NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

ATTACHMENT REPORT

NAME PRINCE MUKOKOWONDO

STUDENT NUMBER N01519001P

PROGRAMME BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING HONOURS DEGREE

…………………………………… IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

INSTITUTION NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND

…………………………………… TECHNOLOGY

ID NUMBER 08-2111765 S07

CELL 0777352886/ 0719352887/ 0734438907

EMAIL ADDRESS prince.eugo@gmail.com

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my utmost gratitude to my industrial and academic supervisors Mr Mamboza and
Dr Hlabangana for their unwavering support and valuable contributions and whose guidance was
indispensable for the completion of my industrial attachment.

Abstract

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This report is a culmination of the observations made and activities carried out by the student during the industrial
attachment period at City of Gweru. As a student attaché in the field of Chemical Engineering I was exposed to and
gained knowledge on the principles, processes and systems relating to water and wastewater treatment. The training
programme was designed to guide the student to gain exposure and professional experiences throughout the
penultimate year. The report seeks to show what transpired, thus the duties, the relevance to the degree programme
(Chemical Engineering) and skills obtained during his attachment period, thus acquiring and developing work
competences, leadership and interpersonal skills in partial fulfilment of the Bachelor of Engineering Honours
Degree in Chemical Engineering

ABBREVIATIONS

The notations used in this document is based on the internationally agreed upon symbols and abbreviations. The
relevant symbols and abbreviations used are listed below.

BOD - Biological Oxygen Demand

DO – Dissolved Oxygen

TH – Total Hardness

CH – Calcium Hardness

ALUM – Aluminium Sulphate Coagulant

TA – Total Alkalinity

HTH – High Test Hypochlorite

PV 4HRS –Oxygen absorbed in 4 hours

GCC - Gweru City Council

GIS - Geographical Information System

GPS - Global Positioning System

GIZ - Gesellschaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit

ML/day- Mega-litres per day

Cl2 – Chlorine

WHO- World Health Organisation

SAZ – Standard Association of Zimbabwe

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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................1
1.1 The organisational structure of the Gweru City Council...................................................................................3
1.1.1 The Mayor.................................................................................................................................................3
1.1.2 The Town Clerk.........................................................................................................................................3
1.1.3 City of Gweru Departments and Directors.................................................................................................3
1.1.4 Administration...........................................................................................................................................4
1.2 Mission, Vision & Values.................................................................................................................................5
1.3 Organizational Goals........................................................................................................................................6
1.4 Strategic Objectives..........................................................................................................................................6
CHAPTER 2 SERVICES...........................................................................................................................................7
2.1 Education..........................................................................................................................................................7
2.2 Health facilities and rescue...............................................................................................................................7
2.3 Housing and land management.........................................................................................................................7
2.4 Roads and public lighting.................................................................................................................................7
2.5 Social Amenities...............................................................................................................................................8
2.6 Waste management and Sanitation...................................................................................................................8
2.7 Water and Sewerage Services...........................................................................................................................8
CHAPTER 3 WATER QUALITY CONTROL..........................................................................................................9
3.1 Duties and Responsibilities of the Student......................................................................................................10
3.2 Analysis done in the laboratory......................................................................................................................10
3.2.1 Test for pH...............................................................................................................................................10
3.2.2 Turbidity and Colour................................................................................................................................12
3.2.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)..................................................................................................................13
3.2.4 Free residual chlorine...............................................................................................................................13
3.2.5 Total Alkalinity........................................................................................................................................15
3.2.6 Total Hardness (T.H) and Calcium Hardness of Water............................................................................15
3.2.7 Carbonate Hardness (Temporary hardness).............................................................................................16
3.2.8 Non-carbonate hardness (Permanent hardness)........................................................................................16
3.2.9 Calcium hardness (CaH)..........................................................................................................................17
3.3 Chloride Determination..............................................................................................................................18
3.3.1 Test for Dissolved Oxygen D.O...............................................................................................................18
3.3.2 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5)......................................................................................................21
3.3.3 Test for oxygen absorbed [PV4hrs].........................................................................................................22
3.3.4 Settleable Solids.......................................................................................................................................23
3.3.5 Jar test......................................................................................................................................................23
CHAPTER 4 WATER TREATMENT PROCESS...................................................................................................25

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 4.1 Abstraction.....................................................................................................................................................26
4.2 Coagulation and Flocculation.........................................................................................................................26
4.3 Sedimentation.................................................................................................................................................28
4.4 Filtration.........................................................................................................................................................29
4.5 Clarification at Gwenoro.................................................................................................................................29
4.7 Disinfection....................................................................................................................................................32
4.7.1 Chemistry of chlorination........................................................................................................................33
4.8 Summary of treatment process........................................................................................................................34
CHAPTER 5 WASTE-WATER TREATMENT PROCESS....................................................................................36
Preliminary Treatment..........................................................................................................................................37
Screening..............................................................................................................................................................37
Grit Removal........................................................................................................................................................37
Anaerobic Ponds...................................................................................................................................................38
SETTLING PONDS.............................................................................................................................................40
BIOLOGICAL FILTERS.....................................................................................................................................40
HUMUS REMOVAL...........................................................................................................................................42
ANAEROBIC DIGESTER...................................................................................................................................43
SLUDGE DIGESTION........................................................................................................................................43
DIGESTER DESIGN...........................................................................................................................................44

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v
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Gweru City was founded in 1894 by Dr Leander Starr Jameson. From these humble beginnings,
the city grew and attained City status in October 1973. Today the Municipal area of the Gweru
City Council covers about 30 000 hectares and currently has an estimated population of 171000
and a transit population of 50 000. The city is divided into 18 wards that are represented by
elected Councillors. Gweru is third largest city in the nation and is the capital of the Midlands
Province. Midlands Province covers the Central part of Zimbabwe and is a multi-ethnic province
and home to the Ndebele, Karanga and Zezuru tribes.

Fig 1.0 the map of Gweru City (adapted from Urban Councils Association of Zimbabwe website)

Table 1.0 The City of Gweru

 City status granted in: October 1973

 Elected councillors and wards:            18

 Population estimate:                            171 000

 Transit population:                                   50 000

 Total area:                                 30 000 hectares

 Altitude:                             1416 above sea level

 Climate:                                                 4OC-28OC

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  Rainfall:                                     690mm per year

 Road network:
 Tarred 426,4km
 Earth and gravel                       639,6km
 Water supplies:
 Water sources                      5 million m3
 Treatment capacity 70 ml per day

 Water demand 65 ml per day

 Sewage treatment capacity:      30 ml per day

 Workforce of municipality:                      1 187

 Housing units:
 Low density and medium 6000 units
 High density 30 000 units

 Number of schools: [public and private]

 Secondary                 13
 Primary                                  20
 Tertiary                                 3
 Number of medical facilities:
 Private hospitals                                  2
 Public hospitals 5

 Institutional clinics                 3

 Public clinics                                          7

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 Private clinics

1.1 The organisational structure of the Gweru City Council

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 MAYOR

TOWN CLERK

HOUSING AND
CHAMBER ENGINEERING
COMMUNITY HEALTH SERVICES FINANCE
SECRETARY SERVICES
SERVICES

TECHNICAL WATER AND ELECTRICAL MECHANICAL

ROADS SECTION ADMINSTRATION
SERVICES SEWAGE SECTION SECTION SECTION

STATIONS AND
WATER QUALIITY WATER WASTE WATER TREATMENT
PLANTS

Fig 1.1 The Organogram

1.1.1 The Mayor

The Mayor and his seventeen elected councillors act on behalf of the residents, in the event of
decision making. He chairs the council and the executive committee. The council formulates
policies that will be implemented by the management.

1.1.2 The Town Clerk

Is the CEO, she is responsible for the management of the whole organisation, acting on behalf of
the mayor and the councillors. The town clerk also acts as the secretary of the city council. All
directors report to the town clerk.

1.1.3 City of Gweru Departments and Directors

The city of Gweru is made up of four departments which are headed by the directors in question.

 The Director of Finance

 Reports direct to the Town clerk. He also monitors and manages all revenues
collected for all services offered by the council as a whole. He/she prepares the
annual budget and also allocates funds to all the respective departments. He/she

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 also deals with the wages and salaries of all municipality workers and querulous
matters involving finance.

 The Director of Housing

 Responsible for monitoring and managing all issues pertaining the department of
housing, such as planning site and allocation of stands for individual houses,
municipal houses, and industrial stands and also their maintenance. He/she reports
to the town clerk.

 The Director of Health Services

 Reports directly to the town clerk about all issues pertaining the department of
health. He/she also monitors and manages all issues concerning both human and
environmental health in order to maintain the good health standards.

 The Director of Engineering Services

 Responsible for managing and monitoring all activities involved in the department
of engineering. He/she is also responsible for urban planning, road maintenance
water and sewerage services. He is responsible for drawing plans, and approval of
plans, land surveys, and water quality control.

 The Chamber Secretary

 Reports to the Town clerk and is involved in the implementation and adherence of
internal control system within the organization, advices management on certain
action and decision making and is responsible for recruiting, attend to staff
problems and involved in disciplinary action (hearing).

1.1.4 Administration
The City of Gweru is made up of four administration centres, which are Town House, LGR,
Senga and Mkoba and every administration is made up of the four departments which are stated
above

 The Town House

 This is the central administration, it is made up of offices of all management staff
from low level to high level management and its acts as the central management
system whereby all other sub-administrations report to the Town House.
 Senga Administration

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  Located in Senga, and its purpose is to offer services to Senga residents and
receipts payment made by residence of Senga and reporting to the Town House.
 Mkoba Administrations
 Located in Mkoba 6 and 16 offering services to Mkoba residents and reports to the
Town House its daily activities. It is made up of four departments, the department
of Housing, Financing, Health and Engineering.
 LGR Administration
 Located near Mtapa and it offers services to residents of Mambo, Ascot and Mtapa.
It is made up of four departments, the department of Housing, department of
Health, the department of engineering and the department of Finance.

1.2 Mission, Vision & Values

Gweru City Council is guided by the same vision, mission statement values and objectives which
are displayed in offices. These allow the organisation to work as a team focusing on their core
business.

 Vision
Sustainable prosperous city of choice by 2030.
 Mission
To provide quality service to stakeholders and residents.
 Core Values
In pursuing its vision and mission, the Gweru City Council is guided by the following
values:
 Customer focus
 Professionalism
 Equal Opportunity Employer
 Timeous service Delivery
 Transparency and Accountability
 Team work
 Employees as our main asset
 Integrity
 Fairness
 Environment stewardship and community participation

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1.3 Organizational Goals

Gweru City Council aims to have achieved the following goals by the end of the year.

 To be a financially viable local authority

 To become a well serviced and certified community.
 To provide a well-developed and maintained infrastructure.
 To maintain a high productivity
 Make Gweru a clean green city
 To improve economic growth of the city

1.4 Strategic Objectives

 To attract new investors in the city.

 To retain existing investors.
 To contain cost at sustainable levels.
 To promote tourism activities in and around the city.
 To promote informal sector and Small Medium Enterprises.
 To improve and maintain environmental health conditions.
 To beautify the city.
 To attract and retain suitably qualified staff and experienced personnel.
 To improve industrial relations.
 To improve gender balance.
 To provide serviced land for industrial and commercial development.
 To improve public safety and the transport network.
 To reduce the budget deficit.
 To provide reliable adequate safe water for domestic and industrial consumers.
 To raise finance for capital projects at low interest rates.
 To provide reliable fire and ambulance services.
 To provide adequate accessible public and primary health care.
 To reduce poverty and its impact to citizens.
 To clear the short-term debt.


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CHAPTER 2 SERVICES

Gweru City Council provides a wide range of services to its residents. It has a well-diversified
portfolio. The services provided include:

 Education; Primary, Secondary and Libraries.

 Fire, Rescue and Ambulances
 Health Facilities and Control
 Housing and Land Management
 Roads and Public Lighting
 Social Amenities, Sports Facilities and Beer halls and Community Spaces
 Waste Management and Sanitation
 Water and Sewerage Services

2.1 Education

Schools have been built in order to improve the standard of education within the city. Schools that
belong to local authorities are quite affordable so that any resident can get quality education. The
organisation also educates residents through awareness programmes equipping them with
information which is useful to them.

2.2 Health facilities and rescue

The City of Gweru has built clinics within the city. It also owns ambulances that transport the sick
or injured to hospitals and fire and rescue facilities available on standby.

2.3 Housing and land management

Since land within the City of Gweru is in the hands of G.C.C it is therefore their responsibility to
allocate it. Due to the increase in population, demand for accommodation has also increased. To
ease the demand, the department of Housing reduces the waiting list by allocating stands to people
who are in need of housing. The organisation also used to provide accommodation to people by
building houses and renting them out to residents

2.4 Roads and public lighting

It is the duty of the G.C.C to provide proper roads within the city to avoid road accidents and to
promote effective transport systems within the city. The department of Engineering is responsible
for paving roads and filling up potholes. Preventative measures against road accidents include
setting up traffic humps and maintaining road signs. They replace street lights and maintain
robots, all this to ensure effective transporting systems.

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2.5 Social Amenities

The organisation has built stadiums to promote sporting activities and beer halls for recreational
purposes. People who use the stadiums pay a fee to the department of Housing. The town’s
municipality has also built swimming pools and other sporting centres around the city for
recreational purposes. There are halls within the city owned by G.C.C which can be rented to
organisations and individuals.

2.6 Waste management and Sanitation

It is the duty of Gweru Municipality to keep its town clean therefore it is responsible for refuse
removal in and around the city of Gweru. For effective refuse collection, City of Gweru provides
bins. There is also a team which is responsible for refuse collection. There are council employees
who sweep up in and around the central business district and some use refuse collection trucks to
collect garbage from the different residential and business areas.

2.7 Water and Sewerage Services

“Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all” states sustainable
development goal number 6 (SDG6). It is therefore the duty of the City Council to ensure the
provision of safe and clean water and sanitation for all its residents. Water quality assessment is
done routinely to make sure the water meets the required SAZ standards and if not, corrective
measures taken immediately. The City of Gweru and ZINWA work together in maintaining the
dams (Gwenoro and Amapongokwe) to ensure enough and clean water to the residents. The City
has a reticulation system that enable all residents to have access to the potable water. Gwenoro
and Amapongokwe supply potable water and Ngamo supplies raw water to industries e.g. Bata
and Zimalloys. The organisation also offers sewerage services to all residents of Gweru. The
organisation also ensures the analysis of industrial waste disposed into the sewage lines to ensure
it is within acceptable limits and fulfil environmental standards if not, they fine the perpetrator.
Pipes are maintained and burst pipes are repaired to avoid sewage related health problems at the
same time curbing a nuisance to residents.

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CHAPTER 3 WATER QUALITY CONTROL

This is a subsection under the water and waste water section headed by the Laboratory
Technician. Quality control may be defined as meeting or exceeding customer expectations. The
central laboratory located at the Gweru town house carries out all chemical and physical tests on
raw-water through treatment all the way to portable treated water. The laboratory executes all
water quality analysis and pollution monitoring for the city. They also offer reference tests for
industries and mines outside the city. The central laboratory works both as the sampler and
analyser of samples since tests are done at the central laboratory. The central Effluent (waste)
water has to comply with the EMA Standards. Drinking water is chemically analysed for its
suitability for domestic use. The potable water has to be within WHO guidelines for Drinking
Water Quality of 2008 and meet the SAZS water standards.

DIRECTOR OF
ENGINEERING
SERVICES

WATER ENGINEER

LABORATORY WATER WASTE WATER

TECHNICIAN TECHNICIAN TECHNICIAN

ASSISTANT LAB
TECHNICIAN

GWENORO WHITE WATERS CAMB OUTFALL

SUPERINTENDENT SUPERINTENDENT SUPERINTENDENT SUPERINTENDENT

Figure 1 Water and sewage section organogram

 They have these specific functions

 Water treatment process optimisation through potable water analysis.
 Perform the analysis of industrial wastewater for tariff calculations and safe disposal.
 Waste water treatment process optimisation through analysis of domestic sewage.
 Water and wastewater plants performance monitoring
 Water and wastewater plants optimisation
 Sampling and running of tests on samples for chemical and bacteriological analysis.

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  Ensuring the provision of clean and safe water to the city of Gweru by monitoring chlorine
and other chemical components present in water
3.1 Duties and Responsibilities of the Student

During the period of work related learning, the student was stationed in the water quality control
sub section The subsection oversees all water and waste water quality assurance issues, from
water source to point of use i.e. the student followed water from when it was raw through its
treatment all the way up to its consumers and continued on to monitoring it within the distribution
system to ensure no health hazardous changes occurred to it during transportation. In a nutshell
the student was responsible for the following duties:

 Water quality assurance and assessment

 Water and wastewater plants performance monitoring
 Water and wastewater plants optimisation
 Ensuring provision of clean and safe water to the city of Gweru
 Analysis of potable water for process optimisation
 Analysis of industrial wastewater for tariff calculations and safe disposal
 Analysis of domestic sewage for process optimisation and safe disposal
 Preparation of working solutions for the analysis desk.
 Data validation and handling
 Documentation and reporting
3.2 Analysis done in the laboratory

3.2.1 Test for pH

Measurement of pH is one is one of the most important tests in the water chemistry mainly
because every phase of water supply, potable water and waste water treatment is pH dependent,
for example

 Acid Base Neutralisation

 Water Softening (Acidic and basic ion exchange resins)
 Precipitation (specific ions precipitate at a specific pH)
 Coagulation (Specific coagulant functions over specific range of pH e.g. ALUM, pH 4 - 9)
 Disinfection (Chlorination can only be done below pH 8)
 Corrosion Control (Specific materials react differently in acidic or basic conditions)

pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+ (aq), in an aqueous solution.

10
 pH = -log[H+] where [H+] = concentration of hydrogen ions

In most aqueous solutions, the pH is a number between 0 and 14. Dilute HCl (2 moldm-3) has a
pH of 0 and dilute NaOH (2 moldm-3) has a pH of about 14.

Natural waters usually have pH values in the range of 4 to 9 and most are slightly basic due to the
presence of bicarbonates of the group 1and 2 metals of the periodic table. According to SAZ
standards potable water should have a pH ranging from 6.5 to 8.5. pH less than 4 can cause
irritation due to corrosive effects. pH above 11 can cause skin, eye and mucous membrane
irritation.

Fig 3 pH meter

Procedure

At the City of Gweru central laboratories, temperature and pH of potable water are tested
simultaneously using the pH meter.

 The instrument is firstly calibrated using buffer solutions of pH 4, pH 7 and pH 10.

 A potable water sample is poured into 100ml beaker and the pH meter electrode is placed
into sample as shown in fig 3
 Read and record the results.
Recommended limits: 6.5 min.
8.5 max.

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Allowable limits: 6.0 min.
9.0 max.

3.2.2 Turbidity and Colour

Turbidity is the cloudiness of water. It measures the number of particles suspended in a body of
water such as soil particles (clay, silt, sand), algae, plankton, microbes, and etc. Higher turbidity
increases water temperatures because the particles absorb more heat reducing the amount of DO.
Warm water holds less DO than cold. Turbidity is expressed as Nephelometric turbidity Units
(NTU). turbidity is measured using a turbid meter. It is also very important whilst modelling
clarification using the jar test.

Recommended limits: 1 NTU

Maximum allowable limits: 5 NTU

Colour is caused by material in solution or colloidal condition. True colour in water supplies is
generally caused by dyes derived from decomposing organic material and minerals like iron and
manganese. Colour reduces palatability and stains plumbing features and clothes. Colour is
measured by comparing the colour sample with the colour of a chemical solution using colour
units. Highly coloured water is unsuitable for drinking because colour often indicates pollution.
Water colour is measured in mg/l of platinum TCU.

Recommended limits: 20 mg/l of platinum TCU

Maximum allowable limits are not specified

Procedure:

The sample is put in the turbid meter cuvette, placed in the hatch turbid meter which uses light
scattering technologies. Readings are taken and results recorded on the results sheet. Fig shows a
typical turbid meter.

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Fig Hatch turbid meter

The hatch turbid meter can measure turbidity of up to 4000 NTU.

3.2.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Conductivity is a measure of how well a substance can pass electric current and is commonly
measured in micro Siemens (µS/cm). The presence of chlorides and sulphates of sodium, calcium,
and magnesium, in the form of suspended and dissolved solids in water adds ions to the water.
The dissolved metal ions are charged particles that provide a path for current to flow, an increase
in mineral content increases conductivity.

Total Dissolved Solids = 60% Conductivity.

Recommended limit of conductivity 700µs/cm at 200C

Maximum allowable is 3000µs/cm at 200C

Procedure
Both TDS and conductivity were measured using a conductivity meter. The samples were put in a
100 ml beaker and conductivity together with TDS were measured by dipping the electrode in the
sample. Results are recorded on the data sheet.

3.2.4 Free residual chlorine

Chlorine and chlorine-release compounds are widely used for the disinfection of drinking water
and swimming pools, for the control of micro-biological growth in cooling water, and in many
other water treatment systems. Accurate measurement of the chlorine residual is an essential
aspect of the control of these chlorination processes. The chlorine level can be expressed in terms

13
of the free chlorine, combined chlorine or total chlorine residuals. For the majority of applications
measurement of the free chlorine residual is the most important. Free chlorine reacts with diethyl-
p-phenylene diamine (DPD) in buffered solution to produce a purplish coloration. The intensity of
the colour is proportional to the free chlorine concentration. Subsequent addition of excess
potassium iodide induces a further reaction with any combined chlorine present. The colour
intensity is now proportional to the total chlorine concentration; the increase in intensity
represents the combined chlorine concentration.

Recommended limit for potable water:

Maximum allowable is

Photometer

Procedure

1) Two test cuvettes are rinsed with sample then filled to the 10 ml mark.
2) One is for blanking the photometer/ zeroing the photometer establishing a basis of some
sort and the other is the test sample
3) The blanking cuvette is then inserted into the photometer and replace the cover on the
photometer for accurate readings (photometer uses light scattering)
4) DPD No 1 tablet is added to sample and sample invaded until the tablet completely
dissolves.
5) Appropriate test was selected on the photometer and the result represents the free chlorine
residual in milligrams per litre (mg/l).

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3.2.5 Total Alkalinity

Alkalinity of H2O is its capacity to neutralizing an acid and is a measure of how much acid can be
added to water without causing great change to ph. It is the sum of the titratable bases OH - present
in the sample as result of dissociation or hydrolysis of solutes reacting on addition of standard
acid. Alkalinity is caused by the presence of bicarbonate, carbonates and hydroxides of calcium
and magnesium. Calcium bicarbonate is the most abundant constituent causing alkalinity. This
parameter is made use of during jar tests to help select optimum dosage of coagulant.

Alkalinity is determined by titration in the laboratory. The reaction type is neutralization reaction
between the alkalinity in the sample and the acid used as a titrant.

Reagents

 Water sample,
 Bromocresol green indicator,
 Weak H2SO4 (0.02N)

Procedure

1) A volume of 100 ml is measured and poured in a conical flask using a measuring cylinder.
2) Few drops of bromocresol indicator were added and sample turns pale blue on addition of
indicator
3) Solution is titrated using H2SO4.
4) The end point is when a wine red colour appears.

NB: End point colour is also affected by residual chlorine concentration, very high
concentrations produce a pale yellow colour on reaching endpoint.

3.2.6 Total Hardness (T.H) and Calcium Hardness of Water

Hardness was understood to be the capacity of water to precipitate soap. This is a measure of
“scale forming ions”-Ca2+, Mg2+ in the water. Hardness of water is generally caused by dissolved
Ca2+ and Mg2+. The analysis is complex formation titrimetry based on the ability of ethylene
diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA4-) to successfully form stable complexes with calcium and
magnesium, on which hardness measurements are based. EDTA and its Na salts form chelated
soluble complex when added to a solution of certain metal. EDTA has 4 or 6 electrons available
for coordination to a metal cation. A 1:1 complex is formed. Efficiency of complex formation
which is determined by the [Y4-] ion, is affected by the change in pH of the solution. A decrease in
pH will decrease the concentration of the complexing species; hence EDTA forms complexes in

15
basic solutions. pH 10 being the most appropriate pH since at this pH there is reduced competition
between Ca and Mg for active sites on EDTA. These conditions are provided by the buffer. In
EDTA titrations, a metal-ion sensitive indicator is employed to detect the end point. These
indicators form complexes with specific metal ions and these differ in colour from the free
indicator, as well as a colour change at the equivalence point. The indicator used in this titration is
Eriochrome Black T. In a titration of a solution with Ca 2+ and Mg2+ ions with EDTA and Erio T,
EDTA reacts firstly with the free calcium then magnesium and finally with the Mg- Erio T
complex because this complex is more stable than the Ca- Erio T complex but less stable than the
Mg- EDTA complex. When the indicator is complexed to the ions, it has a purple colour and
when it is free it has a blue colour which marks the end point.

Hardness causes scales in boilers and there is consumption of more energy to achieve the same
temperature and pressure. The scales also reduce the diameter of the water pipes because they
form around the inner surface of the pipes. In some cases, hardness causes corrosion of the pipes.
Water hardness also changes the flavour and taste of the water.

N.B. The procedures for determination of the two were just the same the difference was in
the buffer solutions and the indicators used.

3.2.7 Carbonate Hardness (Temporary hardness)

It is caused by the carbonate and bicarbonates of Ca and Mg. The carbonates of both are slightly
soluble in pure water but will dissolve freely to form bicarbonates in the presents of CO 2.This
hardness is called temporary hardness because it is removed by boiling the water. The heat drives
the CO2 from the bicarbonates leaving the insoluble carbonates to settle out as precipitate forming
scales in kettles or steam boilers

3.2.8 Non-carbonate hardness (Permanent hardness)

It is caused by sulphates and chlorides of Mg and Ca. It is not affected by boiling thus is referred
to as permanent hardness. The chlorides of Mg and Ca are very corrosive to steam boilers and
quickly cause pitting and grooving in boiler tube. The sulphates of Mg and Ca also cause scale to
boilers.

Reagents

 Buffer solution (Ammonia)

 Eriochrome Black T Indicator
 EDTA (0.01M)

16
Procedure

1) A volume of 100ml water sample is measured using a measuring cylinder and poured into
a conical flask.
2) 2ml of ammonia buffer is added to raise the pH to 10 +/- 0.1.
3) Two to three drops of T.H indicator were added and solution turned purple.
4) This is titrated with EDTA solution until an end point is reached i.e. when solution turned
from purple to blue.
5) The amount of EDTA used is the amount of total hardness of that sample in mg/l x 10
since a volume of 100ml is used instead of 1L.

3.2.9 Calcium hardness (CaH)

With Total hardness test addition of ammonia buffer solution alters the pH in such a way that both
Mg2+ and Ca2+ form complexes with EDTA but with calcium hardness NaOH is used to alter the
pH, thus only Ca2+ ions are complexed and the indicator used is for signalling when there are no
more Ca2+ ions in the sample.

Reagents

 1.0 N NaOH Solution

 Calcium indicator (calcein)
 EDTA (0.01M)

Procedure

1) A volume of 100ml water sample is measured using a measuring cylinder and poured into
a conical flask.
2) 10 ml of NaOH solution were added to raise the pH to 12.
3) A pinch of calcein indicator is added and solution turned wine red.
4) This is titrated with EDTA solution until an end point is reached i.e. when solution turned
from purple to blue.
5) The amount of EDTA used is the amount of Ca hardness of that sample in mg/l x 10 since
a volume of 100ml is used instead of 1L.

Calculation of Magnesium hardness

 TH - CaH = MgH

Calculation for calcium and magnesium ions

 In determining the amount of Ca2+ in a sample, multiply calcium hardness by 0.4004

17
  When determining the amount of Mg2+ in a sample, we multiply magnesium hardness by
0. 2428.

3.3 Chloride Determination

Occasionally special significance is given to the chloride content of water particularly sodium
chloride. Water derived from the same sources, whether underground aquifers or surface areas,
will have fairly uniform chloride contents. When a particular water body or water sample show a
higher chloride content, it might indicate sewer pollution. This test method is useful only under
special circumstances and is not recommended to replace bacterial tests for determining the
microbiological quality of water. All water samples collected in the laboratory were tested for
chlorides using Argentometric titration method with potassium dichromate as an indicator and
silver nitrate as the titrant. The silver ions react with the chloride in the sample forming a white
ppt. When all the Cl- has reacted, the silver then reacts with the chromate to produce a brick-red
colour which shows the endpoint of the reaction

Ag+ + Cl- AgCl

Ag+ + CrO42- Ag2CrO4

Reagents

 Silver Nitrate AgNO3

 Potassium Chromate indicator

Procedure

1) Add two drops of KCrO3 indicator to 100 ml sample and observe yellow colour change.
2) Titrate against AgNO3 until endpoint is reached
3) Endpoint is signified by a sharp colour change from yellow to an orange precipitate.

3.3.1 Test for Dissolved Oxygen D.O

Dissolved oxygen levels in natural and wastewaters depend on the physical, chemical and
biochemical activities in the water body. The amount of oxygen in water is referred to as
dissolved oxygen and it is temperature dependent. It is different from oxygen chemically
combined with hydrogen in water molecules. The higher the temperature of water, the lower the
amount of oxygen dissolved in it. The amount of oxygen also depends on the amount and
character of the unstable organic matter as free oxygen readily unites with decomposing organic
matter. The amount of oxygen required to decompose organic matter is called Biological Oxygen

18
Demand (BOD). The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen that is
reduced by chemical reactions in water.

The analysis of D.O is a key test in water pollution and waste treatment process control. The
iodometric method is widely used in our lab. It is a titrimetric procedure based on the oxidising
property of Iodine. Samples are collected very carefully; the sample should not remain in contact
with air or be agitated because both conditions cause a change in its gaseous content. Surface
water samples are collected in narrow mouth glass stopper BOD bottles of approximately 300ml
capacity. When sampling from a line under pressure, a glass/rubber tube is attached to the tap and
extend to the bottom of the bottle, the bottle is left to overflow for 2 to 3 times its volume and the
stopper is replaced so that no air bubbles are entrapped.

Reagents

 Manganous chloride solution

 alkali-iodide
 concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
 Standard sodium thiosulphate titrant (Na2S203) 0.025M
 starch indicator

Procedure

1) Water sample was carefully collected into a BOD bottle and the bottle was stoppered
immediately.
2) 1 ml of manganous chloride was added using a pipette.
3) This was followed by the addition of 1 ml alkali iodide resulting in the formation of a
precipitate.
4) 1,5 ml of H2SO4 was then added to digest the precipitate after it had settled almost halfway
through the bottle.
5) The bottle was inverted to mix until dissolution was complete.
6) A volume of about 204 ml was measured using a measuring cylinder and poured into a
conical flask.
7) This was then titrated using N2S203 When a straw pale-yellow colour appeared, starch was
added, and the titration continued.
8) The end point was detected with the disappearance of the blue starch –I colour to
colourless.

NB: this procedure is also known as the Winkler analysis of dissolved oxygen.

19
The Winkler analysis of dissolved oxygen has three steps designed to turn odourless, colourless
dissolved oxygen into something that we can see. Samples are collected in Winkler, or BOD,
bottles that are specifically designed with a conical top to help exclude bubbles. A basic solution
of Mn (II), MnSO4 (aq), is added to the sample bottle. Under alkaline conditions dissolved
oxygen will oxidize manganese(II) ions to manganese(IV), MnO(OH) 2. This reaction is fast and
stoichiometric so that each mole of oxygen produces two moles of Mn(IV).

2 Mn2+ (aq) + O2 (aq) + 4OH- 2 MnO(OH)2 (s)……….(1)

Excess Mn(II) and base are added in step one so that oxygen is the limiting reagent. Sodium
iodide is also added during step one. In base, iodide does not react, but it is added to be ready for
the next step of the reaction. You can get an idea of the amount of oxygen in the sample by
observing the brown MnO(OH)2 precipitate that forms in the bottle. In this step we are converting
a dissolved gas to a solid. The amount of solid is proportional to the amount of oxygen that is in
the bottle. The sample bottle must remain tightly capped during the first step to prevent oxygen
from the air from reacting with Mn(II). The capped bottles are allowed to sit for over 30 minutes
to completely react with all the oxygen.

Next, excess acid is added to the bottle and the MnO(OH) 2 (s) formed in step one reacts
stoichiometrically with iodide (I–) to form a yellow, triiodide (I 3–) solution in two steps. Iodide
reacts in acid, but oxygen does not. This means that the samples will no longer react with oxygen
from the air.

MnO(OH)2(s) + 2 I–(aq) + 4H+ Mn2+(aq) + I2(aq) + 3H2O…………..(2)

I– (aq) + I2 (aq) I3– (aq)………….………………………………….….(3)

Again, iodide and acid are added in excess. The limiting reagent in each step is highlighted in
red. Triiodide is yellow so we now have a solution that we can see. The more oxygen in the
original sample the more yellow the solution. On the Melville, Melissa uses an automated
titration system measure the triiodide by the stoichiometric reaction of triiodide with thiosulfate,
S2O32-.

2 S2O32- (aq) + I3– (aq) S4O62- (aq) + 3 I– (aq)………………………….(4)

When the solution returns to a constant colour all of the triiodide has been converted back to I –. In
the video the black box on the right monitors the colour of the reaction. The tube entering the top

20
of the bottle adds thiosulfate. It may seem easier to simply measure the intensity of the yellow
solution. This would probably work for really clear water samples, but it doesn’t work for water
samples that are murky or have some other source of colour.

3.3.2 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5)

Biochemical oxygen demand is the amount of oxygen required by organisms for microbial
metabolism of organic compounds in water. This demand occurs over some period of time
depending on temperature nutrient concentration and enzymes available to indigenous microbial
proportion. BOD is the relative oxygen requirements of wastewater and polluted water and
effluents. BOD determination is an empirical test in which standardized laboratory procedures are
used to determine the relative oxygen requirements of wastewaters, effluents and polluted waters.
The test measures the oxygen utilized over a specified incubation period for the biochemical
degradation of organic material (carbonaceous demand) and the oxygen used to oxidize inorganic
material such sulphides and ferrous iron. It also may measure the oxygen used to oxidise reduced
forms of N (Nitrogenous demand) unless their oxidation is prevented by an inhibitor. If inhibiting
chemical is not used, the oxygen demand measured is the sum of carbonaceous and nitrogenous
demands

Procedure

1) Dilution water was prepared by placing desired volume of water in a 5L container and
saturated with DO by stirring vigorously with a clean glass rod.
2) Add a few drops of Na2S2O3 to stop free residual chlorine from killing the microorganisms.
3) Pipette known volume of sample being analysed each into a pair of the BOD bottles and
fill both simultaneously with dilution water.
4) Incubate the other bottle labelled BOD5 for 5 days at 200C.
5) To the other, add 0.7ml concentrated H2SO4 followed by 1ml KMnO4 then invert to mix.
6) Leave for 20 minutes (oxidation Period) and after which you add 1ml of potassium oxalate
(COOK)2 to remove excess KMnO4.
7) Add 3 ml alkali iodide followed by 1ml Manganous Sulphate, a precipitate is formed
8) Let stand until precipitate is almost halfway settling through the bottle then add 1.5 ml of
H2SO4 to digest the precipitate.
9) Invert to mix until dissolution is complete.
10) Measure a volume of about 205 ml using a measuring cylinder and poured into a conical
flask.
11) Titrate using N2S203.

21
 12) After five days, remove the incubated sample and repeat the same procedure above as
carried out for initial DO. This is termed the final DO test.

initial DO – final DO
BOD5 =
Sample ¿ x 300¿

BOD tests are vital for measuring the degree of contamination within water supply and for
assessing the performance of a treatment plant.

The titration is performed rapidly to minimize air oxidation of the iodide and stirring is efficient to
prevent local excess of thiosulphate:

S2O32- + 2H+ H2SO3 + S

Excess of such will result in the solution being cloudier.

3.3.3 Test for oxygen absorbed [PV4hrs]

This test is done on industrial effluent to check on the quality and see if it meets the council
regulations and the SAZ standards. This is the Permanganate value in hours in which the
oxidizing properties of the solution is made use of by oxidizing a sample of known quantity and
measuring the initial DO. A 4 hour oxygen demand determination by incubation followed by
iodometric titration is done. The amount of oxygen consumed by acid permanganate provides an
estimate of the oxidizable organic matter in liquid. In acid solution, oxidation by KMnO 4 results
in the reduction of the permanganate ion to the manganous ion. The remaining unreduced
permanganate is determined by titration of the iodine liberated from KI with standard sodium
thiosulphate (titrating agent) until a straw pale-yellow colour appears. The end point is detected
with starch and the disappearance of the blue starch –I colour indicates end point.

Reagents

 0.0125N KMnO4
 0.025m Na2S2O3
 1: 3 H2S04
 10% KI in excess
 starch

Procedure

1) Add 10 ml 1:3 H2SO4

2) Add 50 ml 0.0125N or 0.0025M KMnO4
3) And 100 (a+b) ml sample where a = concentrate/ sample and b= water

22
 4) If concentrate is 25ml, water must be 75ml or vice versa
5) Stand for 4 hours with occasional stirring every 60 minutes
6) Add 5ml KI solution after 4 hours and titrate against 0.025 m thiosulphate
7) Use starch indicator to get an instantaneous end point.

Blank −sample
Calculation of Oxygen absorbed PV4Hrs ¿
Sample ¿ x 200 ¿

3.3.4 Settleable Solids

Testing for Settleable solids is done to see how much solid settles per litre in an hour. One can
then calculate how much solids are expected to settle within a given period of time for the tanks.
This test helps to plan the time frame that should be given before desludging the sedimentation
tanks.

Procedure

1) Place 1000ml samples of raw sewage water and bio in different Imhoff cones. leave to
stand for an hour.
2) After 30mins rake off some of the solid adhered to the sides of the cones without creating
turbulence using a glass rod, so they could settle at the bottom not the sides.
3) Express results as cm3 per dm3 v/v

3.3.5 Jar test

Jar test is used to determine the optimum operating conditions for water or wastewater treatment.
This method is used for the adjustment of pH, determination of the coagulant dose, change the
mixing speeds, testing of different coagulants. Jar testing is done daily, weekly, monthly,
seasonally when water quality changes (specially in rainy season where turnovers are
experienced) and when new pumps, rapid mix motors, new floc motors, or new chemical feeders
are installed. These jar tests will also help in creating dosing charts for the coagulant.

Materials

 Six-Place Stirrer/ flocculator 1 or 2-liter beakers

 Aluminium sulphate (alum) solution
 turbidimeter
 Pipettes/syringes Burettes
 Erlenmeyer Flasks
 0.02 N H2SO4
 Water sample

23
  Volumetric flasks
 Bromocresol indicator

PROCEDURE

1) Determine the turbidity and pH of the raw water sample.

2) Also determine the alkalinity of raw water sample.
3) Place 1 litres of raw water in each of the six beakers of the laboratory stirrer. Immerse
blades
and stir the raw water samples at about 100 rpm.
4) Add alum solution into each of the beaker to obtain the desired concentrations in the raw
water samples.
5) Let the samples mix at approx. 100 rpm for 1minute, then decrease the speed to approx. 30
rpm. Allow the sample to mix for a period of 10 minutes. Observe any changes in the
suspended matter in the sample.
6) At the end of the mixing period, turn off the stirrer, let the flocs settle (at least 20 minutes)
and carefully remove the supernatant from each beaker and determine the turbidity in each
of the samples.
7) Determine the pH of each treated water sample.
8) Measure the alkalinity of the sample with the largest alum concentration.

Fig Jar Test Equipment

24
CHAPTER 4 WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

The city of Gweru is located near the edge of the Gwayi catchment area which feeds the Zambezi
river and near the Runde catchment which feeds into the Limpopo Fig 4.0 however its main water
sources Gwenoro and Amapongokwe dams are in the Runde catchment. Run off from Mkoba
town and eastern parts of the city drain into Gwayi but as from Lundi park, Ivene and South
downs (Fig 1.0) runoff drains into Runde catchment and that is where Gwenoro and
Amapongokwe are located.

Fig 4.0 seven designated catchment areas of Zimbabwe

25
The Gwenoro treatment plant which is one of the two potable water treatment plants located
approximately 40km outside Gweru is the city’s main potable water treatment plant. The second is
white waters treatment plant located approximately 26 km from the CBD.

4.1 Abstraction

This is the first stage of water treatment where water is drawn from the source of raw water; this
can be a river, dam or a lake. Structures called intake towers are used at both, White waters and
Gwenoro treatment plants. Water inside a water body rests in form of strata and each level of the
strata has a different quality from the other with quality under normal circumstances (free of turn
overs) depleting with depth this is what they call the profile of the source. The intake tower serves
to draw water from the source with the highest level of quality i.e. low levels of turbidity and rich
in oxygen. The design of the intake tower should be in such a way that water can flow by gravity
to the plant and if not possible, it gravitates to the lower lift pumps where it can be pumped to the
treatment plant, this helps reduce operational costs. Sewage outfalls and industrial waste also
contribute to the deterioration of water quality. The once pristine environment has been turned
into concoctions of hazardous substances due to pollution. An example of a dam being affected by
these activities is lake Chivero in Harare which is located downstream of several sewage works of
the Harare city and various farming activities which results in the quality of raw water being poor.

A screen mounted on the inlet prevents debris, leaves and other large organic and inorganic matter
from entering. The inlet should be at least 1m below the water surface and at least 1m above the
bottom. Intake towers have different inlets to abstract water from different levels as the quality of
water varies with depth from the surface because of temperature stratification that changes with
level of water in the dam.

The upper layer called the epilimnion, is warmer than the lower layers. Water from this layer is
usually the easiest to treat. The next layer is the metalimnion, which is up to two metres thick. The
temperature in this zone decreases with depth until the lower layer, the hypolimnion, this is the
perpetually cold layer of water that lies beneath the thermocline of a thermally stratified water
body. The organic matter that settles out of the first two layers accumulates in this layer. It is not
advisable to extract water from this layer. As the water level of the reservoir increases or
decreases, the level of the take-off point is changed accordingly, in order to collect water with the
required quality. An analysis of the water quality is done before deciding the layer to which water
can be collected.

26
4.2 Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulation is the chemical reaction that occurs between the chemical coagulant and the alkalinity
that is found in water to form flocs. Flocs are sticky suspended particles which can trap other
suspended particles in water and facilitate their removal from the water. The process also removes
hardness from the water. All natural waters contain billions of microscopic particles suspended in
it. These finely divided solid particles held in suspension gives water a cloudy appearance. Colour
is caused by dissolved and colloidal organic or inorganic material (from algae, decayed
vegetation, or bacteria) or by certain mineral substances. One of the purposes of water treatment is
the removal of as much turbidity and colour as possible. Each of the suspended tiny particles
usually has a negative electrical charge on its surface. These negatively charged particles will
repel each other. For this reason, they will stay suspended rather than clumping together and
settling at the bottom. The coagulant chemical that is added to the raw water contains billions of
positively charged particles. These particles are attracted to and combine with the negatively
charged particles in the raw water. There are various coagulant chemicals which can be used in
the coagulation process and these includes aluminium sulphate, ferrous sulphate, ferric chloride,
calcium hydroxide, and cationic polymer etc. Aluminium sulphate is the coagulant which is used
at the City of Gweru. It reacts with the alkalinity in water to form a hydroxide. Optimum floc
formation using aluminium sulphate (alum) occurs when the pH value of the water is between 6.0
and 8.0. If insufficient alkalinity is present to react with alum, an alkali such as lime must be
added. The equation below is the reaction between alum and natural alkalinity;

Al2(SO4)314.3H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4+ 14.3H2O +6CO2

In cases of added alkalinity for example lime the reaction is as follows:

Al2(SO4) 14.3H2O + 3Ca(OH)2 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 14.3H2O

When alum is brought in contact with water, it ionizes to form sulphate anions and aluminium
cations:

Al2(SO4)3 → Al3+ + SO42-

Al3+ reacts immediately with water to form a variety of aquometallic ions and hydrogen, a process
called Hydrolysis:

Al3+ + H2O → AlOH2+ + H+

Al3+ + 2H2O →Al(OH2) + + 2H+

Al3+ +3 H2O → Al(OH)3+ 3H+

27
The aquometallic ions are adsorbed onto the surface of the colloid where they neutralize the
surface of the charge since the colloids are negatively charged. Once neutralization of charge of
the colloids occurs, the colloids agglomerate and start settling.

The process of coagulation takes place very quickly-within the first few seconds after the addition
of the coagulant into the water. High speed mixing or rapid mixing is required during the first
stages of coagulation in order to increase the kinetic energy of the reactants. Coagulation is then
followed immediately by flocculation which is a process of slow, gentle mixing of the water to
encourage the tiny particles to collide and clump together to grow to a size that will settle quickly.
These clumps of particles are called flocs. The micro flocs are brought into contact with each
other through the process of slow mixing. Collisions of the micro floc particles cause them to
bond to produce larger, visible flocs called pinflocs. The floc size continues to build through
additional collisions and interaction with inorganic polymers formed by the coagulant or with
organic polymers added, macro flocs are formed. High molecular weight polymers, called
coagulant aids, may be added during this step to help bridge, bind, strengthen the floc, add weight,
and increase settling rate. Once the floc has reached it optimum size and strength, the water is
ready for the sedimentation process.

Figure Baffle chambers for coagulation and flocculation

28
4.3 Sedimentation

Sedimentation is the separation of the suspended solids from water by gravity. It is sometimes
referred to as settling. The main purpose of sedimentation in portable treatment is to reduce solids
loadings on the filters, so as to achieve longer runs before backwash of the sand. Sedimentation is
carried out in a sedimentation tank, also called a sedimentation and flotation unit, or a clarifier.
Clarifier is the most common name as it best describes what the unit does clarifies the water.

Settling is an economic way of clarifying water this treatment step is usually used whenever water
contains even a moderate amount of suspended matter. Water is held in a quiet, low flow
condition so that suspended matter and particles (bacteria, clays, silts, algae and other organic
material) can be settled out by gravity to the bottom of the tank and removed as sludge. The
clarified water then flows over weirs near the surface of the water to the next stage. The
sedimentation tank is designed in such a way that the water can enter the tank, pass through, and
leave without creating much turbulence. This allows the maximum settling of suspended solids.

4.4 Filtration

This is the process of passing a liquid through a porous or open textured medium in order to
remove suspended matters by retaining it in the pores of the filtering medium or at the surface of
the filter. The purpose of filtration is the removal of particulate matter from the water. Types of
particles removed includes suspended clay, silt, colloids, bacteria, algae, floc and precipitates. The
removal of suspended particulate matter from portable water is very important for two main
reasons are;

 To make water clear and sparkling for consumer satisfaction

 Suspended particles may provide sites where potentially harmful bacteria and viruses may
be enveloped and reduce the action of the disinfectant chemicals such as chlorine.

The filters at Gwenoro and white waters are rapid gravity filters and these generally have a deep
bed (0,75 to 1m) filled with relatively course, but carefully graded sand. The terms “effective
size” and “uniform coefficient” are used in relation to sand grading. Effective size is the size of
aperture through which 10% of the sand by weight will pass. Uniformity coefficient is the size of
aperture through which 60% of the sand, by weight, will pass, divided by the size aperture through
which 10% of the sand by weight will pass. The effective size of the sand may vary from 0,4mm
to 2,0mm depending on the design of the filter, the most important factor being its uniformity.
Uniformity coefficients are generally specified to fall between 1.0 and 1.5. Solids penetrate a long
way into the sand but due to the depth of the bed there is little chance of breakthrough.
Backwashing is frequently done to prevent clogging on the filter media surface.

29
4.5 Clarification at Gwenoro

Two raw water sources supply the plant i.e. Amapongokwe and Gwenoro dam. The raw water
used at the plat has a turbidity below 5 which makes the process more efficient. The backwash
from the filters also gets added to the coagulation chamber together with the raw water.

Coagulation chamber

Alum solution, prepared in the alum mixing chamber, is added to the raw water in the mixing
chamber through the use of PVC pipes and butterfly valves using ALUM dosing pumps.

Alum mixing chamber

The efficiency of the coagulation process depends on the raw water properties, the coagulant used
and operational factors including mixing conditions, coagulant dose rate, temperature and pH
value. Therefore, suspended solids will remain in suspension and will not clump together and

30
settle out of the water, unless proper coagulation and flocculation is used. The choice of coagulant
and determination of optimum operating conditions for specific raw water have to be determined
by bench-scale coagulation tests (‘jar tests’).

Aluminium sulphate dosing pump

Gwenoro water treatment plant has 14 clarifiers spread out through 3 sections. The first section
which is the oldest comprises of 6 chambers divided into two sets of 3 clarifiers. The other two
sections are of a similar design and each of them has 4 clarifying chambers divided into two sets
of 2 clarifiers.

Fig

31
The Gwenoro plant also has 10 rapid sand filter with two of them being the oldest set. Raw water
and a solution of Aluminium sulphate are mixed in the coagulation chamber where the mixture
passes through baffles for rapid mixing then passes into the flocculation section for gentle mixing.
From the flocculation section the raw water/coagulant mixture passes into a distribution chamber
Clarified water then moves out of the clarifiers via numerous orifices and flows through channels
that direct it to the next process, i.e. sand filtration

filter

4.7 Disinfection

Due to the population growth and pollution of waters, there are very few areas that have natural
waters that are safe for drinking. Many ground water sources are becoming contaminated. There
can be many kinds of contaminants present in the water coming to the plant. Focusing on
microorganisms that may be present in the water is necessary. Pathogenic organisms can be
carried and transmitted by water, so elimination of pathogenic organisms is a major concern of
water treatment. We can disinfect water in a number of different ways, by any process that creates
a harsh environment for the micro-organisms.

Chlorination is the most common way of disinfecting drinking water. It involves the use of
chlorine or chlorine compounds to disinfect water. There are various approaches used to
chlorinate which includes simple chlorination, chlorine-ammonia combinations or super
chlorination. Chlorination offers several advantages for water treatment in that it is reliable and
cheaper. Also, a small concentration of chlorine which remains in the water after purification

32
serves as a tracer that can be used to indicate the presence of the disinfecting agent at any point in
the system. This chlorine is termed the free residual chlorine. Chlorine can be added to the water
being treated as a gas in its pure form and this is called gas chlorination, or it can be added as
chlorine compound solutions, like sodium hypochlorite. This method of chlorination is called
hypo chlorination. Both methods are being used at the treatment plants for disinfection.

4.7.1 Chemistry of chlorination

When chlorine is added to water it reacts to produce various compounds. Some are effective
disinfectants whereas others represent the end product of the reaction that has removed the
undesirable constituent in water.

Reaction in pure water

Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl

The chlorine combined with water to produce hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is one of the two free
available chlorine residual forms. Due to the ease with which HOCl penetrates into and kills
bacteria, it is the most effective form for disinfection. Some of the HOCl (weak acid) dissociates
as follows;

HOCl H+ + OCl-

This dissociation produces hydrogen (which neutralises alkalinity or lower the pH) and the OCl-
ion, the second type of free chlorine available as free residual chlorine. The OCl is a relatively
poor disinfectant compared with HOCl, primarily because of its inability to penetrate into
bacteria. The HCl formed in the first equation dissociates to give a hydrogen ion which also
neutralises alkalinity or lower pH and chloride ions. The effectiveness of chlorination is based on
mainly pH, concentration, temperature, contact time etc. pH strongly influences in the ratio of
HOCl to OCl-, low pH values favour the formation of HOCl which is the more effective free
residual chlorine

33
Chlorination room

4.8 Summary of treatment process

34
 RAW WATER TREATMENT
EFFECT ON WATER

SCREENING Excludes fish and removes leaves, sticks and other large debris.

CHEMICALS Breaks down colloidal stability. Adjusts pH for optimum

(Coagulants
coagulation.
and
Conditioners)

FLASH MIX
Mixes chemicals with raw water, containing fine particles that will not readily settle or
filter out of the water.

Gathers together fine, light particles to form larger clumps (floc) to

COAGULATION /
aid the sedimentation/flotation and filtration processes.
FLOCCULATION

Sedimentation settles out large suspended particles. Flotation floats out the
SEDIMENTATION /
particles with dissolved air.
FLOTATION

FILTRATION
Rapid gravity filtration filters or removes remaining suspended particles. Slow sand
filtration also involves biological action.

DISINFECTION /
Kills / inactivates disease-causing organisms. Provides
STERILIZATION chlorine residual for distribution system, where
chlorine is used.

CLEARWATER
Stores water prior to discharge to service reservoirs.
TANK

TREATED WATER

35
Figure 2: Water treatment plant, process flow diagram

36
CHAPTER 5 WASTE-WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

Gweru City Council has been operating an innovative hybrid sewage treatment plant since 1994 at
Cambridgeshire wastewater treatment plant. The plant has a treatment capacity of 90,000PE (5625
m3/d) and consists of inlet works, primary and secondary anaerobic ponds, and a set of trickling
filters (Fig.5.1. The effluent is used for pasture irrigation while the sludge is used for gum
plantation irrigation. No humus tanks were installed and the plant was designed to produce an
effluent which meets the standard limit of 70mg/l BOD required for irrigation purposes (Broome
et al., 2002).

Fig.1 Schematic layout of Cambridgeshire sewage treatment works, Gweru (Source: Broome et al., 2002).

5.1 Preliminary Treatment

An important part of any wastewater treatment plant is the equipment and facilities used to
remove items such as rags, personal hygiene products, grit, sticks, other debris, and foreign
objects. These interfere with the operation of the facility and often cause severe problems.
Methods of removing these materials prior to primary and subsequent treatment are part of a pre-
treatment or preliminary treatment. Screening and comminution are preliminary treatment
processes utilized to protect mechanical equipment in the treatment works, to aid downstream
treatment processes by intercepting unacceptable solids, and to alter the physical form of solids so
they are acceptable for treatment.

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5.1.1 Screening

Screening devices remove materials which would damage equipment or interfere with a process or
piece of equipment. A bar screen acts as both a cutter and a screen. Its purpose is not to remove
but to shred (comminute) the solids. Solids must be accounted for in subsequent sludge handling
facilities. Bar screens, like most screens, are mounted in a channel and the wastewater flows
through them. The rags and other debris are shredded by cutting teeth until they can pass through
the openings. Screens must be regularly raked and hosed down to avoid screen blocking that
restricts sewage flow in the channels which in turn gives false maximum and minimum flows on
the flow charts.

5.1.2 Grit Removal.

Grit represents the heavier inert matter in wastewater which will not decompose in treatment
processes. It is identified with matter having a specific gravity of about 2.65, and design of grit
chambers is based on the removal of all particles of about 0.011 inch or larger (65 mesh). Grit
removal, compared to other unit treatment processes, is quite economical and employed to achieve
the following results:

 Prevent excessive abrasive wear of equipment such as pumps and sludge scrapers.
 Prevent deposition and subsequent operating problems in channels, pipes, and basins.
 Prevent reduction of capacity in sludge handling facilities.

Fig 1: Receiving point fitted with bar screens.

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Grit removal equipment should be located after bar screens and comminutors and ahead of raw
sewage pumps.

To remove sand and other inorganic materials, the flow through the grit removal system should be
controlled to a velocity between 0.27-0.3m/s. At this velocity, the inorganic material is able to
settle at the bottom of the channel. There is a reserve channel which will be put into operation
while another is being cleaned. Degritting is carried out by stopping the flow through the channel
and draining off the water. The grit can then be shovelled out.

Settling Ponds

5.2 Anaerobic Ponds

Anaerobic ponds are 2-5m deep ponds that exclude oxygen and encourage the growth of bacteria,
which break down the effluent. Ponds are single-stage, continuous-flow, anaerobic reactors,
operating at ambient temperatures and low volumetric organic loadings. These ponds are used as a
pre-treatment for SS, and BOD removal. The wastewater that comes in is domestic. The anaerobic
pond can be described as an uncovered septic tank. The anaerobic bacteria when in action
breakdown organic matter and release carbon dioxide and methane. The treatment mechanism
involves the removal of suspended solids by sedimentation process forming the sludge at the
bottom of the pond. Cambridge shire ponds are 5 meters deep and receive an organic load of >100
mg BOD/ litre. Some advantages of this treatment are that it’s simple, has a relatively low cost,
and it’s good for pathogen removal. However, one disadvantage is that it requires more land than
other particular treatments. Anaerobic ponds do not contain algae like other types of ponds,
although it occasionally contains a thin film of Chlamydomonas on the surface of the pond.
Anaerobic ponds reduce microorganisms by sludge formation and the release of ammonia into the
air. This treatment also serves to:

 Separate out the solids form dissolved material as solids settle as bottom sludge.
 Breakdown biodegradable organic material.
 Allow partially treated effluent to pass out.
 Store undigested material and non-degradable solids as bottom sludge.
 Dissolve further organic material.
The formation of odour and accumulation of residue has to do with the kind of waste that the pond
is treating. This kind of concentration and volumetric load can be produced by sulphate (SO42-),
which is reduced to hydrogen sulphide (H2S) under the anaerobic conditions. The best solution
for this case is to follow the recommendations of waste loadings. A small amount of sulphide is
beneficial as it reacts with the heavy metals to form insoluble metal sulphides.

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Fig 2: Pond

The ponds also serve to remove organic solids from the sewage to prepare it for biological filters.
The more solids removed, the clearer the tank effluent and the lower the organic loading on the
biological filters. During the sedimentation process some of the greasier components of the solids
in the sewage will rise to the surface and is known as scum. The efficiency of the pond to remove
suspended solids is governed by the rate of flow through the pond. It is therefore important that
the flow into all the ponds is the same to ensure equal retention time and therefore uniform
settling of solids. Desludging and descumming are the most important functions of the operator.
Both these operations must be done regularly and thoroughly.

Desludging

Desludging is achieved by opening the draw off valve on the sludge draw off pipe. This valve is
located in a chamber adjacent to the pond and is about 2metres lower than the water level of the
pond. When the valve is opened, the head of sewage above the valve level caused the settled
sludge in the bottom to be forced up the pipe to the discharge point in the chamber, from where it
gravitates to the raw sludge sump. The operator must estimate the thickness of the sludge being
drawn off and shut down when thin sludge starts to appear. After sludge have been pumped to the
digesters, descumming can commence.

Descumming

Descumming is assisted by water sprays mounted on the pond bridge, these sprays should have a
flat trajectory so as to move the floating scum towards the scum flow off point without breaking it

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up or causing too much turbulence. Too much strong a spray will cause turbulence which will
break up the scum and cause it to be carried over the weir to the biological filters.

BIOLOGICAL FILTERS
The filter is in the form of a bed filled with stone. It is provided with a distribution system for
applying settled sewage to the media and under drains to remove the filter effluent. The filter
accomplishes wastewater treatment through the biological action of organisms (mainly oxidation),
that grow on the media. The filter does not purify by filtering out the suspended solids since the
voids between the stones are too large for this.

To successfully treat wastewater on a trickling filter, three items are essential

1) A surface area must be provided for the development of biological life.

2) An adequate supply of free oxygen must be available to the organisms.
3) The waste must be amenable to biological treatment.

Many of the purifying organisms are naturally present in sewage and the filter media provides
surface area for the development and accumulation of gelatinous growths containing bacteria,
protozoa, algae, fungi, worms and insect organisms. The media should be uniform and of
sufficient size to allow free circulation of air through the unit, normally 25mm – 75mm. As the
settled waste passes over the media in a thin film, the gelatinous growth retains much of the
suspended, colloidal and dissolved organic material contained in the wastewater. This material is
used as food by the cells for energy and is converted to carbon dioxide and water.

Different types of bacteria undertake the oxidation of carbonaceous and nitrogenous material.
Nitrification can only take place in the presence of appreciable concentrations of dissolved oxygen
and therefore commences once a certain degree of carbonaceous oxidation has taken place.
Nitrification bacteria appear in the lower levels in a filter and can be replaced by excessive
loading on a filter.

The excess film that accumulates from growths of new organisms is periodically sloughed from
the filter and passes onto the humus or final settling tank. Worms, snails, insect’s larvae and other
relatively large organisms establish themselves in a filter creating a biological balance which
assists in the process by scavenging for food and in so doing breaks up the growth of film or
zoogloea. The sloughing of the zoogloea is an essential part of the efficient operation of a filter
since it keeps the voids in the media open for free circulation of air. However, to obtain a
reasonable degree of treatment it is essential that the wastewater does not have excessive amounts
toxic materials such as copper, chromium, cyanide and other heavy metals or substances which

41
will either inhibit the development or kill the biological fauna and flora which is essential for the
oxidation of the dissolved and suspended organic matter. Uniform distribution of settled sewage
on the surface of the filter is required to obtain maximum utilization of the unit. The distribution
method is by a rotary distribution which consists of a central column four or more horizontal pipes
which outlet orifices have spaced along their length at different intervals.

When excessive loading for any long period occurs, ponding may result. This is due to excessive
growth of zoogloea, algae or fungi clogging the voids in the media and thereby restricting the flow
through the filter.

Ponding can be corrected by:

1) Reducing the load on the filter

2) Flushing the surface media with a water jet or by holding the distributor in one place for a
long enough time to flush out the clogging material and then moving on the adjacent area
until the whole surface area has been covered.
3) The surface of the media must be cleaned once a day to remove plastic, paper or any wind
born debris that may clog the surface of the media.
4) Distribution orifices must be cleaned twice a day to ensure even distribution
5) Distribution arms should be flushed out by opening the ends once a day to ensure that
grease, rags etc. do not collect on the sides of the tubes.
6) Centre column bearings should be greased once a week
7) Glands should be checked and adjusted to eliminate excessive leaking

However, at Cambridgeshire the bio filters do not word due to mechanical failure.

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