A BRIEF HISTORY AND THEORY BEHIND AC, DC AND MAGLEV TRAINS

AND SUBWAYS
Timothy Jay Carbino', Malcolm R. Gassman2, Jeffery Glass3, and M. H. Rashid, Ph. D.
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL 32514-5754
Tel: (850) 474-2976
e-mail: nirashid(a uwfedu

Abstract: This paper gives a brief history of the last 125 high volume of traffic due to their efficiency. Even though
years of electrically propelled locomotives. It discusses the they are a highly efficient type of transportation, the cost of
uses of DC powered motors as the mainstay of locomotive over head lines or a third rail system has deterred their wide
power for the first 80 years. Also talks about the technical spread use for long hauls. There are two types of current used
advances that allowed for the industry to advance to a more to power locomotives. DC and AC, the first being direct
efficient AC motor with the invention of such semiconductor current the second being alternating current. DC current was
devices as the diode and GTO's. Lastly it discusses the ability primarily used in the beginning due to how easy it was to
to magnetically levitate and propel a locomotive with Maglev regulate the current and voltage that was needed to power the
technology. traction motors. You can send an AC signal further than a DC
signal but the problem in the earlier years was converting the
Index Terms-AC motors, Asynchronous rotating AC signal once it reached the locomotive, which "restricted
machines, DC motors, diodes, Electromagnetic fields, Linear AC currents widespread adoption until the 1960's" [2].
synchronous motors, Magnetic levitation, Semiconductor
devices, Superconducting magnet The future of rail transportation holds a high promise to
make local transportation more reliable, safer, and much
faster. This future relies on the ingenuity of engineers and
I. NOMENCLATURE physicist's to develop modes of transportation that can carry
AC Alternating Current passengers over short or long distances without the use of
DC Direct Current traditional modes of transportation such as wheeled vehicles.
E.M.F. Electromagnetic Field One of the solutions proposed, and already in practice, is the
LSM Linear Synchronous Motor Magnetically Levitated Vehicle or Maglev for short.
While the Maglev system is currently in use around the
Maglev Magnetically Levitated Vehicle world, it is still outnumbered by the wheel and rail track
MVA Mega Volt-Amps systems that have been common for the past one-hundred
SCM Superconducting magnet seventy years. Study of the feasibility of the use of high-
SEPEX SEParate EXcitement speed magnetic levitation began forty three years ago in 1962
when the Japanese government embarked on a research
II. INTRODUCTION program to examine the viability of super high-speed
THIS document provides a brief history of AC, DC and magnetic levitation technology [3]. The first successful
Maglev propulsion of trains and subways. In the 1830's levitated vehicle was demonstrated in 1972. Powered by
horses drew the first street cars and the first electric streetcar linear induction motors, the levitated car was demonstrated at
system was not introduced until 1880 in Cleveland [1]. 60 km/h by the Railway Technical Research Institute of the
Electric locomotives were primarily found with at least two Japanese National Railway. During the following years a
motors. There are three primary types of locomotives and linear synchronous system was studied, and in 1977 a 7 km
each has its own use. A battery powered locomotive was used experimental track was built in Miyazaki (Japan). Two years
for very short distances around a company or a small town later, an already existing world record of 517 km/h was
because it would need to have its batteries recharged attained in December 1979 [4].
regularly. Electric trains are more widely used when there is a Using only a single car for the tests in the late 1970's, the

1,2,3: Senior undergraduate students in electrical engineering

0-7803-9255-8/05/$20.00 2005 IEEE

165
tests took a natural path to multi car sets. Two-car train sets found either in between the two rails the locomotive travels on
began testing in 1981 and three-car train sets in 1986. The or along side them. One of the ways the shoe can be
manned two-vehicle train MLUOOI reached a speed of 400.8 connected to the third rail is for it to just rest on top of it,
km/h in 1987. In 1990, the Minister of Transport of Japan which is very dangerous for anyone performing maintenance
authorized construction of the Yamanashi Maglev Test Line. near the rail system because this leaves the high voltage rail
It was to be the final test to confirm the practicality of maglev open to exposure. The rails were typically charged with DC
technology. The 42.8 km line between Sakaigawa and voltages that exceed 750V. Another way to connect the
Akiyama of Yamanashi Prefecture opened in 1996 and the locomotive to the third rail was to connect it to the underside
first running test of the MLX0 1 was in April of 1997 [4]. To of the rail. This was a much safer way because a cover could
date, the fastest speed achieved in a manned vehicle is 581 be placed over the rail shielding the high voltages from any
km/h, making the test trains on the Yamanashi Test Line the maintenance workers and helped protect the rail from adverse
fastest trains in the world. The Yamanashi test track is located weather conditions [2].
about 50 km west of Tokyo, and is scheduled to begin The rails that the trains travel on are used as a means for
passenger service in October, 2005. Fig. 1 shows an image of the current return "and leakage to the ground is not considered
two Maglev trains side-by-side on the Yamanashi Test Line. serious" [10]. The very first locomotive that used DC power
was a Siemens streetcar in 1881-1891 its initial voltage was
only 180 volts [11]. Over the years a wide variety of voltages
were used ranging from 180 volts DC to 6000 volts DC [11].
Some disadvantages to the third rail system:
1. The rails are typically uncovered leaving them exposed to
for anyone to touch and get electrocuted.
2. A low voltage must be kept as not to cause arcing from the
live rail to the grounded rail. This low voltage requires
substations to be close to each other to power the rails [10].
3. If for some unforeseen reason all the contact shoes were to
become not connect to the live rail another locomotive
Fig. 1, Two Maglev test trains side by on the Yamanashi Test Line [51. would have to come along and push back on a live rail.
4. Only DC power is used to power the third rail system.
Further development of the Maglev technology has There are also some advantages to the third rail system. The
continued in Japan, Europe, China, and the United States. primary reason being it is cheaper to install a third rail system
Japan has developed another test line, which is used for then an overhead line system. They are visually pleasing
research and development in Miyazaki, Japan. In Europe, since there is no wires strung overhead, which would mean
Germany has been the leader in the development of Maglev the system is easier to maintain due to weather difficulties
transportation technology. Germany's Transrapid 07, has knocking the lines down. Lastly they fit easily into a tunnel
been used to test vehicles since the early 1990's. As of without the tunnel being overly large [10].
December 1996 (most recent date found) both of the test
vehicles have traveled more then 400,000 km. The German B. Overhead Lines
government in 1991 approved the German maglev route for Overhead lines are another popular way to deliver power to
public transportation; it runs from Hamburg to Berlin. The the locomotive. The overhead lines primarily run an AC
United States have been slowly up and coming in the current although some lines do use DC.
development of Maglev technology. In 1970, the US Federal When AC current is used it ranges from 725 volts at 50 Hz
Railroad Administration began studying high-speed ground to 50000 volts at 50 Hz [11]. The power travels from the lines
transportation with little avail. In 1986, the US government to the locomotive via pantograph arm that is connected to the
stopped all funding toward Maglev technology. In 1990, the top of the locomotive. There are a couple of different return
US government and the Federal Railroad Administration systems available. If the locomotive has rubber wheels then
began to officially support maglev technology [4]. an additional overhead line is needed for the return current,
otherwise the current returns through the rails it travels on.
III. POWERING THE LOCOMOTIVES The contact wire itself is supported from above by a
A. Third Rail Systems messenger wire in the US and Europe, in the UK and Canada
The third rail system was introduced as a means to get it is referred to as the catenary wire. This wire is suspended
power to the locomotives. As the name implies the from poles at fixed intervals and dropper wires are used to
locomotive travels along on a three system rail, two rails are connect to power line to the messenger wire. As the speed of
for the main support of the train and the third rail that is the locomotive increases it has a potential to cause ripples in
insulated from the ground. The locomotive will have a sliding the power lines causing it to sway up and down in a wave like
"shoe" that will be in constant contact with the third rail to fashion. This causes a problem for current collection of the
supply power to the traction motors. The third rail can be pantograph arms. To help solve this problem for faster trains,

166
the poles that support the messenger wire are put at closer Fig 3. Diagram shows how a DC motor drives the axle through a pinion and
intervals. There are also weights placed at the ends of the gearwheel [2].
wires to help keep a constant tension on them. Fig. 4 below shows an actual DC traction motor as built and
Where two lines cross at intersections there is a phase break manufactured by Railway Technology.
and this allows for two lines that may be running different
voltages and frequencies to have a neutral part in between
them. Connecting to lines that are being feed with different
currents is very dangerous and has potential to cause a great
deal of harm.
A benefits of overhead wires is that they can run AC
current and one substation can power miles and miles of lines
where as a DC current feed line must have around five
substations to every one AC station in the earlier years,
"nowadays two or three are needed for a 750 volt system" [2].

IV. TYPES OF MOTORS

There are two different types of motors that are used to
drive a locomotive's axles and wheels, DC motors and AC
motors. DC is direct current meaning it travels in only one
direction along a conductor. AC is alternating current, so
called because it changes direction flowing one way along the
conductor and then the other. It changes very rapidly and the
number of changes in direction per second is called the
frequency measured in Hertz. The difference between AC and
DC is shown in Fig. 2 below [2].
age \ ge
s |
Fig. 4. DC traction motor as built and manufactured by Railway Technology
[12].
The motion of the DC motor is created by the interaction of
magnetism caused by currents flowing through the stator and
rotor. This interaction causes the rotor to turn and provide the
drive [2].
The stator and the rotor of the DC motor are connected
electrically. The connection consists of fixed carbon brushes,
which are spring loaded so that they remain in contact with an
extension of the armnature called the commutator. This is how
the field coils are kept in circuit with the rotor.
...
Tr

A. DC Motors " ,
;

DC VcleF Prior to 1960 DC motors were the most commonly used

AC Voter

Reee,aS d.VlsWlDihenu!- betWee, DC and ACVi0iaUe motor to drive locomotives, due to technology limitations AC
motors were not favored. In the early 1960's, with the study
Fig. 2, Illustration of the difference in AC and DC voltages [2]. of semiconductor materials and the invention of the diode, the
use of AC motors became more prominent [2].
The first type of motor, the DC electric motor is a very The system that regulates the DC traction motor had to
simple device-consisting of a case containing a fixed electric accomplish two things, first it had to allow for a smooth
part, the stator and a moving electrical part, the rotor or acceleration of the locomotive as not to damage the coupling
armature [2]. As the rotor turns, it turns a pinion, which drives and second it had to have the ability to change speed and
a gearwheel. The gearwheel is shrunk onto the axle and drives power setting for the various load and route conditions [16].
the wheels as shown below in Fig.3 [2]. The idea was not to overload the motor with to much
current given by (1) [16].
Gear A-amte Drive
ShIftPt
(V - Eb )
_ l _ Ull
.
~~~Fmrid
(Fied -the
I
Rem (I )
Stator) PlanV'ew
Axle * _ Ce055 Section Where I is the current flowing through the motor, V is the
.-ate (Rotteatng - voltage applied to the armature, R. is the resistance of the
the Rotor)
field system, which, causes back electromagnetic field Eb. "At
standstill Eh = 0 and hence to keep the current with in limits
Tr-ctlon Motor
CoAMeDI either V must be reduced to a low value or Rm must be
artificially increased" [16]. Increasing the value of the resistor
Shrttr r Cro Section
is the easier of the two and can be done with a simple
Armetetiure
(Rtotting) (Fi od)
Field
resistance R,. R, can be found using (2) [16].
Diegqm ehowirk how a DC mrnordre1vlhe
..Ie.nth-h * pii.n -d gterw l

167
 V B. AC Motors
Rs = I _R
m m
R, is an external resistance that is in series with the motor, Im
is the max current allowed to reach the motor. Rm and V
represent the same values as in (1). The resistor is connected
with a series of switches to allow a number of stages as the
motor speeds up, the back E.M.F. is increased causing the
current to fall and thus the motor will not go any faster that is
when a switch is closed lower the resistive value of Rs causing
the current to increase again. This happens over and over
again until the conductor runs out of switches to throw, thus
causing it to be at it maximum speed. Fig. 5 shows a "Basic
traction motor circuit for resistance starting" and Fig. 6 shows
the "Current-time curve for the starting period" [16].
.D............
. .
(2) There are two types of the second motor, the AC motor,
synchronous and asynchronous. The synchronous motor has
field coils mounted right on the drives shaft and the armature
coils in the housing. The main advantage of the synchronous
motor is that the motor produces the reverse voltages needed
to turn off the thyristors. It was a good solution at the time but
has been taken over by the asynchronous motor once the GTO
thyristor was created [2].
The asynchronous motor, or induction motor, is an AC
motor which comprises a rotor and a stator, like a DC motor,
but does not need current to flow through the armature. It has
to have a three phase power supply, shown in Fig. 7 below.
There are two big advantages to the 3-phase design, the first
being that the motor has no brushes and two, the armature can
be made of steel laminations. This makes it more robust and
cheaper to build [2].

3 4

A B .' \ h1

Fig. 5. Basic traction motor circuit for resistancc starting [16]

In Fig. 5, ABCD represent junctions of R, switches 1,2,3,4

represent ways of shorting out the resistor so that less of it is
in series with the motor. Switch one is closed when the Fig. 7, shows a 3-phase power supply [2].
locomotive is to start moving as the motor accelerates the back
E.M.F. is felt and the operator will close switch two isolating From the transmission side, the AC motor has always been
taking section AB out the circuit. When the locomotives regarded as better than the DC motor because it can be
speed starts to plateau again switch three is closed isolating distributed at very high voltages over a small size conductor
section ABC from the circuit. This continues until all wire, whereas DC needs a large, heavy wire or in many cases
switches are closed and direct current flow from the current an external rail. DC also needs more frequent feeder
source to the motor. This can be thought of like shifting a car substations than AC. DC uses up to about 3000 volts while
from one gear to the next each proceeding gear allows the car AC uses up to 15000 to 50000 volts [2].
gain momentum. This type of traction motor circuit would Up until just recently, DC motors have been the preferred
usually have many more switches than the ones listed in Fig. 5 type for railways because their characteristics were right for
[16]. the job. This is why even trains powered from AC supplies
were usually equipped with DC motors [1].

r4
1-
.
Fig. 6. Current-time curve for starting period [ 16]
Fig. 6 represents current flow verses time. It also shows Silicon diodes have a 0.7 forward voltage drop whereas
when switches 1,2,3,4 will be thrown. Switch one is thrown Schottky diodes have a 0.3 voltage drop [13].
at t = 0. Once the current rises to its max it starts to fall off
and then switch 2 is thrown and the current jumps back up to
it max value again before dropping off again.
V. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
A. Diodes
A diode is a semi-conductor which allows current to flow
through it in only one direction, blocking any current trying to
flow the opposite direction [2].
A diode has a forward voltage drop. That is to say, when
current is flowing, the voltage at the anode is always higher
than the voltage at the cathode. The actual Forward Voltage
Drop varies according to the type of diode. For example:
In addition, the voltage drop increases slightly as the
current increases so, for example, a silicon rectifier diode
might have a forward voltage drop of 1 volt when 1 Amp of
current is flowing through it [13].
Four diodes arranged as shown below in Fig. 8 are called a

168
bridge rectifier. Using this configuration an AC signal can be
converted into a DC signal. Because of this application,
diodes quickly became popular in railway applications, first
appearing in the 1 960s, because they were very low
maintenance.
AC Input
i * ~~capactort
i u DC O DtpC
Schofr
Schemnatic of Bridge Rectifier used to convert AC to DC
Fig. 8, A bridge rectifier [2].
B. Thvristors
A thyristor, shown below in Fig. 9, is a semiconductor
device that acts as a switch. However, when switched on it
can only pass current in one direction. To switch alternating
current two devices are connected in inverse parallel.
Each device is turned on at the appropriate time by a trigger
pulse applied to the gate and the device will remain on until
the instantaneous load current through it drops to zero.
The trigger pulses are generated by a driver which times -
the pulses to ensure the thyristor unit output is a function of
the input demand signal (e.g. from a controller) in the selected
Firing Mode [14].
Fig. 9, A typical thyristor [141.
In more recent thyristor control systems, the motors
themselves are wired differently from the old standard DC
arrangement. The armature and fields are no longer wired in
series, they are wired separately. Each field has its own
thyristor, which is used to control the individual fields more
precisely [2].
In the late 1980's, a thyristor had been developed to where
it could be turned on and off by a control circuit. These
thyristors were called gate turn off, or GTO thyristors.
C. GTO's
GTO's, like conventional thyristors, have a four-layer
structure of changing conductivity pnpn. The cathode area is
169
split up into thin lines that are surrounded by the gate paths.
Unlike conventional thyristors a smaller surface resistance of
the p-basezone is required. An acceptable blocking capability
of the gate-cathode depletion layer and a reduced current
amplification of the pnpn-system are also required. These
requirements are necessary so that the negative gate current
though which the thyristor is switched off is kept as small as
possible.
GTO's have to be suitably circuited for use in DC choppers
and inverters so that no over voltages or critical du/dt occurs
when switching off with large rates of change of current.
Normally GTO's are fitted with the RCD circuit; this circuit is
simple and non-complicated, the capacitor' is determined by
the switch-off current and critical rate of change of the anode
voltage. During switching off the capacitor is charged and
takes over the anode current. After switching on the capacitor,
C, discharges over the resistor. An energy loss arises at 0.5
CU2. With increasing switching frequencies this can lead to
perceptible power loss, which is noticeable in the size of the
resistor. This reduces the efficiency of converters with GTO's
slightly.
The maximum frequency for a GTO is determined by the
switching times and the switch-off losses. Due to the small
switch times frequencies of several kHz can be reached [15].
As a result of this advancement a single thyristor could be
used to control a DC motor. It was at this point that the
conventional DC motor reached its ultimate state in the
railway traction industry. Presently, most systems now being
built use AC motors.
VI. ACCELERATION STAGES
Since the motors are separately excited, the acceleration
sequence is carried out in two stages. In the first stage, the
armature is fed current by its thyristors until it reaches the full
voltage. This might give about 25% of the locomotive's full
speed. In the second stage, the field thyristors are used to
weaken the field current, forcing the motor to speed up to
compensate. This technique is known as field weakening and
was already used in pre-electronic applications.
A big advantage of SEPEX is that wheel slip can be
detected and corrected quickly, instead of the traditional
method of either letting the wheels spin until the driver
noticed or using a wheel slip relay to switch off the circuit and
then restart it [2].
VII. MAGLEV TECHNOLOGY
The principles of magnetic levitation are the key to
successful functioning of Maglev technology. Magnetic
levitation is defined as the process by which an object is
suspended above another object with no other support but
magnetic fields [6]. Samuel Earnshaw stated in 1842 that: "A
collection of point charges cannot be maintained equilibrium
in a configuration solely by the electrostatic interaction of the
charges" [6]. Basically, Earnshaw's theorem states that it is
not possible to levitate an object using static, macroscopic, or
classical magnetic fields. The forces acting on an object in
any combination of gravitational, electrostatic, and magneto
static fields will make the object's position unstable.
However, several possibilities exist to make levitation viable
[6]. Japanese engineers used the principles that were
determined by Earnshaw to build the first Maglev system.
The Maglev system uses electromagnetic forces between
superconducting magnets on the car and coils on the platform.
Fig. 10 and Fig. 11 show the two primary coils that are used
for the LSM, the propulsion coil and the levitation coil.
Fig. 10, Propulsion coil for the Yamanashi Test Line [7]
Fig. I1, Levitation Coil for the Yamanashi Test Line [7]
These ground coils are essential to the propulsion,
levitation, and lateral guidance of the vehicle. For magnetic
levitation, the levitation coils are installed on the sidewalls of
the guide way of the vehicle. For the Yamanashi Test Line,
the propulsion coils and levitation coils are wound aluminum
conductors and are molded with resin. "The propulsion coils
are required to be electrically insulated and mechanically
strong, while the levitation coils are required to be mainly
mechanically strong. When the onboard SCM's pass at high
speed about several centimeters below the center of these
coils, an electric current is induced within the coils, the coils
then temporarily act as electromagnets" [7]. After the current
is induced in the coils, the SCM on the vehicle is pushed and
pulled upwards simultaneously causing the Maglev vehicle to
levitate. Fig. 12 diagrams the principle of magnetic levitation;
note the direction of the arrow in the diagram that show
simultaneous upward pulling and pushing of the Maglev
vehicle.
Fig. 12, Principle of magnetic levitation [7]
For the lateral guidance of the vehicle, the levitation coils
on the guide way are connected to each other underneath the
platform making a loop. When the Maglev vehicle reaches a
levitation coil an electric current is induced in the levitation
170
coil loop. This current causes the coils to become temporarily
electromagnetic and in turn causes a repulsive force on the
levitation coils that are closest to the vehicle and an attractive
force on the coils that are farthest from the vehicles. Fig. 13
shows the principle of lateral guidance in the Maglev system.
This attraction and repulsion continue until balance is reached.
Fig. 13, Principle of lateral guidance [7]
For propulsion of the Maglev vehicle, a three phase AC
current induced by a substation that is connected to the guide
way causing a shifting magnetic field. The SCM onboard the
vehicles are then pushed and attracted by the shifting field.
Since there is no friction between the vehicle and the
platform, the only speed limiting factor are the thresholds of
the components used on the vehicle and the platform.. Fig. 14
shows the propulsion diagram of the Maglev vehicle and
platform.
Fig. 14, Principle of propulsion [7]
While the electromagnetic fields produced by the
components of the Maglev system are only equivalent to that
of household devices, the frequencies at which the devices
operate must be modified. For the Yamanashi Maglev Test
Line there are inverters provided in three sets for three phases
of: 38 MVA for the north line and 20 MVA for the south line.
Depending on the train speed, the north line inverters give a
frequency output of 0-56 Hz (550 km/h) and the south line
inverters give a frequency output of 0-46 Hz (450 km/h) [8].
An image of the inverter units is shown in Fig. 15.
Furthermore, for the SCM on the vehicle there are holding
tanks that contain liquefied helium and nitrogen.
Fig. 15, Extemal view of inverter unit at the Yamanashi Test Line [6]
The purpose of these refrigerated chemicals is to cool the
SCM on board the train. The section set-up for the track uses
a SCM that does not require helium and nitrogen for cooling.
The electronic power control is also an issue when
developing Maglev train technology. A document prepared
for the U.S. Department of Transportation and the Federal
Railroad Administration was used for examining the viability
of the use of Maglev technology in the U.S.; this document
briefly explains the power electronics used in the Maglev
control systems. The guide way is divided into zones with an
inverter station located near the center of each zone [9]. Each
zone has at least one power inverter. An explanation of the
construction of the inverters is explained as:
"The inverter uses series connected phases powered by a
current source inverter with variable voltage input. The
power switching is done with conventional thyristors,
although gate turn off thyristors can be used if there is a
cost advantage. The variable voltage is developed from
the dc bus by means of a two-phase chopper that
provides protection as well as voltage control. When
regenerative braking is desired the chopper regenerates
power back into the dc bus. The inverter has a standby
power system for its control circuitry so that this
regenerative mode can be used even when there is a total
loss of power from the utility power grid" [9].
It was determined that there would have to be a substation
every 20 or 30 km. Transmission lines operating at or above
66 kV provide the power for the guide way. Voltages near 66
kV were preferred because substation costs are decreased [9].
There is a position sensor on the inverter that allows the
motor to provide control during operation. Sensing is done by
applying a high frequency signal (20 kHz) to the motor
winding. The higher frequency can be separated from the
lower frequencies that are used for levitation, propulsion, and
lateral guidance. The inverters use this higher frequency to
determine the vehicles position without using any external
communication links [9]. There are various other systems that
are used to control braking and the catastrophic failure
backups. Also, the onboard power for air conditioning,
heating, ventilation, hydraulics, onboard computers, and
lighting is provided by methanol-powered fuel cells.
VIII. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the University of West
Florida for allowing us to participate in the joint Computer
and Electrical Engineering program with University of
Florida.
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1
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ASCR, "GTO Introduction" [Online]. Available: 1lt(p:s.;www.ice.cas.cz/
power'uto.11tril
[16] D. W. Hinde, M. Hinde, Electric Traction Systems and Equipment,
London: Pergamon Press Ltd. 1968, p36-38
X. BIOGRAPHIES.
Timothy Jay Carbino was born in Lowville,
New York on Oct 8, 1976. He is a senior at
University of West Florida/University of
Florida Joint Program in Computer
Engineering. Topics of interest include UAV
and computer operating systems. Attending
school through an air force degree program
called the Airman's Education and Commissioning Program.
Plan to graduate in the spring of 2006 and commission in the
Air Force as a Second Lieutenant.
Malcolm R. Gassman was born in Pensacola, Florida on
August 6, 1976. He is a senior in the University of West
Florida/University of Florida Joint Program in Electrical and
Computer Engineering. Topics of interest include magnetics
and digital communications. He is attending school by way of
the Department of Veterans Affairs Vocational Rehabilitation
Program after serving three years in the United States Army.
Jeffrey Glass was born in Rochester, New York on
November 9, 1985. In 1991 he moved to Pensacola, Florida.
He still lives there and is currently enrolled in the Electrical
Engineering program at the University of West Florida. He
plans to graduate from the University In May of 2006.