identities, 348.
Function(s), 1, 8, 13.
algebraic, 102. G
arc length, 43, 99. Graph
composite, 137, 188. of an equation, 23.
constant, 86, 164, 243. of a function, 23, 56, 286.
continuous, 75, 129.
critical number of, 232, 254, 286. H
critical point of, 231, 254. Half-open interval, 4.
decreasing, 27, 252. Higher-order derivative, 208.
derivative of, 146. Horizontal asymptote, 116, 118, 119.
difference of, 28, 165. Horizontal line test, 30.
differentiable, 149, 153, 155.
discontinuous, 129, 134. I
domain, 13, 29. Identity
equal, 19. ratio, 51.
even, 26, 286. reciprocal, 51.
extrema of, 228, 257, 276. Identity function, 82, 161.
graph, 23, 56, 286. Identities
identity, 86, 165. due to symmetry, 51.
implicit, 200. fundamental, 51.
increasing, 27, 252. Pythagorean, 51.
inverse, 37, 60, 217. Image of element, 13.
limit of, 72, 86, 110, 148. Implicit
linear, 16, 35, 87, 164. differentiation, 194.
local extrema of, 231, 257, 276. function, 196.
maximum value, 231, 257, 276. Increasing function, 27, 252.
Minimum value, 231, 257, 276. Independent variable, 15.
odd, 26, 286. Indeterminate form, 90, 91.
one-to-one, 34. Inequalities, 1, 2.
periodic, 52. linear, 4.
piecewise, 17. Infinite
polynomial, 16, 90. interval, 114.
position, 158. limit, 121.
power, 20, 165. limit at infinity, 121.

340
 INDEX

Infinity, 67. horizontal, 34.

limit at, 117. Parallel, 245.
limit involving, 110. perpendicular, 47.
Initial side, 38. real number, 3.
Instantaneous velocity, 154. secant, 147.
Integers, 2. tangent, 146.
Intercepts, 20, 21. vertical, 15.
Intermediate Value Theorem, 135. Local
Intersection of sets, 29. extrema, 227, 228, 231.
Intervals, 3. maximum, 228, 231, 232.
Inverse minimum, 228, 231, 254.
function, 30, 33.
trigonometric function, 141 M
Irrational number, 3. Maximum value
absolute, 228, 236.
L local, 231, 257, 276.
Law(s) Mean Value Theorem, 238.
addition, 87. Minimum value
of limits, 91. absolute, 228, 236.
power, 89. local, 231, 257, 276.
product, 87.
quotient, 88. N
Scalar multiplication, 88. Negative
Subtraction, 87. angle, 38.
Leading coefficient, 16. numbers, 17.
Left-hand limit, 76. slope, 250.
Left-hand derivative, 153. Numerical value of limit, 73.
Length of an arc, 39.
Limit(s) O
at infinity, 121. Odd function, 22.
definition, 148. One-sided
infinite, 110. derivative, 153.
left-hand, 79. limit, 76.
notation, 73. One-to-one
of a function, 73. correspondence, 34.
of trigonometric functions, 98. function, 34.
one-sided, 79. Open interval, 4.
right-hand, 79. Ordered pairs, 14.
theorems, 86. Origin, 3.
Linear
equation, 4. P
function, 16, 20, 31, 83. Parallel lines, 245.
inequality, 4. Perimeter
Line(s) of circle, 301.

341
INDEX

of rectangle, 301. number line, 3.

of square, 304. Reciprocal identities, 52.
Periodic function, 52. Rectangle
Perpendicular line, 47. area, 301.
Piecewise function, 15. dimensions, 301.
Point(s) perimeter, 301.
critical, 232. Related rates, 307.
of inflection, 271. Revolution measure, 44.
Polynomial, 8, 16. Right triangle, 41.
Position function, 158. Right-hand
Positive derivative, 153.
Integers, 13. limit, 75.
numbers, 52. Rolle’s Theorem, 238.
slope, 250. Root(s)
Power cubic, 16.
function, 20, 161. even, 92.
rule, 161, 163. function, 16, 20.
Product rule, 164. odd, 92.
rule, 91.
Q square, 16.
Quadrant, 46. Rule(s)
Quadratic chain, 208.
equation, 8. constant function, 164.
inequality, 8. constant multiple, 165.
Quotient rule, 160. difference, 166.
sum, 166. differentiation, 164.
identity function, 165.
R power, 165.
Radian measure, 39. product, 168.
Radical function, 15. quotient, 170.
Radius, 39. root, 91.
Range of a function, 17.
Rate of change, 209, 307. S
Ratio identities, 52. Sandwich Theorem, 94.
Ratio of the change, 154. Scalar multiplication law, 84.
Rational Secant
function, 15. Function, 49.
numbers, 2. Line, 143.
inequalities, 8. Second derivative, 204.
Rationalizing the Second derivative test, 265.
denominator, 96. Sets of numbers, 2.
numerator, 148. Slope, 142.
Real of a tangent line, 271.
numbers, 3. Solution

342
 INDEX

of an equation, 2. V
of an inequality, 3. Value
Squeeze Theorem, 93. absolute, 5, 20, 135, 138.
Sum maximum, 231, 257, 276.
identities, 52. Minimum, 231, 257, 276.
of functions, 28, 165. Variable
rule, 166. dependent, 15.
Symmetry independent, 15.
with respect to x-axis, 21. Velocity
with respect to y-axis, 21. average, 158.
with respect to origin. 21. Instantaneous, 158.
Vertical
T
asymptote, 110, 111.
Table(s)
line, 15.
trigonometric function values 50.
tangent line, 153.
types of functions, 20.
Volume
Tangent line, 146.
of ball, 318.
horizontal, 183.
of box, 303.
slope, 147.
of cone, 310.
vertical, 157.
of cylinder, 307.
Test
first derivative, 257. X
horizontal line, 34. x-axis, 21.
increasing and decreasing, 252. x-coordinate, 14.
second derivative (for concavity), 268. xy-plane, 43.
second derivative, 276.
vertical line, 15. Y
Triangle y-axis, 21.
area, 103. y-coordinate, 23.
equilateral, 47.
inequality, 6. Z
right, 45. Zero
Trigonometric functions, 38. of a function, 140.
derivative of, 179. of the denominator, 9.
graphs of, 56.
identities, 51.
inverse, 60.
limits, 98.
table of values, 50.

U
Union of sets, 2.
Unit circle, 44, 99.
Upward concavity, 267.

343
344
 IMPORTANT FORMULAS

EXPONENTS AND RADICALS GEOMETRIC FORMULAS

xm Formulas for area A, perimeter P, circumference C, volume V:
x m x n ! x m"n ##n ! x m%n
x
1 Rectangle Box
1x m2 n ! x m n x %n ! ##n
x A ! l„ V ! l„ h
x n xn
1x y2 n ! x n y n a#y#b ! #y#n P ! 2l " 2„
n
x1!n ! "x# n m n m
x m!n ! "x## ! Q"x#R
n n n h
"xy # ! "x# "y# n x
n
"x# „
mn y $%
## ! ##
n
"#y
"m n
"## x !""
#
n m
###
x ! "x# „
l l

Triangle Pyramid
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
A! 1
## bh
2
V ! #13# ha 2
1x " y22 ! x 2 " 2 x y " y 2
1x % y22 ! x 2 % 2 x y " y 2
h
1x " y23 ! x 3 " 3x 2 y " 3xy 2 " y 3
h
1x % y23 ! x 3 % 3x 2 y " 3xy 2 % y 3 a
b a

Circle Sphere
FACTORING FORMULAS
A ! $r 2
V ! #43# $ r 3
x 2 % y 2 ! 1x " y2 1x % y2
C ! 2$ r A ! 4$ r 2
2 2 2
x " 2 x y " y ! 1x " y2

x 2 % 2 x y " y 2 ! 1x % y22
r r
x 3 " y 3 ! 1x " y2 1x 2 % xy " y 2 2

x 3 % y 3 ! 1x % y2 1x 2 " xy " y 2 2

Cylinder Cone

V ! $r h 2
V ! #13# $ r 2h
QUADRATIC FORMULA
r
If ax 2 " bx " c ! 0, then
%b ( "#b#
2
#
%#4#a#c h h
x ! ##
2a
r

INEQUALITIES AND ABSOLUTE VALUE COMPLEX NUMBERS

If a & b and b & c, then a & c. For the complex number z ! a " bi
If a & b, then a " c & b " c. the conjugate is z ! a # bi
If a & b and c ' 0, then ca & cb. the modulus is z ! !a"""
2
" b#2
If a & b and c & 0, then ca ' cb. Im

If a ' 0, then bi a+bi

means x ! a or x ! %a. | z|
x ! a
x & a means %a & x & a.
¨
x ' a means x ' a or x & %a. 0 a Re

345
IMPORTANT FORMULAS

DISTANCE AND MIDPOINT FORMULAS GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS

Distance between P11x1 , y12 and P2 1x 2 , y2 2: Linear functions: f 1x2 ! mx # b

d ! !"
1x"
2"
""x"
12 ""
2
#"1 "
y2"
""y"
12 "
2
y y
x1 # x2. y1 # y2.
Midpoint of P1P2: a $$, $$b b
2 2
b

LINES x x
Ï=b Ï=mx+b
y2 " y1
Slope of line through m ! $$
x 2 " x1
P11x1 , y12 and P2 1x 2 , y2 2
Power functions: f 1x2 ! x n
Point-slope equation of line y " y1 ! m1x " x12
through P11x1, y12 with slope m y y

Slope-intercept equation of y ! mx # b
line with slope m and y-intercept b
x
Two-intercept equation of line x y
$$ # $$ ! 1 x
with x-intercept a and y-intercept b a b
Ï=≈ Ï=x£

LOGARITHMS n
Root functions: f1x2 ! !x#
y ! log a x means a y ! x y y
log a a x ! x a log a x ! x
log a 1 ! 0 log a a ! 1
x x
log x ! log10 x ln x ! log e x

log a x y ! log a x # log a y log a a$x$b ! log a x " log a y

y Ï=œ∑
x Ï=£œx
∑
log a x
log a x b ! b log a x log b x !
log a b

Reciprocal functions: f1x2 ! 1/x n

EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS y y

y y
y=a˛ y=a˛ x x
a>1 0<a<1

1 1 1 1
Ï= Ï=
x ≈
0 x 0 x

Absolute value function Greatest integer function

y y=log a x y y=log a x y
y
a>1 0<a<1

1
0 1 x 0 1 x 1 x
x

Ï=|x | Ï=“x ‘

346
 IMPORTANT FORMULAS

ANGLE MEASUREMENT SPECIAL TRIANGLES

$ radians ! 180° r s
¨ A
$ 180° 2
1° ! %% rad 1 rad ! %% r
Ϸ
2 3 30*
Ϸ
180 $ 1 45*
s ! r& A ! %12% r 2& 1& in radians2 45* 60*
$ 1
To convert from degrees to radians, multiply by %%. 1
180

180
To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by %%.
$ GRAPHS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

y y y y=† x
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS y=ß x y=ç x
OF REAL NUMBERS 1 1
π 2π 2π
1 y
sin t ! y csc t ! %% x π 2π x π x
y (x, y)
_1 _1
1 t
cos t ! x sec t ! %%
x 0 x
1
y x y y= x y y=˚ x y y=ˇ x
tan t ! %% cot t ! %%
x y
1 1

π 2π x π x π 2π x
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES _1 _1

y r y
sin & ! %% csc & ! %%
r y
x r (x, y)
cos & ! %% sec & ! %% r
r x
y x ¨ SINE AND COSINE CURVES
tan & ! %% cot & ! %% x
x y
y ! a sin k 1x " b2 1k # 02 y ! a cos k 1x " b2 1k # 02
y y
a>0 a>0
a a
RIGHT ANGLE TRIGONOMETRY 2π
b+
k
opp hyp
sin & ! %% csc & ! %% b x b 2π x
hyp opp b+
hyp k
opp _a _a
adj hyp One period One period
cos & ! %% sec & ! %% ¨
hyp adj
adj
opp adj amplitude: a  period: 2$!k phase shift: b
tan & ! %% cot & ! %%
adj opp

SPECIAL VALUES OF THE GRAPHS OF THE INVERSE

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
& radians sin & cos & tan & y ! sin"1 x y ! cos"1 x y ! tan"1 x
0° 0 0 1 0 y y y
30° $!6 1!2 "#3!2 "#3!3 π
π
π
2 2
45° $!4 "#2!2 "#2!2 1
60° $!3 "#3!2 1!2 "#3 π
90° $!2 1 0 — _1 1 x 2 x
180° $ 0 "1 0 π π
_2 _2
270° 3$!2 "1 0 — _1 1 x

347
IMPORTANT FORMULAS

FUNDAMENTAL IDENTITIES FORMULAS FOR REDUCING POWERS

1 1 1 # cos 2x 1 $ cos 2x
sec x ! csc x ! sin 2 x ! "" cos2 x ! ""
cos x sin x 2 2
sin x 1
tan x ! cot x ! 1 # cos 2 x
cos x tan x tan 2 x ! ""
1 $ cos 2 x
sin 2 x $ cos 2 x ! 1 1 $ tan 2 x ! sec 2 x 1 $ cot2 x ! csc 2 x

sin1#x2 ! #sin x cos1#x2 ! cos x tan1#x2 ! #tan x

HALF-ANGLE FORMULAS

u 1 # cos u u 1 $ cos u
COFUNCTION IDENTITIES sin "" ! % cos "" ! %
2 B 2 2 B 2
& &
sin a"" # xb ! cos x cos a"" # xb ! sin x u 1 # cos u sin u
2 2 tan "" ! "" ! ""
2 sin u 1 $ cos u
& &
tan a"" # xb ! cot x cot a"" # xb ! tan x
2 2

& & PRODUCT-TO-SUM AND

sec a"" # xb ! csc x csc a"" # xb ! sec x SUM-TO-PRODUCT IDENTITIES
2 2
sin u cos √ ! "1" !sin1u $ √ 2 $ sin1u # √ 2"
2

REDUCTION IDENTITIES cos u sin √ ! "1" !sin1u $ √ 2 # sin1u # √ 2"

2
&
sin1x $ &2 ! #sin x sin ax $ ""b ! cos x cos u cos √ ! "1" !cos1u $ √ 2 $ cos1u # √ 2"
2 2
1
& sin u sin √ ! "" !cos1u # √ 2 # cos1u $ √ 2"
2
cos1x $ &2 ! #cos x cos ax $ ""b ! #sin x
2
x$y x#y
sin x $ sin y ! 2 sin "" cos ""
& 2 2
tan1x $ &2 ! tan x tan ax $ ""b ! #cot x
2 x$y x#y
sin x # sin y ! 2 cos "" sin ""
2 2
x$y x#y
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION FORMULAS cos x $ cos y ! 2 cos "" cos ""
2 2
sin1x $ y2 ! sin x cos y $ cos x sin y x$y x#y
cos x # cos y ! #2 sin "" sin ""
2 2
sin1x # y2 ! sin x cos y # cos x sin y

cos1x $ y2 ! cos x cos y # sin x sin y

cos1x # y2 ! cos x cos y $ sin x sin y THE LAWS OF SINES AND COSINES

tan x $ tan y tan x # tan y The Law of Sines B

tan1x $ y2 ! "" tan1x # y2 ! ""
1 # tan x tan y 1 $ tan x tan y
sin A sin B sin C a
"" ! "" ! ""
a b c
C
The Law of Cosines c
DOUBLE-ANGLE FORMULAS
a 2 ! b 2 $ c 2 # 2bc cos A
sin 2x ! 2 sin x cos x cos 2x ! cos 2 x # sin 2 x b
2 b 2 ! a 2 $ c 2 # 2ac cos B
! 2 cos x # 1
2 tan x c 2 ! a 2 $ b 2 # 2ab cos C
tan 2x ! "" ! 1 # 2 sin 2 x
1 # tan 2 x
A

348
349