NAMA : Luthfi Aziiz Sasmito

NRP : 1121700003
TUGAS 2 TEK. PENGELASAN

In addition to current steel-intensive lightweight design approach, the

multi-materials lightweight design strategy in which both advanced high strength
steels and low-density alloys are used is becoming a novel approach towards
environmentally sustainable transport . Since joining is a critical enabling
manufacturing technology, the dissimilar joining of steel and low-density alloys is
an important area of research . As Al alloys are currently the most promising light
materials, the dissimilar joining of Al/steel is the key materials combination in the
context of MML design. Dissimilar metallurgical joining of Al and steel can be
achieved via formation of three distinct types of interfaces including solid/solid
interface , solid/liquid interface and liquid/liquid interface .
The key metallurgical challenges of dissimilar welding of Al/steel includes
differences in thermal properties , presence of Al oxide and intermetallic
compound formation at joint interface . Due to limited mutual solubility of Fe and
Al , the formation of intermetallic compounds the joint interface is inevitable. The
formation of IMC is essential for establish a strong atomic-scale metallurgical
bonding at Al/Fe interface. However, the brittleness of IMC coupled with the
presence of internal stress created during thermal joining process due to large
differences between their thermal properties make Al/steel dissimilar joint very
susceptible to cracking and brittle failure during service .
The experimental researches have shown that phase , which is an Al-rich
orthorhombic IMC phase with very high hardness and low fracture toughness , is
the prominent component in such Al/steel dissimilar joints as a result of its rapid
growth kinetics facilitated by the open and anisotropic crystallographic
arrangement . The total thickness of reaction layer which is governed by the
parabolic diffusion-controlled growth of the phase is a function of bonding
process thermal cycle as well as composition of Al/steel base metals and coating
composition of steel. The approximate peak temperature at solid/liquid interface
during RSW is highlighted. Figure 2 shows schematic representation of
macrograph of dissimilar Al/steel joint welded using direct RSW.

Metallurgical challenges during Al/steel resistance spot welding

The heat generation in the welds is dominated by Joule heating in the steel
sheet. Due to presence of thermal gradient between steel and Al, coupled with the
high thermal conductivity of Al sheet, the generated joule heat in steel conducted
into the Al sheet. This factor along with low melting point of Al alloys leads to
liquid nugget formation in Al sheets. Depending on the amount of heat
generation/loss in steel sheet, an isolated nugget in steel sheet can be formed .
The Al/steel interface is liquid/solid interface suggesting that the
metallurgical bonding of Al/steel using RSW is achieved by a brazing
mechanism . The presence of Al oxide can significantly affect the wettability.
These processes supersaturate the liquid in Fe which eventually leads to formation
Al-rich IMC resulting an atom-atom metallurgical bonding . Schematic of
macrostructure dissimilar resistance spot welds between aluminium and steel
along with details of interfacial reaction zone.
The bonding zone length, IMC thickness and indentation in Al sheet are
determining factors for weld mechanical performance. When reaction layer is
thicker than a critical value, the joint fails via crack propagation through brittle
IMC. Controlling the thickness of Al5Fe2 phase , the dominant phase in the IMC
layer, is of crucial importance for producing strong and reliable dissimilar Al/steel
welds. Mechanical properties of Al/steel RSW depend on how aforementioned
stages can be controlled.
The presence of thick IMC layer is the primary source for producing weak
joints especially when the joint interface experiences mode I loading condition .
The failure mode of spot welds, as an important qualitative measure for joint
energy absorption during failure, depends on several factors including weld
physical attributes, weld metallurgical characteristics as well as the loading
condition . Interfacial failure via crack propagation through IMC layer, promoted
when IMC thickness is larger than the critical value. 1 In this situation, the
energy-consuming crack-interception at the irregular /steel interface becomes less
frequent and the joint strength is dictated by the low fracture toughness of IMC
layer .
In this condition, the thickness of IMC layer governs the joint strength.
Interfacial failure via rupture mainly between the intermetallic phases and the Al
base material. This failure is promoted when the IMC layer is thin or un-bonded
regions and pore/void are presented at the joint interface. Pullout failure via
nugget withdrawal from Al sheet.
When the IMC thickness is less than the critical value, it can be expected
that bonding zone length is the decisive factor in determining the joint properties.
As mentioned above the bonding zone length is one of the determining factors for
mechanical strength Al/steel RSW. Cover plate is a high electrical resistance-low
thermal conductivity material which is placed on the Al sheet. When electrical
current is passed through cover plate/Al/steel, the generated Joule heat in the
cover plate is effectively conducted towards the Al/steel interface resulting in
increased TS/L and hence enlarged bonding zone . The main benefit of this
technique is to improve joint mechanical properties, caused by enlarged bonding
zone, under relatively low welding currents. The effectiveness of this approach
depends on thermal/electrical properties and thickness of the cover plate.
One of the key obstacles to achieve strong bond in Al/steel RSW is the
presence of un-wetted/un-bonded regions due to presence of Al oxide. Removing
the oxide layer needs a high heat input, resulting in the formation of a thick Fe–Al
IMC layer at the joint interface, making it impossible to obtain satisfactory joint
strength . This coupled with the fact that melting of Zn-coating lower the effective
heat input available for interface reaction resulted in formation of thinner but
more regular IMC at the joint interface . It should be mentioned that the
composition and microstructure of the coating can affect its fluxing behaviour and
IMC growth.
It seems that the fluxing behaviour of the coat is controlled by its melting
temperature, while, the thickness of IMC layer is affected by the electrical
resistivity of the coat as well as the reaction path. Dissimilar RSW of
Al/galvannealed steel represented less effective Zn-induced fluxing, due to higher
melting point of the coating, with thicker reaction layer, due to its higher electrical
resistivity and different reaction path . With optimising the welding parameters
and electrode geometry, a joint with high cross-tension strength can be achieved
in RSW of Al/Zn-coated steel. It should be noted that the problems associated
with Zn-coating, porosity formation induced by Zn vaporisation and surface
breaking cracking induced by liquid metal embrittlement, should be considered
during welding optimisation process.

Bi-metal transition materials: a promising solution

The use of aluminium clad steel as a transition material between Al and
steel can be considered as a reaction barrier which can inhibit the metallurgical
reaction at Al/steel interface . Two separate weld nuggets are formed at steel/steel
and Al/Al interfaces. The shape of weld nugget in Al sheet suggests that the Joule
heat for nugget formation on the aluminium side is conducted from the steel side.
A thin IMC layer is also formed at Al/steel clad interface due to welding heat
input.
This technique can produce strong welds with static/fatigue strength equal
to that of in similar Al/Al RSW even in cross-tension loading conditions. The
widespread application of Al sheets in steel-dominant multi-materials lightweight
automotive depends on how aforementioned challenges can be addressed during
RSW. The bottleneck is to obtain a defect free thin IMC at the joint interface
without considerable electrode indentation/HAZ softening in Al sheet. This means
that the cross-tension is more sensitive to the presence of brittle microstructure at
the joint interface compared to the tensile-shear test . It seems that tensile-shear
strength depends strongly on the bonding zone length rather than IMC thickness.
However, the cross-tension strength is strongly affected by the low
fracture toughness IMC and thus the thickness of reaction layer play key role in
determining the failure behaviour. An enabling reliable technique for Al/steel spot
welding should be able to produce joints with improved cross-tension properties.
Systematic experimentation coupled with computational thermodynamic
calculations are needed to develop a fundamental knowledge regarding the role of
base alloys composition of IMC growth. This provides a basis to move towards
design alloys specifically tailored for dissimilar metal joining.
 In addition to the role of coating, employing an interlayer is common
approach in dissimilar materials joining. Some interlayer have been attempted for
improving RSW of Al/steel including pure Al , Al–Si , Al–Mg without sufficient
metallurgical/mechanical characterisations. To design/choose proper interlayer for
RSW, the electrical properties of the interlayer should be considered, in addition
to its compatibility with the base metals as well as its effect on the interface
reaction. While, some reliable models are available for RSW process simulation,
there is limited works on modelling of IMC formation during dissimilar Al/steel
RSW .
Development of integrated modelling for Al/steel RSW requires
fundamental understanding of thermodynamic and kinetics of IMC formation as
well as fracture mechanics of IMC-containing joints. Among them, friction stir
spot welding has potential to become a competitor to resistance spot welding
process. However, there is no comparative study regarding
metallurgical/mechanical characteristics dissimilar joints made by both RSW and
FSSW. Despite, the lower interface temperature during Al/Fe which helps in
minimising the reaction layer thickness, the longer processing time in FSSW
encourages IMC growth.
(Sumber : Pouranvari, Majid. 2017. Critical assessment 27: dissimilar resistance
spot welding of aluminium/steel: challenges and opportunities. Materials Science
and Technology.)

High power density laser had been widely used in cutting and welding
because of the high processing quality, fast speed and good stability . Laser
absorption rate determined the energy into the sheet, thus affecting the processing
quality . The laser parameters would affect the diameter and length of the keyhole,
thus affecting the absorption rate . Meanwhile, the sheet thickness would affect
the interaction behavior between laser and material Quantifying the effects of
laser speed and sheet thickness on absorption rate would provide a guide for
choosing the proper parameters.
Various researchers have focused on the absorption rate in laser welding.
Shida et al. measured the absorption rate in CO2 laser beam welding of mild steel
based on the water calorimetric method, and the value was reported at the range of
72% to 87%. And at high welding speed situation, the keyhole located behind the
laser beam, part of the laser beam irradiated on the molten pool. For these two
situations, the absorption rate would decrease obviously.
In this paper, absorption rates of the 304 austenitic stainless with the
thickness of 9 and 3 mm for disk laser at different welding speeds were measured
with the water calorimetric method, and the additional absorption rate was
calculated by considering the heat taken away by the spatter and metallic plume.
The high speed cameras were used to measure the inlet diameter of the keyhole
and observe the light and spatter during the welding process, and the micro-
focused X-ray equipment was used to measure the length of the keyhole, which
could describe the mechanism for the coupled effect of welding speed and sheet
thickness on absorption rate.

The experiment system to measure the absorption rate is shown in Fig.

The schematic of the specimen is shown in Fig. 2. The specimen was fixed in an
acrylic absorption measurement jig, and the cooling water was in direct contact
with the surface of the specimen. During the experiment, laser irradiated on the
upper surface of the specimen, and the cooling water was used to remove heat.
100 %Where 𝑃 was the power of laser , 𝑡 was the laser irradiation time , 𝑡1 was
the start time for temperature increase, 𝑇 was the temperature gap between the
thermal thermocouples, 𝑡2 was the end time for temperature increase, c𝑝 was the
specific heat of water J/, and 𝑚̇ was the flow speed of the water . The material of
the specimen used was austenitic stainless steel SUS304.
The laser oscillator in the experiment was a continuously oscillating high
brightness and high power disk laser device with a maximum power of 16 kW,
and beam parameter product was 8.0 mm. And the diameter of the laser beam at
the focus position was 280 μm
The laser power was kept as 6 kW, the defocus distance was set as 0 mm,
the inclination angle was set as 0, and the argon shielding gas was fed at a rate of
50 l/min. Two kinds of specimens with the thickness of 3 mm and 9 mm were
used, respectively. During the welding process, a part of the metal escaped from
the specimen as the style of spatter or metallic plume. And the mass of the
specimen before and after welding was measured by electronic balance,
respectivley. The gap between these two values was defined to be the lost mass,
and the mass loss rate was the quotient of lost mass and welding time.
The keyhole shape and behavior within the specimen during welding were
observed by a micro focused X-ray source at the high speed of 1000 frames/s.
Surface of the molten pool was observed by the high speed camera at 1000
frames/s during welding, and the inlet diameter of the keyhole was measured from
the video . In order to remove the effect of plume light emission, a diode laser was
used as a light source
After the specimen was irradiated by laser, the water temperature of the
outlet was significantly higher than that of the inlet. Then the water temperature of
the inlet and the outlet reached the same value at 700 seconds after laser
irradiation. And the absorption rate could be calculated by equation based on the
measured temperature varing with the time.
The escaped metal also absorbed heat from laser, and this part of heat was
not consided in the water calorimetric method introduced in previous literatures.
By considering the heat absorbed by the escaped metal, the absorption rate
measured by the water calorimetric method could be updated. Based on these
material properties and the measured mass loss rate, the heat absorbed by spatter
and metallic plume could be calculated.

Weld seam section

As shown, the laser didn’t penetrate the specimen with the thickness of 9
mm, while penetrated the specimen with the thickness of 3 mm. The width of the
weld bead decreased with the increase of welding speed for specimen with both
thicknesses. For the specimen with the thickness of 9 mm, the penetration depth
decreased with the increase of the welding speed. And the penetration depth for
the specimen with the thickness of 3 mm was constant and equal to the sheet
thickness.
Keyhole characteristic
Figure 9 shows the representative characteristics of the molten pool
surfaces for specimens with the thickness of 9 mm captured by high speed
camera. In the high speed observation image, the bright spot was the laser
beam, the white circle zone represented the keyhole, and dark zone around the
keyhole was the molten pool. As shown, with the increase of welding speed, the
keyhole diameter decreased. The keyhole diameter at the welding speed of 50
mm/s was 0.63 mm, while decreased to 0.51 mm at the welding speed of 150
mm/s. 
And the laser spots were all inside the keyholes.
keyhole length decreased with the increase of welding speed.
Fig. 10. This absorption rate value decreased with the increase of welding speed.
Figure 11 shows the characteristics of the molten pool surfaces for specimens with
the thickness of 3 mm captured by high speed camera. 0 mm, which meant that
the keyhole diameter was not sensitive with the welding speed in full penetration
welding. 
And the laser spots were all inside the keyholes.
keyhole length was equal to the sheet thickness in full penetration welding shown
in this manuscript. And the measured absorption rates by water calorimetric
method are also presented in Fig. 12. The results showed that the absorption rate
at the welding speed of 50 mm/s was significantly lower than those at the welding
speeds of 100 and 150 mm/s

Mass loss rate

Figure 13 shows the comparison of the mass loss rate for full and partial
penetration welding at different welding speeds. For partial penetration welding,
the mass loss rate increased with the welding speed. For full penetration welding,
the mass loss rate had the minimum value at the welding speed of 100 mm/s. This
measured mass loss rate could be used to calculate the heat escaping from the
specimen during the welding process, and the absorption rate measured by water
calorimetric method could be updated.
Absorption rate
In fact, both the spatter and the metallic plume would lead to the loss of
the mass. To calculate the heat taken away by the lost mass, the mass loss rates of
spatter and metallic plume needed to be identified seperately at first.
Where 𝑝0 was the standard atmospheric pressure , 𝜎 was the surface
tension on the wall of the keyhole , and 𝑟 was the radius of the keyhole . Where T
was the temperature in the keyhole, and the Boiling temperature of Fe was was
used in this calculation , k was the Boltzmann constant .
Where A was the cross section area of the keyhole , m was the weight of
Fe atom . And the mass loss rate of plume could be estimated with equation .
Based on the measured total mass loss rate and the estimated mass loss rate of
plume, the mass loss rate of spatter could be calculated. And the calculated mass
loss rates of spatter and metallic plume were shown in Table 4.
Based on the mass loss rates of spatter and metallic plume, the heat taken
away by the spatter and plume could be calcualted by equations and, respectively.
Then the compensated absorption rate could be calculated, as shown in Table 5.
This compensated absorption rate was added to the absorption rate measured by
the water calorimetric method, and the combined absorption rate could be
calculated. The combined absorption rates for both partial and full penetration
welding at different welding speeds are shown in Fig. 14. The results showed that
the maximum absorption rate for partial penetration welding was 73% at the
welding speed of 50 mm/s, while that for the full penetration welding was 61% at
the welding speed of 150 mm/s.
The absorption rate decreased with the increase of welding speed for
partial penetration welding, while increased with the increase of welding speed for
full penetration welding. It seemed that the highest absorption rate could be
achieved when the specimen was exactly penetrated in full penetration welding.
And the reason for the absorption rate variation laws would be discussed in the
following section.
Light absorption in keyhole
When light irradiated onto the wall of the keyhole, part of the energy was
absorbed, and the other part of the energy would be reflected, multiple reflections
happened at the keyhole. The ratio of the absorbed energy increased with the
reflection times . Figure 15 shows the effect of welding speed on the ratio of
length to diameter of the keyhole in partial penetration welding, the inlet diameter
of the keyhole was measured by high speed camera shown in Fig. 9, and the
length of the keyhole was measured by X-ray shown in Fig. 10. The calculated
results showed that the ratio decreased with the increase of welding speed, just the
same as the absorption rate. It seemed that the absorption rate would be highly
related to the ratio of length to depth of the keyhole. Figure. 16 shows the
schematic of multiple reflections in the keyhole at different ratios of length to
diameter. For the keyhole with larger ratio, more reflection times happened before
the light went out from the keyhole, and light absorption increased. This analysis
could provide an explanation for the decrease of absorption rate with the increase
of welding speed in partial penetration welding.

Light escaping from the keyhole

For full penetration welding process, keyhole penetrated through the steel,
and a part of the laser energy escaped from the bottom of the sheet. This
phenomenon had been observed in the X-ray image shown in Fig. 12. With the
increase of welding speed, the laser beam had the tendency to move close to the
front wall of the keyhole .
Fig. 12. Under the combined effect of these two factors, the ratio of the
laser beam escaping from the bottom of the keyhole decreased with the increase of
welding speed. Figure 17 shows the high speed observation image for full
penetration welding at the welding speed of 50, 100 and 150 mm/s. As shown,
obvious light, metallic plume and spatter appeared at the bottom of the sheet at the
welding speed of 50 and 100 mm/s, while not at the welding speed of 150 mm/s.
Besides, the ejection from the bottom of the specimen at the welding speed of 50
mm/s was significantly larger than that at the welding speed of 100 mm/s.
 Both the theoretical analysis and the experimental phenomenon could
provide an explanation for the increase of absorption rate with welding speed in
full penetration welding. Spatter and metallic plume escaped from the top of the
sheet increasing with welding speed could also be clearly observed from Fig. 17.
This could provide an experimental proof for the variation law of the mass loss
rate in full penetration welding shown in Fig.
For full penetration welding, the variation law of the mass loss rate was
determined by the spatter and metallic plume escaping from both the top and the
bottom of the sheet. Finally, the mass loss rate had the minimum value at the
middle speed, as shown in Fig. 13.
The absorption rate for full penetration welding at the speed of 50 mm/s
was significantly lower than that at the other parameters. The molten pool
surface , the longitudinal section of the molten pool , and the high speed camera
image were also captured when the laser irradiated at zone . The undercut defect
was also observed in the weld seam, as shown in zone . The molten pool surfaces,
the longitudinal sections of the keyhole and the high speed camera images
captured when laser irradiated at both zones and were compared in Fig. 18. The
keyhole at zone had a shape of the horn, the diameter of the keyhole at the bottom
of the sheet was significantly larger than that at the top of the sheet. Meanwhile,
the diameter of the keyhole at zone was obviously larger than that at zone. The
length of zone was approximately 25% of the whole weld seam, and the diameter
of the keyhole at zone was about 3 times of that at zone.

Conclusions
In this manuscript, effects of welding speed on absorption rate in partial
and full penetration welding of stainless steel with high brightness and high power
laser have been investigated. The high speed cameras and X-ray were used to
capture the phenomenon during the welding process, providing explanations for
the variation laws of the absorption rates. The following conclusions could be
obtained:
  The maximum absorption rate for full penetration welding in this
manuscript was 61% when the specimen was exactly penetrated, and the
absorption rate increased with the welding speed. The decrease of laser
energy escaping from the keyhole inlet on the bottom surface of the sheet
with the increase of welding speed could provide an explanation for this
variation law of the absorption rate.

 The maximum absorption rate for partial penetration welding in this

manuscript was 73%, and the absorption rate decreased with the increase
of welding speed. The decrease of the ratio of length to diameter of the
keyhole with the increase of welding speed could provide an explanation
for this variation law of the absorption rate.

 In partial penetration welding, the mass loss rate increased with the
welding speed. In full penetration welding, the minimum mass loss rate
appeared at the middle welding speed , large mass escaped from the
bottom of the specimen at low welding speed, while from the top of the
specimen at high welding speed

(Sumber : Wang, H. 2017. EFFECS OF WELDING SPEED ON ABSORPTION

RATE IN PARTIAL AND FULL PENETRATION WELDING OF STAINLESS
STEEL WITH HIGH POWER LASER. Journal of Materials Processing
Technology)