Initial Estimate for Polar Drag Equation

C L2
C D =C D + O
πAe

Where:

1.15 f f total 1.15 ∑ (C f FF Q S wet +∑ Misc) ∑ (C f FF Q S wet + ∑ Misc)total

CD = = = =
O
S ref Sref S ref S ref

The total f for an airplane is approximately the sum of the component

parts plus 5 or 10 percent to allow for mutual interference between the
components; and additional 5 or 10 percent allowance may be well made for
small protuberances such as handles, hinges, and cover plates.
An approximate rule for estimating e for a complete airplane is given by
the equation:

Flaps Up:
1 1 1
=
e ew
+∑ ∆
fu
e [() ] parts
Flaps up

or
1 1 1
=
e ew
+∆
fu
e ()fuselage

Flaps Down:
1 1 1
=
e ew
+∆
e
fd
() fuselage
Flaps down

Where:
e w = e w (1+kf)
fd fu

kf = correction factor ( 0.13 – 0.15 at δf = 30°)

 1
The values of implied by Fig. 9:23 include (a) a planform shape
e
correction factor, given by the theoretical factor 1 to 8, (b) an airfoil thickness
ratios, and (c) a correction to practical wing construction for high aspect ratio
involving non optimum spanwise lift distribution and resulting in the
“recommended practice” lines of Fig 9:23.

The principal incremental value of ∆ ( 1e ) parts

is due to the fuselage (and

nacelles, if any). Data for estimating ∆ ( 1e )

fuselage
are still rather incomplete but

may be reasonably be assumed to be proportional to the ratio of fuselage

frontal area to the wing area as implied by the plot of Fig. 14:2, which should
be noted as limited to the rather unusual case of zero wind incidence.
CLEAN AIRPLANE

C L2
C D =C D +
o
πAe
Where:

1.15 f f total 1.15 ( ∑ C f FFQ S wet + ∑ Misc ) ( ∑ C f FFQ S wet + ∑ Misc )TOTAL
CD = = = =
o
S ref S ref S ref S ref

ft 2
CD = 2
o
ft
C D =¿ o

Flaps Up

1 1 1
=
e ew
+∑ Δ
e fu
[() ] parts

In Figure 9.23
ew fu
= 0.8300 at A = 6.115

In Figure 14.2

Δ ( 1e ) fuselage
= 1.70 at A = 6.115
S πfuselage
S
Hence,

S πfuselage
Δ ( 1e ) fuselage
=( 1.7 0 ) ( S ref )
1 16.6670 ft 2
Δ () e fuselage
=( 1.70 ) ( 97.84 ft 2 )
Δ ( 1e ) fuselage
=0.2896
 Therefore,
1
e=
1 1
ew
+Δ
fu
()
e fuselage

1
e=
1
+0. 1704
0.83 00
e=0. 7272

C L2
C D =C D +
o
πAe

C L2
C D =0.06354+
π ( 6.115 ) ( 0.7272 )

C D =0.06354+ 0.06473C L 2

DIRTY AIRPLANE
 C L2
C D =C D +
o
πAe
Where:

1.15 f f total 1.15 ( ∑ C f FFQ S wet + ∑ Misc ) ( ∑ C f FFQ S wet + ∑ Misc )TOTAL
CD = = = =
o
S ref S ref S ref S ref

ft 2
CD = o
ft 2
C D =¿ o

Flaps Down

1 1 1
=
e ew
+Δ
e
fd
() fuselage

Where:
e w =ew ( 1+ k f )
fd fu

Kf = correction factor (0.13 – 0.15 at δf = 30°)

In Figure 9.23
ew = fu
0.83 at A = 7.81

e w =0.83 ( 1+0.14 )
fd

e w =0.9 462
fd

In Figure 14.2

Δ ( 1e ) fuselage
= 1.70 at A = 6.115
S πfuselage
S
Hence,

1 S πfuselage
Δ ()e fuselage
=( 1.70 ) ( Sref )
1 16.6670 ft 2
Δ ()e fuselage
=( 1.70 ) ( 97.84 ft 2 )
Δ ( 1e )fuselage
=0.2896

Therefore,
1
e=
1 1
ew
+Δ
fd
e () fuselage

1
e=
1
+0.2896
0.9 462
e=0. 7427

C L2
C D =C D + o
πAe

+C L2
CD=
π ( 6.115 )( 0.7427 )

C D =+0.07009 C L2
FOR WINGS
Solving for Reynold’s Number
ρVl
R=
μ
1.053
l
Rcut −off =38.21 ()
k

Where:
l = Characteristics Length = length of MAC = 4.0 ft
V = 183 mph = 268.4 ft./s
slug
μ=3.737× 10−7
ft . sec
K= 2.08 × 10-5 ft
ρ = 0.002377 slug/ ft.3
 slug ft
(0.002377 )(268.4 )(4. 0 ft )
ft 3
s
R=
slug
3.737 x 10−7
ft . sec
R=¿ 6 828 865.94

1.053
4. 0 ft
Rcut −off =38.21 (
2.08 x 10−5 ft )
Rcut −off =¿ 13 270 185.81

For C f

Using the smallest value of the Reynold’s Number,

Laminar (Wing)
1.328
Cf =
√R
1.328
Cf =
√ 6 828 865.94
C f =5.0819 ×10−4

Turbulent (Wing)
0.455
Cf =
(log 10 R)2.58

0.455
Cf = 2.58
[ log 10 ( 13 270185.81 ) ]
C f =2.8718× 10−3

Total C f for Wings

C f (Wings)=0.10C f ( Laminar ) +0.90 C f (Turbulent )

 C f (Wings)=0.10(5.0819 ×10−4 )+ 0.90¿)
C f wings =0.002983

For FF
M = Assumed to be 0.15
Λ m=0 °

t/c = 0.15 (NACA 6415)

1. 20 ft
( x /c )m = =¿ 0.30
4. 00 ft

4
0.6 t t
FF Wing = 1+
[ ( ) ( ) ] [1.34 M
( x /c )m c
+100
c
0.18
( cosΛ m )
0.28
]
 0.6
[
FF Wing = 1+
(0.3) ]
( 0.15 ) +100 ( 0.15 )4 [ 1.34 (0.15)0.18 ( cos 0 ° )0.28 ]

FF Wing =¿1.28628

For Q
For a high-wing, a mid-wing, or a well-filleted low wing, the
interference will be negligible so the Q factor will be about 1.0
Q wing = 1.0000 (low filleted wing)

For Swet
Since t/c > 0.05
Swet = Sexposed [1.977 + 0.52 (t/c)]
Swet = (45.9505 x 2) [1.977 + 0.52 (0.15)]
Swet wing = 188.86

FOR FUSELAGE
Solving for Reynold’s Number
ρVl
R=
μ
1.053
l
Rcut −off =38.21 ()k

Where:
l = Characteristics Length = length of fuselage = 26.03 ft
V = 183 mph = 268.4 ft./s
slug
μ=3.737× 10−7 .
ft . sec
K= 2.08 × 10-5 ft
ρ = 0.002377 slug/ ft.3
 slug ft
(0.002377 )(268.4 )(26.03 ft)
ft 3
s
R=
slug
3.737 x 10−7
ft . sec
R=¿ 44 438 845.07

1.053
26.03 ft
Rcut −off =38.21 ( 2.08 x 10−5 ft )
Rcut −off =¿ 100 635 369.40

For C f
For Turbulent
0.455
Cf =
(log 10 R)2.58

Using the smallest value of the Reynold’s Number,

0.455
Cf fuselage
= 2.58
[ log10 (100 635369.40)]
Cf fuselage
=0.0025114
For FF
60 f
FF fuselage= 1+
( +
f 400
3 )
Where:
l l
f= =
d
(√ 4π ) A max

Amax = frontal area of the fuselage = 16.6670 ft2

(2 6.03 ft )
¿
f
(√ 4π )16.6670 ft 2

f =¿ 5.6505

60 5.6505
FF fuselage= 1+
[ (5.6505)3
+
400 ]
FF fuselage=1. 3467

For Q
The fuselage has a negligible interference factor (Q = 1.0) in most cases
Qfuselage = 1.0000

For Swet
 Swet fuselage= 255.69 ft2 (from Activity No. 4)

FOR V TAIL
Solving for Reynold’s Number
ρVl
R=
μ
1.053
l
Rcut −off =38.21 ()
k

Where:
l = Characteristics Length = length of V-tail MAC = 4.15 ft.
V = 183 mph = 268.4 ft./s
slug
μ=3.737× 10−7 .
ft . sec
K= 2.08 × 10-5 ft
ρ = 0.002377 slug/ ft.3
 slug ft
(0.002377 )(268.4 )(4.15 ft )
ft 3
s
R=
slug
3.737 x 10−7
ft . sec
R=¿ 7 084 948.41

1.053
4.15 ft
Rcut −off =38.21 ( 2.08 x 10−5 ft )
Rcut −off =¿ 14 556 634.98

For C f
Using the smallest value of the Reynold’s Number,
For Laminar (V-Tail)
1.328
Cf =
√R
1.328
Cf =
√ 7 084 948.41
C f =4.9892 ×10− 4

For Turbulent (V-Tail)

0.455
Cf =
(log 10 R)2.58
0.455
Cf = 2.58
[ log 10 ( 14 556 634.98 ) ]
C f =2.8305× 10−3

Total C f for V −Tail

C f (V −Tail)=0.10C f ( Laminar ) +0.90 C f (Turbulent )

 C f (V −Tail)=0.10(4.9892 ×10−4 )+ 0.90 ¿
C f V −Tail =0.002597

For FF
M = 0.15
Λ m=56 °

t/c = 0.15 (NACA 0015)

0.9309 ft
( x /c )m = =0.31
3 ft

4
0.6 t t
FFV −Tail= 1+
[ ( ) ( ) ][ 1.34 M
( x /c )m c
+100
c
0.18
( cosΛm )
0.28
]
 0.6
[
FF V −Tail= 1+
(0.3) ]
( 0.15 )+100 ( 0.15 ) 4 [ 1.34(0.15)0.18 ( cos 56 ° )0.28 ]

FF V −Tail=¿1.0931

A Tail surface with a hinged rudder or elevator will have a form factor about
10% higher than predicted due to the extra drag of the gap between the tail surface
and its control surface.
FFV −Tail=¿ 1.0931+ (0.1 x 1.0931)

FF V −Tail=¿ 1.2024

For Q
For tail surfaces, interference ranges from about three percent (Q = 1.03) for
a clean V-tail about eight percent for an H-tail. For a conventional tail, four to five
percent may be assumed.
Q V −Tail = 1.0300 (For V-Tail)

For SwetV −Tail

Since t/c > 0.05

SwetV −Tail = Sexposed [1.977 + 0.52 (t/c)]

SwetV −Tail = (18.4935 ft2 x 2) [1.977 + 0.52 (0.15)]

SwetV −Tail = 76.0083

 GEAR

For Main Landing Gear,

Tire,

D
 Drag Area - to - Frontal Area Ratio  Frontal Area
q
Where:
Drag – to – Frontal Area Ratio = 0.18
Main Wheel Frontal Area x 2 = 0.4582 x 2 = 0.9164 ft2

D
=0.13 x 0.7688 ft 2
q
D
=0.0999
q
To account for mutual interference, it is suggested that the sum of the gear
component drags be multiplied by 1.2.
For Mutual Interference,

( Dq ) MainLanding Gear ( Wheel∧Tire )

=0.0999 x 1.2

( Dq ) MainLandingGear ( Wheel∧Tire )
=0.1199

Strut,
D
=Drag Area−¿−Frontal Area Ratio x Frontal Area
q
Drag – to – Frontal Area Ratio = 0.30 (From Table 12.5 – Round strut or wire)
Round strut or wire Frontal Area x 2 = 0.2698 x 2 = 0.5396 ft2
 Frontal Area = 2.5983 ft2

D
=0.30 x 5.1966 ft 2
q
D
=1.5590 ft 2
q

To account for mutual interference, it is suggested that the sum of the gear
component drags be multiplied by 1.2.
For Mutual Interference,

( Dq ) MainLanding Gear ( Strut )

=1.5590 x 1.2

( Dq ) MainLanding Gear ( Strut )

=1.8708

For Nose Landing Gear,

Tire,
 D
 Drag Area - to - Frontal Area Ratio  Frontal Area
q
Where:
Drag – to – Frontal Area Ratio = 0.13 (From Table 12.5 – Wheel and tire with
fairing)
Nose Wheel Frontal Area = 0.3578 ft2

Frontal Area = 0.3773 ft2

D
=0.13 x 0.3773 ft 2
q
D
=0.04904
q
To account for mutual interference, it is suggested that the sum of the gear
component drags be multiplied by 1.2.
For Mutual Interference,

( Dq ) Nose Landing Gear ( Wheel∧Tire )

=0.04904 x 1.2

( Dq ) Nose Landing Gear ( Wheel∧Tire )

=0.05885

Strut,
D
=Drag Area−¿−Frontal Area Ratio x Frontal Area
q
Drag – to – Frontal Area Ratio = 1.2 (From Table 12.5 – Fork strut)
 Fork, boogey, irregular fitting, Frontal Area = 0.4222 ft2

Frontal Area = 3.1308 ft2

D
=1.2 x 0.8444 ft 2
q
D
=3.7570 ft 2
q
To account for mutual interference, it is suggested that the sum of the gear
component drags be multiplied by 1.2.
For Mutual Interference,

( Dq ) MainLanding Gear ( Strut )

=3.7570 x 1.2

( Dq ) MainLanding Gear ( Strut )

=4.5084
 FOR FLAPS
Flaps affect both the parasite and induced drag. The induced effect is due to
the change in the lift distribution, but is relatively small and can be ignored for initial
analysis.
The flap contribution to parasite drag is caused by the separated flow above
the flap, and can be estimated using eq. (12.37) for most types of flap. Note that this
is referenced to wing area. Typically, the flap deflection is about 60 – 70 deg for
landing and about 20 – 40 deg for takeoff. Light aircraft usually take off with no flaps.
Note that this is a very rough estimate.
flap span
CDo  0.0023  flap
flap
wing span
Where: Flap Span = 5.5620 ft x 2 = 11.052 ft
Wing Span = 24.46 ft
δ flap = 30 ° (Flap Deflection is about 20 to 40 deg.)

∆ C D = (0.0023) ( 11. 052 ft ) (30 °)

o flap
24.46 ft
∆ C D = 0.03117
o flap