Chapter 2

Open and Closed Sets

Lecture 5
Given any metric space (X, d), it is extremely important to generalise the notion
of an open ball. So throughout this section, let U ⊆ X be an arbitrary subset.

Definition 2.1. An interior point u ∈ U is one for which there exists  > 0 such
that B (u) ⊆ U ; the interior of U is the subset U ◦ ⊆ U of all interior points. If
U ◦ = U , then U is open in X.

So U is open precisely when every u ∈ U admits a B (u) ⊆ U ; in general, the

choice of  depends on u.

Proposition 2.2. Every open ball Br (x) is open in X.

Proof. Choose u ∈ Br (x), let s = d(x, u) < r, and consider y ∈ Br−s (u); then

d(x, y) ≤ d(x, u) + d(u, y) < s + (r − s) = r

by the triangle inequality, so y ∈ Br (x). Hence Br−s (u) ⊆ Br (x), as required.

Of course, Proposition 2.2 provides a host of examples; but there are others!

Examples 2.3.

1. Any union B1 ∪ B2 of two open balls is open; for u ∈ B1 implies that

B (u) ⊆ B1 ⊆ B1 ∪ B2 , and similarly if u ∈ B2 .

2. The complement U :=X \ B r (x) of a closed ball is given by {y : d(x, y) > r};
so for any y ∈ U with d(x, y) = t, it follows by an argument analogous to
that of Proposition 2.2 that Bt−r (y) ⊆ U . Hence U is open.

3. If (X, d) is discrete, any subset U ⊆ X is open because B1/2 (u) = {u} ⊆ U

by (1.10).

11
 A particular case of Example 2.3.1 is provided by the union of two open
intervals (a, b) ∪ (c, d) in the Euclidean line, where a < b < c < d. It follows from
Example 2.3.2 that R \ [a, b] = (−∞, a) ∪ (b, +∞) is also open.
On the other hand, many sets are not open in X.

Examples 2.4.

1. The closed ball B 1 (0) is not open in the Euclidean plane R2 . For consider
u ∈ B 1 (0) such that d(0, u) = 1; then any B (u) contains points y for which
d(x, y) = 1 + /2. Hence B (u) 6⊂ B 1 (0), as required. So Proposition 2.2
confirms that B 1 (0)◦ = B1 (0), by removing all u with |u| = 1.

2. The subset Q of the Euclidean line contains no open balls at all, and is
therefore not open. For let√q ∈ Q; then any open interval
√ (q − , q + )
contains the irrationals q + 2/n for every integer n > 2/. So Q◦ = ∅.

3. Similarly, the subset Rx := {(x, 0) : x ∈ R} of the Euclidean plane contains

no open balls, because it contains no points (x1 , x2 ) with |x2 | > 0. So
R◦x = ∅.

These examples confirm the importance of the metric for the openness of a
set. By Examples 2.3.2 and 2.4.3, both Q ⊂ R and Rx ⊂ R2 are open with the
discrete metric, but not with the Euclidean metric.

Theorem 2.5. Given any two subsets U, V ⊆ X, the following hold:

1. U ⊆ V implies that U ◦ ⊆ V ◦

2. (U ◦ )◦ = U ◦

3. U ◦ is open in X

4. U ◦ is the largest subset of U that is open in X.

Proof.

1. If u ∈ U ◦ , then there exists B (u) ⊆ U ⊆ V ; so u ∈ V ◦ .

2. By definition, (U ◦ )◦ ⊆ U ◦ . On the other hand, if u ∈ U ◦ , then there exists

B (u) ⊆ U ; thus B (u)◦ ⊆ U ◦ by 1, and B (u) ⊆ U ◦ by Proposition 2.2.
Thus u ∈ (U ◦ )◦ , so U ◦ ⊆ (U ◦ )◦ as required.

3. This follows immediately from 2.

4. Suppose that U ◦ ⊆ W ⊆ U , where W is open; then W = W ◦ ⊆ U ◦ by 1.

So W ⊆ U ◦ , and U ◦ = W as required.

12
 Open sets satisfy certain criteria that ensure they define a topology on X.
Topology is a more advanced form of geometry than metric spaces, but the rele-
vant properties are crucial to both theories.

Theorem 2.6. The sets X and ∅ are open in X; so are an arbitrary union
U = i∈I Ui of open sets Ui , and a finite intersection U 0 = U10 ∩ · · · ∩ Um
0
S
of open
0
sets Uj .

Proof. The openness of X is immediate. For ∅, consider the requirement that

u ∈ ∅ implies B (u) ⊆ ∅; since its left- and right-hand sides are both false, the
implication is true by virtue of the truth table.
For U , observe that any u ∈ U must lie in some Ui ; thus B (u) ⊆ Ui ⊆ U ,
and U is open.
For U 0 , suppose that u ∈ U 0 . Then u ∈ Uj0 for each j, and there exists (j)
such that B(j) (u) ⊆ Uj0 for 1 ≤ j ≤ m. Hence B (u) ⊆ Uj0 for every j, so long as
 ≤ min((j) : 1 ≤ j ≤ m). Thus B (u) ⊆ U 0 , and U 0 is open.
Note that the openness of U generalises Examples 2.3.1. In particular, infinite
unions of open intervals such as
∞
[
U = (1/(2i + 1), 1/2i) ⊂ R
i=1

may be difficult to visualise, but nevertheless are open subsets of the Euclidean
line. On the other hand, infinite intersections of open sets may not be open. For
example, let Vj be theT open interval (−1/j, 1/j) in the Euclidean line R, for every
j = 1, 2, . . . . Then j Vj = {0}, which is not open in R.

Lecture 6
Given any metric space (X, d), it is also important to generalise the notion of a
closed ball. Throughout this section, U ⊆ X continues to denote an arbitrary
subset.

Definition 2.7. A point x ∈ X is a closure point of U ⊆ X if B (x) ∩ U is

non-empty for every  > 0; the closure of U is the superset U ⊇ U of all closure
points. If U = U , then U is closed in X.

So U is closed precisely when B (x) ∩ U non-empty for every  > 0 implies

that x ∈ U .
A simple criterion for recognising closed sets is the following.

Proposition 2.8. A set V is closed in X iff its complement U :=X \ V is open.

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Proof. First suppose that V is closed. Since V = V , no point of U can have
B (x) ∩ V non-empty for every  > 0; in other words, Bδ (x) ∩ V = ∅ for some δ.
Hence Bδ (x) ⊂ U , and U is open.
Now suppose that U is open. Choose u ∈ V , and assume that u ∈ / V ; then
u ∈ U , so there exists B (u) ⊆ U . Hence B (u) ∩ V = ∅, a contradiction. So
u ∈ V , and V ⊆ V . Hence V is closed.
Corollary 2.9. Every closed ball B r (x) is closed in X.
Proof. By Example 2.3.2, X \ B r (x) is open in X. So B r (x) is closed.
Note that Proposition 2.8 also states that U is open in X iff its complement
X \ U is closed.
There are therefore two ways to proceed with many properties and problems
concerning closed sets. The first is to use the definitions directly; and the second
is to take complements, and use the properties of open sets. Both approaches
will be much in evidence below.
Examples 2.10.
1. Any intersection B1 ∩ B2 of two closed balls is closed; for B (x) ∩ (B1 ∩ B2 )
non-empty implies that B (x)∩B1 and B (x)∩B2 are non-empty, and hence
that x ∈ B1 and x ∈ B2 . Thus x ∈ B1 ∩ B2 , which is therefore closed.
2. The complement V :=X \Br (x) of an open ball is given by {y : d(x, y) ≥ r};
so V is closed by Proposition 2.8.
3. If (X, d) is discrete, any subset V ⊆ X is closed, because X \ V is open by
Example 2.3.3.
A particular case of Example 2.10.1 is provided by the intersection of two
closed balls B 1 (0, 0) ∩ B 1 (1, 0) in the Euclidean plane. This is a segment-shaped
region, with the point (1/2, 0) in its interior. It follows from Example 2.10.2 that
the set {(x1 , x2 ) : x21 + x22 ≥ 1} is also closed in R2 .
On the other hand, many sets are neither open nor closed in X. Many more
are open but not closed; so their complements are closed but not open!
Definition 2.11. A partially open ball in X is a set Pr (x) := Br (x) ∪ P , where
P is a proper subset of {p : d(x, p) = r}.
A partially open ball P1 (0) in (Rn , d2 ) is an open disc, with some (but not
all) unit vectors adjoined; P1 (0) in (R2 , d1 ) is an open diamond, with some (but
not all) vectors satisfying x1 ± x2 = ±1 adjoined.
Examples 2.12.
1. The open ball B1 (0) is not closed in the Euclidean plane R2 , because every
point x with |x| = 1 is a closure point.

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 2. Example 2.3.2 confirms that no point x ∈ R2 with |x| > 1 is a closure point
of B1 (0), so B1 (0) = B 1 (0). This explains the notation for closed balls.
But beware (see Problem 20); Br (x) 6= B r (x) in some metric spaces!

3. A partially open ball Pr (x) ⊂ R2 is neither open nor closed, with either
metric d1 or d2 ; for the points p ∈ P are not in the interior of Pr (x), and
the points p ∈
/ P distant r from x are closure points of Pr (x).

Theorem 2.13. Given any two subsets U, V ⊆ X, the following hold:

1. U ⊆ V implies that U ⊆ V

2. V = V

3. V is closed in X

4. V is the smallest set containing V that is closed in X.

Proof.

1. If B (x) ∩ U is non-empty for every  > 0, so is B (x) ∩ V .

2. By definition, V ⊆ V . Conversely, if x ∈ V , then B/2 (x) ∩ V is non-empty

for every  > 0. So there exists w for which d(x, w) < /2 and w ∈ V ,
whence B/2 (w) ∩ V is non-empty; thus B (x) ∩ V is also non-empty, by the
triangle inequality. Hence x ∈ V , and V ⊆ V as required.

3. This follows immediately from 2.

4. Suppose that V ⊆ W ⊆ V , where W is closed; then V ⊆ W = W by 1. So

V ⊆ W , and W = V as required.

Crucial properties of closed sets follow from Proposition 2.8 and Theorem 2.6.

Theorem 2.14. T The sets X and ∅ are closed in X; so are0 an arbitrary inter-
section V = i∈I Vi of closed sets Vi and a finite union V = V1 ∪ · · · ∪ Vm0 of
0

closed sets Vj0 .

Proof. Since X \ ∅ = X and X \SX = ∅, both X and ∅ are closed.

For V , observe that X \ V = i∈I (X \ Vi ) is an arbitrary union of open sets,
and is therefore open. Similarly, X \ V 0 = (X \ V10 ) ∩ · · · ∩ (X \ Vm0 ) is a finite
intersection of open sets, and is also open.
Note that the closedness of V generalises Examples 2.10.1.

15
Lecture 7
For many applications it is useful to introduce the idea of a sequence into the
theory of metric spaces, and to link the concept of limit to that of closure.
For any metric space X = (X, d), a sequence in X is a function s : N → X. It
is standard practise to write s(n) as xn , and display the sequence as (xn : n ≥ 1).
Definition 2.15. A sequence (xn ) converges to the point x ∈ X whenever
∀ > 0, ∃N ∈ N such that n ≥ N ⇒ d(x, xn ) <  ;
in this situation, x is known as the limit of (xn ).
Convergence of (xn ) to x may be written as limn→∞ xn = x, or xn → x as
n → ∞. Of course, Definition 2.15 requires that the sequence of real numbers
d(x, xn ) tends to 0 in the standard sense. In terms of open balls, xn → x whenever
(2.16) ∀ > 0, ∃N ∈ N such that n ≥ N ⇒ xn ∈ B (x).
Examples 2.17.
1. In Euclidean m-space, d2 (xn , x) = |xn −x|; so Definition 2.15 coincides with
the standard notion that xn → x iff |xn − x| → 0.
2. In the discrete metric space (X, d), a ball B (x) consists only of {x} for any
 < 1, by (1.10); so Definition 2.15 reduces to the condition that xn → x iff
xn = x for all n ≥ some N .
3. The same considerations apply to the vertices of a graph Γ with edge metric
e; again, vn → v iff vn is eventually constant at v.
4. In the function space C[a, b] of (1.20), dsup (fn , f ) = supx∈[a,b] |fn (x) − f (x)|;
Definition 2.15 means that fn → f iff fn (x) → f (x) uniformly on [a, b].
5. Thus xn 6→ 0 in C[0, 1], because supx∈[0,1] |xn | = 1 6→ 0. On the other hand,
xn → 0 in L1 [0, 1], because
Z 1
n
d1 (x , 0) = |tn | dt = 1/(n + 1) → 0 as n → ∞.
0

Theorem 2.18. In any a metric space (X, d), the limit of a convergent sequence
is unique.
Proof. Suppose that xn → x and xn → x0 , where x 6= x0 ; then d := d(x, x0 ) > 0,
and  may be chosen as d/2. So B (x) and B (x0 ) are disjoint, by the triangle
inequality.
On the other hand, (2.16) implies that xn ∈ B (x) for n ≥ N , and xn ∈ B (x,0 )
for n ≥ N 0 . So xn ∈ B (x) ∩ B (x0 ) for n ≥ max(N, N 0 ), a contradiction.
Hence x = x0 .

16
 The connection of limits with closure arises as follows.

Theorem 2.19. Suppose that Y ⊆ X and y ∈ X; then y lies in Y iff there exists
a sequence (yn ) in Y such that yn → y as n → ∞.

Proof. Suppose that yn → y as n → ∞. Then yn ∈ B (y) for all sufficiently large

n, and any  > 0. But yn ∈ Y , so B (y) ∩ Y is non-empty and y lies in Y .
Conversely, let y lie in Y . Then B1/n (y) ∩ Y is non-empty for any integer
n ≥ 1, and contains at least one point yn . Moreover, any  > 0 admits an n for
which 1/n < ; so yn ∈ B (y). Hence yn → y as n → ∞.

Examples 2.20.

1. Let Y be the subset {1/n : n = 1, 2, . . . } of the Euclidean line; so 0 ∈

/ Y.
But (yn = 1/n) lies in Y , and has limit 0; so 0 ∈ Y . Moreover, any
convergent sequence in Y must tend to some 1/m, or 0. So Y = Y ∪ {0}.

2. Let Y ⊆ V be any subset of the vertices of a graph Γ , with edge metric

e, and let (vn ) be a sequence in Y . Since vn → v only if vn is eventually
constant, any such v must also lie in Y . Thus Y is closed.

A more substantial example involves the function spaces of (1.20).

Example 2.21. Let Y be the subset P[0, 1] ⊆ C[0, 1], and consider the sequence

fn (x) = 1 + x/2 + x2 /4 + · · · + xn /2n

(1 − x/2)−1 in C[0, 1]; then the Binomial

of poloynomials fn in Y . Let f (x) = P
Theorem implies that f (x) − fn (x) = k≥n+1 xk /2k ≤ 1/2n for x ∈ [0, 1]. So

dsup (fn , f ) = sup |fn (x) − f (x)| = 1/2n → 0 as n → ∞ ,

x∈[0,1]

and fn → f in C[0, 1]. But f is not a polynomial, so P[0, 1] is not closed.

As in real analysis, sequences present themselves in several alternative forms.

Definition 2.22. In any metric space (X, d), a Cauchy sequence (xn ) satisfies

∀ > 0, ∃N ∈ N such that m, n ≥ N ⇒ d(xm , xn ) <  .

Proposition 2.23. If xn → x in (X, d), then (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence.

Proof. Given any  > 0, suppose that d(xn , x) < /2 for all n ≥ N . Then

d(xm , xn ) ≤ d(xm , x) + d(x, xn ) < /2 + /2 = 

for m, n ≥ N , by the triangle inequality. So (xn ) is Cauchy.

17
 The converse is false. For example, the sequence 1, √
1.4, 1.41, 1.414, . . . lies
in the subset Q of the Euclidean line, but converges to 2 ∈ R. It is therefore
Cauchy in Q, but not convergent in Q. This example also proves that Q is not
closed in R, by Theorem 2.19; on the other hand Q = R, essentially because
every real number has an infinite decimal expansion.

Definition 2.24. A subset Y is dense in (X, d) whenever Y = X.

Thus Q is dense in R.

Lecture 8
Definition 2.25. A subset A of a metric space (X, d) is bounded whenever
there exists x0 ∈ X and M ∈ R such that d(x, x0 ) ≤ M for every x ∈ A. A
function f : S → X is bounded whenever its image f (S) ⊂ X is a bounded, for
any set S.

So A is bounded whenever A ⊆ B M (x0 ).

If A satisfies Definition 2.25, it is necessary to check that the same criterion
holds for any other point x1 ∈ X. This is true because

d(x, x1 ) ≤ d(x, x0 ) + d(x0 , x1 ) ≤ M + d(x0 , x1 ) = M 0

by the triangle inequality. Any subset of a bounded subset is also automatically

bounded.
If x and y lie in a bounded set A, then d(x, y) ≤ d(x, x0 ) + d(x0 , y) ≤ 2M , so
d(x, y) is bounded in R. The following definition is therefore meaningful.

Definition 2.26. The diameter diam(A) of a bounded non-empty subset A ⊆ X

is the real number
sup{d(x, y) : x, y ∈ A}.

It is sometimes convenient to interpret the diameter of the empty set as 0.

Examples 2.27.

1. The open ball Br (0) in Euclidean n-space is bounded, because d(x, 0) < r
for any x ∈ Br (0); so its diameter is ≤ 2r. On the other hand, points such
as x = (r − , 0, . . . , 0) and −x = ( − r, 0, . . . , 0) satisfy d(x, −x) = 2(r − )
for any  > 0; so its diameter is ≥ 2(r − ). Hence diam(Br (0)) = 2r. It is
even easier to deduce that diam( B r (0)) = 2r.

2. Let e : R → R2 denote the function e(x) = (r cos x, r sin x) into the Eu-
clidean plane; its image e(R) is a circle of radius r, which is a subset of
B r (0), and therefore bounded. So e is a bounded function.

18
 Calculations such as those of Example 2.27.1 suggest the need to codify the
properties of sets such as the Euclidean (n − 1)-sphere {x : |x| = r} of radius r,
which is the difference B r (0) \ Br (0) between the closed and open balls. So let
A ⊆ X be any subset of (X, d).

Definition 2.28. A boundary point x ∈ X of A is one for which every open

ball B (x) meets both A and X \ A; the boundary ∂A of A is the set of all such
boundary points.

Proposition 2.29. The boundary of any subset A is the set A \ A◦ .

Proof. Suppose that x ∈ ∂A. Then every B (x) meets A, so x ∈ A; but B (x)
meets X \ A, so x ∈/ A◦ . Hence ∂A ⊆ A \ A◦ .
Conversely, suppose that x ∈ A \ A◦ . Then x ∈ A, so that every B (x) meets
/ A◦ , so B (x) meets X \ A. Thus B (x) meets both A and X \ A, and
A; and x ∈
x ∈ ∂A. Hence A \ A◦ ⊆ ∂A, as required.
If A fails to be closed, then it has closure points not in A, so ∂A 6⊆ A. If A◦
is empty, then ∂A = A.

Examples 2.30.

1. The closed ball B r (0) in Euclidean n-space is closed by Corollary 2.9, and
its interior is the open ball Br (0); thus ∂ B r (0) is the sphere {x : |x| = r}.
The open ball Br (0) is open by Proposition 2.2, but its closure is the closed
ball B r (0); thus ∂Br (0) is also the sphere {x : |x| = r}!

2. The subset Q of the Euclidean line is dense, but Q◦ is empty by Examples

2.4.2. Thus ∂Q = R.

3. The subset A:=Rn \{0} of Euclidean n-space is open, because {0} is closed.
Moreover, A = Rn , because the sequence (1/n : n ≥ 1) in A tends to 0 in
Rn . Thus ∂A = Rn \ A = {0}.

A particular case of Example 2.30.1 is provided by the closed interval [a, b]

and the open interval (a, b) in the Euclidean line, for any a < b. Both have
boundary {a, b}.

Theorem 2.31. Any subset A of (X, d) satisfies

1. A \ ∂A = A \ ∂A = A◦

2. ∂A = ∂(X \ A)

3. ∂A is closed in X

Proof.

19
1. It suffices to show that

A \ ∂A ⊆ A \ ∂A ⊆ A◦ ⊆ A \ ∂A ,

as follows. If x ∈ A \ ∂A, then x ∈ A \ ∂A because A ⊆ A. If x ∈ A \ ∂A,

then every B (x) meets A, but not X \ A; thus B (x) ⊆ A, and x ∈ A◦ . If
x ∈ A◦ , then B (x) meets A, but not X \ A for small ; thus x ∈ A \ ∂A.

2. This is an immediate consequence of Definition 2.28, since X \ (X \ A) = A.

3. If x ∈ ∂A, then every B (x) meets ∂A. So there exists y ∈ B (x) such that
Bδ (y) meets both A and X \ A, and Bδ (y) ⊆ B (x). Thus B (x) also meets
them both, whence x ∈ ∂A. Thus ∂A ⊆ ∂A, as required.

20