To p i c 2

Science
& Pseudoscience

“Science is simply
common sense
at its best…...”
- Thomas Henry Huxley
 Quotes to Ponder

“The Scientist is not a person

who Gives the Right Answers,
he’s one who Asks the
Right Questions.”
- Claude Lévi-Strauss
 What would you learn in
Topic 2 ?
 Brief Introduction to science
& scientific reasoning
 The Limitations of science
 Difference between pseudoscience &
science
Why do you need to learn this in Critical Thinking?
 Introduction
Science - the most powerful
intellectual tool ever discovered.
Transformed every aspect of our
lives: way we live, communicate,
fight diseases, harness energy,
work, grow crops, travel, etc…...
Expanded sum of human knowledge
& provided humankind with the
scientific method. ►Proven, Reliable
& Indispensable
C o m m o n Te r m s i n S c i e n c e
Hypothesis: A class of tentative or
“working” assumptions. An educated guess.
 A predicted /potential answer or solution to a
problem.
 Not supported by data
 Must be testable and measurable
Examples:
 Jane loves Billy because he is rich.
 If I eat vegetables daily, I will lose weight.
C o m m o n Te r m s i n S c i e n c e
Theory: In science, well-substantiated
explanation of some aspect of natural world.
 Contains 1 or more hypotheses that have been
supported by repeated testing. (proven
hypothesis)
 It evolves when new information is discovered.
 Based on evidence, verification, repeated testing,
wide scientific consensus
Examples:
GeoCentric (earth is in the middle of solar system)
Heliocentric (sun is in the middle of solar system)
C o m m o n Te r m s i n S c i e n c e
Scientific Law: A scientific statement of
what always occurs under certain conditions.
 Single statement
 Never wrong.
 Universal
C o m m o n Te r m s i n S c i e n c e
Experiment: A scientific test
done to find out how something
reacts under certain conditions or if
a particular idea / prediction is true.
What is
Science
Quotes to Ponder
“The whole of science
is nothing more than
a refinement of
everyday thinking.”
- Albert Einstein
 Science
Science - a method of inquiry -
seeks to describe, explain
& predict occurrences in
physical / natural world
by means of careful observation
& / or rigorous experiment (test).
DESCRIBE VS EXPLAIN
 Science
Science - a method of inquiry -
seeks to describe, explain
& predict occurrences in
physical / natural world
by means of careful observation
& / or rigorous experiment (test).
No single “scientific method” that all
scientists use: most scientific reasoning
does follow a certain general pattern.
A form of scientific reasoning?
 Basic Pattern of
Scientific Reasoning
Identify the Problem

Gather Relevant Data See, that’s

how it is
done…
Formulate Hypotheses
to explain the data

Test Hypotheses
by observation / experiment
 Scientific Reasoning (1/4)
Identifying the Problem
►Problem has to be “testable”.
►Process leads to one asking
relevant questions –
seek answers to these questions.
Examples
Does drinking wine lower risk of heart attack?
Did the universe begin
with a big bang? BANG!!
 Scientific Reasoning (2/4)
*Galileo’s
Gathering Relevant Data experiment

►Sometimes just one single

observation is sufficient
(Galileo*) but often, many
observations are needed.
Example
To know if drinking coffee contributes
to heart disease – needs methodical
collection of data from many people
(even thousands) over many years.
 Scientific Reasoning (3/4)
This Way
Formulating Hypotheses
to explain the data gathered
►Random data gathering won’t do;
need a hypothesis to direct you.
Hypothesis: A class of tentative or “working” assumptions.

►Often, evidence show hypothesis is

wrong – rewrite / modify hypothesis &
test again (often many, many times).
Test again & again & again
Formulating Hypothesis
Hypothesis: A class of tentative or “working” assumptions.
Examples Claims made that will then be tested by
either observation or experimentation.
Hypothesis:
Beer bottles made from glass
with carbon is more durable
than glass without carbon.
Hypothesis:
Aloe vera extract keeps the
skin youthful & healthy.
Hypothesis:
Daily exercise of moderate jogging reduces the risk of
heart disease & incidence of stroke among the elderly.
How do we test these Hypotheses?
 Scientific Reasoning (4/4)
Testing the Hypotheses
by observation / experiment
Take any given hypothesis.
If true, one would expect
certain results (either from
observation / experiment).
Example
Hypothesis which
predicts universe will
be a certain way.
If turns out the universe isn’t a way
which hypothesis predicts, hypothesis is
disconfirmed & we reject (or revise) it.
However, the more of the world is
observed to be like hypothesis predicts,
more confirmed hypothesis will be.
But since we could never observe the
whole universe, especially not the future
- NO hypothesis will ever be proven.
This leads to
“Tentative” nature of science
Tentative - provisional / not definite
 Hypothesis Testing
Example of a Controlled Study:
Study where a randomly selected
group is divided into control group
& experimental group, &
only one group is subject to
experimental condition (test)
but no one knows which group
until after experiment is complete.
Called the “ double blind ” test.
 A Controlled Study:

Suppose there’s a pill with a

DRUG claimed to be able
to cure an illness.

How do we test this claim?

Randomly Selected Group (Test Subjects)

Select Select

Experimental group Control group

Pill with DRUG DUMMY Pill

or Placebo
Placebo: A pill that does not contain any drug (or active ingredient)
Example: To discover if vitamin C prevents
colds. Reliable way to find out:
Randomly select a large number
of people from population.
Randomly divide them into 2 groups:
experimental group & control group.
Treat both groups exactly alike,
except give experimental group
a specified dosage of vitamin C
& control group, a placebo,
(or a sugar pill / inactive substance).
Conduct study double-blind – neither
scientists nor subjects know which
subjects getting vitamin C & which is
getting the placebo. Why?
Check for any statistically significance
difference in frequency the 2 groups get
colds. Is there a significant difference?
If experimental group  significantly
fewer colds compared to control
group, reasonable to conclude
vitamin C helps prevent colds.
 Select a large number
of appropriate subjects.

Randomly divide
subjects into 2 groups.
Treat groups equally
in all ways but one.
Observe or make
measurements.

Compare results.
Example: Test on Treatment for
high blood pressure
!
 Scientism
View that science is the
only way of knowing
anything & that it can
answer questions of
value & meaning.
 Limitations of Science
Science cannot answer questions of
Meaning & Value  not questions
about verifiable facts (observables).
Questions of Meaning:
Does the universe / life have a purpose?
Does my suffering have meaning?

Questions of Value:
Is abortion morally wrong?
Is gay marriage be legal?
Examples of Limitations of Science
Science does not make moral
judgement.
Science does not make visual
judgement.
Science does not tell you how to use
scientific knowledge.
Science does not explain
supernatural
Pseudoscience
• FALSE SCIENCE –
unscientific thinking
masquerading as scientific
thinking

• Looks and sounds like real

science

Scientific Evidence??!!
Seriously??!!
 To D i s t i n g u i s h S c i e n c e
from Pseudoscience
Pseudoscience is false science. Appears to be
science but is not. 6 marks of Pseudoscience:
Makes claims that are not testable.
Makes claims inconsistent with
well-established scientific truths .
Explains away / ignores falsifying data**.
Uses vague language. Flat Earther
It is not progressive.
Often involves no serious
effort to conduct research.
 Absence of Testability
A claim (hypothesis) is testable when can
make observations - ►show it true / false
(E.g. hypothesis “predicts” universe will be a certain way – this
can be observed through space probes).

Need not be directly testable.

Observations of fossil record: - prove
past existence of dinosaurs. Need not
travel back in time & observe.
Need not be immediately testable.
Einstein's 1916 hypothesis - clocks run
faster in space was testable (a prediction),
though space flight was not possible then.
Essentially, must be testable in principle.
Only true (for testability) if :
Verifiable in principle:
Possible observation that would
provide good reason to believe
that the claim is true.
Falsifiable in principle:
Possible observation that would
provide good reason to believe that the
claim is false.
E xa m p l e
“Zeus is a Greek deity UN-Falsifiable
who rules the Universe.” in principle
 I’m a Pseudoscientists often fail to
scientist!!
provide falsifiable claims.
They “explain away” any
disconfirming evidence.
Feng Shui
May the Force be with you!!
E xa m p l e s
“ESP exists but doesn’t work in the
presence of skeptics.” - ESP Fan
“Feng Shui doesn’t work for people who
doesn’t believe in it 100 %.” - “Master” Too
Another (s i l l y but good) example:
Hypothesis: Instead of by physical forces (e.g.,
gravity), all matter in the universe are moved by
tiny elves that always—when they are about
to be observed — ►“hide”.
Could you observe anything
to prove this false?**
Quick, hide!!
Humans!! The humans are
coming!!
UN-Falsifiable **Read “The Dragon in
my Garage”
in principle (Optional)
 Inconsistency with
Well-Established Scientific Findings
Science is cumulative & progressive. Involves
‘paradigm shift’ – extend well-established truth
into new domains. e.g. heliocentric model (sun-
centered) replaced geocentric model (earth-
centered)
geocentric model
Pseudoscience- conflicts with well-
confirmed scientific conclusions.
If claims to be science, it’s most
certainly pseudoscience.
 Explaining Away / Ignoring
Falsifying Evidence
Science is self-correcting. Continually seek
to disprove its own hypotheses & learn from
its own mistakes. Eg :Pet Theory
We figure out what is true by
finding how what is false.
E xa m p l e
If I have 5 competing hypotheses,
& if 3 of them are shown false,
I am much closer to the truth!
 Pseudoscience will ignore & explain
away evidence that conflicts their
theories. .
Example 1
“You caught ‘telekinetic psychic’ cheating
on camera? Well, he only cheats when his
powers aren’t working.” – Psychic Fan
Example 2
“The fossil’s more than
10,000 years-old?
God purposely put it
there to test our faith.” – A Young Earth
Creationist
 Use of Vague Language
Scientific hypotheses must be specific &
clear.
Pseudoscientific claims use vague
or general language (& often even
scientific-sounding language to
obscure facts & mislead).
Eg: “A big change will occur in your life next year”
Often in pseudoscientific claims such
as fortune-telling & psychic abilities.
Examples of vague language:
(1) Cold Reading:
Gathering obvious general information
about a subject & repeating in vague form
as if you “just knew it.” (e.g., psychic readings.)

“Some of your aspiration tend to be

pretty unrealistic.
At times, you are extroverted, sociable
, while at other times
you are introverted, and reserved.”
Examples of vague language:
(2) Fishing for Details:
►Multiple-out expressions: expressions so vague
interpretation of them is true of nearly anyone.
(e.g., “someone close to you is having
problems in his / her love life.”)
►Try-ons: something worded so that, if correct, it will
be remembered as “remarkable” but, if not, will be
forgotten. (e.g., I’m getting a feeling you may
have some serious financial concerns.”)
 Lack of Progressiveness
Science changes as hypothesis
confirmed or shown false – it is
progressive.
If a “science” has not changed for
many years, is likely pseudoscience.
Examples: people who believe the earth
is flat ( Flat Earth Research Society )
 Failure to
Conduct Research
Science is driven to research- well-
confirmed facts, set proven techniques, ask
questions, seek solution, collect data, test
hypothesis.
Pseudosciences fails to
engage in research.

If a so-called “science” fails to do this,

is likely a form of pseudoscience .
Example:
The water cure theory.- Dr. Fereydoon
Batmanghelidj (1992) “ Your body’s Many Cries of Water”
• Root Cause of all illness is lack of water –chronic
dehydration.
• Must drink 8-10 glasses of water
• Consume salt liberally
• Avoid caffeine & alcohol
• Cure for asthma, arthritis, back pain, cancer, boold
pressure, migraines, depression, etc.

What is the proof ? Can we test this ?

EXAMPLES OF PSEUDOSCIENCES

 Astrology  Subliminal Messages

 ESP  Palmistry
 Supernatural Being  Feng Shui
 2012 Phenomena  The Lost City of
 Aliens Atlantis
 Conspiracy Theory  Acupuncture
 Illuminati  Numerology
 Science
Makes claims that can be
rigorously tested through
observation or experiment.
Claims consistent with well-
established scientific findings.
Seeks out falsifying data &
confronts it openly & honestly.
Clear & specific
language.
Constantly changes
& progresses.
Engages in serious
ongoing research.
Pseudoscience
Makes claims that cannot be
tested, even in principle.
Claims conflict with
well-established scientific
findings.
Ignores or explains away
falsifying data.
Vague & imprecise
language.
Often fails to
change or progress.
Usually makes no serious
effort to conduct research.
Pseudoscience Science
 **Confirmation Bias
Process of choosing only evidence which
supports a favoured hypothesis /
prediction / belief
(ignoring all else especially
evidence to the contrary).

E.g. psychics, astrologers

soothsayers, etc
 Summary
“Science is simply common sense at its best
that is, rigidly accurate in observation,
& merciless to fallacy in logic.”
- Thomas Henry Huxley
 END OF TOPIC 2

Learning Outcome:
Analyse arguments logically
Part 1- Group Activity