Geometric Design Sight Distance

Novmeber 2020

INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE

For an at-grade intersection to operate properly, adequate sight distance should be available for
a driver to perceive potential conflicts and to perform the actions needed to negotiate the
intersection safely.

Example 1.6 – 3

Given: Rural minor road intersects an undivided roadway at 90 degrees as shown

in figure below. If the design speed of minor roads A and B, are 30 Kph and
40 kph, respectively. Considering an intersection with no control i.e. road
signs and traffic signal.

Problem : Determine the following: length of a and b, and the area of clear sight
triangle that should be cleared from any of the obstruction.

Solution :
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Novmeber 2020

CRITICAL LENGTH OF GRADE

INSTRUCTION: Problem Nos. 2.1 and 2.2 illustrate the use of Figure 2.1 to determine the
critical length of grade. Problem No. 3.3 illustrates how to use both Figures 2.1 and 2.2. In
the examples, the use of subscripts 1, 2, etc., indicate the successive gradients and
lengths of grade on the roadway segment.

Problem No. 2.1

Given: Level Approach

G = +4%
L = 450 m (length of grade)
Rural Arterial

Problem: Determine if the critical length of grade is exceeded.

Solution: Figure 3.1 yields a critical length of grade of 350 m for a 15 km/h speed
reduction. The length of grade (L) exceeds this value. Therefore, either flatten
the grade, if practical, or evaluate the need for a truck-climbing lane.

Problem No. 2.2

Given: Level Approach

G1 = +4.5%
L1 = 200 m
G2 = +2%
L2 = 150 m
See Figure 2.3. Rural Arterial with a significant number of heavy trucks

Figure 2.3: Problem No. 2.2

Problem: Determine if the critical length of grade is exceeded for the combination of grades
G1 and G2.

Solution: From Figure 3.1, G1 yields a truck speed reduction of approximately 10 km/h. G2
yields a speed reduction of approximately 2 km/h. The total of 12 km/h is less
than the maximum 15 km/h speed reduction. Therefore, the critical length of
grade is not exceeded.
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Novmeber 2020

Problem No. 2.3

Given: Figure 2.4 illustrates the vertical alignment on a low-volume, two-lane rural
collector roadway with no large trucks.

Problem: Determine if the critical length of grade is exceeded for G 2 or for the combination
upgrade G3 and G4.

Solution: Use the following steps:

Step 1. Determine the length of grade using the criteria in Figure 2.2. For this example,
the following calculations are used:
Step 2. Determine the critical length of grade for the roadway in both directions.
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Novmeber 2020

Notes:
1. Typically, the 15 km/h curve will be used.
2. This figure is based on a 120 kg/kW truck with initial speed of 110 km/h. However, it may be used
for any design or posted speed.

Figure 2.1: Critical length of grade (trucks)

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Novmeber 2020

Notes:

2. For vertical curves where the two tangent grades are in the same direction (both upgrades
or both downgrades), 50% of the curve length will be part of the length of grade.

3. For vertical curves where the two tangent grades are in opposite directions (one grade
up and one grade down), 25% of the curve length will be part of the length of grade.

Figure 2.2: Measurement for length of grade

Geometric Design Vertical Alignment
Novmeber 2020

Figure 2.4: Critical length of grade calculations (Problem No. 2.3)

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Novmeber 2020

VERTICAL CURVES
INSTRUCTION: Problem Nos. 2.4 and 2.5 illustrate the use of Figures 2.5 and 2.6 to
determine the minimum length of vertical curve. Sketch the problem with known information.

Problem No. 2.4

Given: Rolling Terrain

G 1 = +2.0%
G 2 = -2.0%
Design Speed = 80Kph
LVC = 134m

Problem : Using L=KA determine if the design length of vertical curve (134m) will
satisfy the stopping sight distance.

Solution : Sketch the problem with known information.

Step 1: Determine the value of A; where A=lG 1 -G 2 l, in percent.

Step 2: Refer to Figure 3.4/3.5 for the design rate of curvature, K.
Step 3: Calculate minimum length of Vertical Curve, L=K x A.

Problem No. 2.5

Given: Rolling Terrain

G1 = -1.5%
G2 = -2.0%
Design Speed = 90Kph

Problem : Using L=KA determine the minimum length of vertical curve taking into
consideration the stopping sight distance.

Solution : Sketch the problem with known information.

Step 1: Determine the value of A; where A=lG 1 -G 2 l, in percent.

Step 2: Refer to Figure 2.4/2.5 for the design rate of curvature, K.
Step 3: Calculate minimum length of Vertical Curve, L=K x A.
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Novmeber 2020

Table 2.2: K values for crest vertical curves – stopping

sight distance (passenger cars – level grades)
Rate of vertical
Stopping curvature, K
Design speed sight distance
(km/h) (m) Calculated Design
20 20 0.6 1
30 35 1.9 2
40 50 3.8 4
50 65 6.4 7
60 85 11.0 11
70 105 16.8 17
80 130 25.7 26
90 160 38.9 39
100 185 52.0 52
110 220 73.6 74
120 250 95.0 95
130 285 123.4 124

Table 2.6: K-values for sag vertical curves – stopping

sight distance (passenger cars – level grades)
Stopping Rate of vertical curvature, K
Design speed sight distance Calculated Design
(km/h) (m) (m) (m)
20 20 2.1 3

30 35 5.1 6

40 50 8.5 9

50 65 12.2 13

60 85 17.3 18

70 105 22.6 23

80 130 29.4 30

90 160 37.6 38

100 185 44.6 45

110 220 54.4 55

120 250 62.8 63

130 285 72.7 73

Geometric Design Horizontal Alignment
Novmeber 2020

HORIZONTAL SIGHT DISTANCE

Overview
Sight obstructions on the inside of a horizontal curve are obstacles of considerable length
that interfere with the line of sight on a continuous basis. These include roadside barriers,
walls, cut slopes and buildings. In general, point obstacles (e.g. traffic signs, utility poles) are not
considered sight obstructions on the inside of horizontal curves.

Equations
Where the length of curve (L) is greater than the sight distance (S) used for design (i.e.
stopping sight distance, decision sight distance, passing sight distance), the needed
clearance on the inside of the horizontal curve is calculated using the following equation:

𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯 = 𝑹𝑹(𝟏𝟏 − 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 � �)
𝑹𝑹

Equation 3.1: Horizontal sight distance (L > S)

where: HSO = Middle ordinate or horizontal sightline offset from the center of the
inside travel lane to the obstruction, m
R = Radius of curve, m
S = Sight distance, m

*********************

Problem No. 3.1

Given : Design Speed = 90 km/h

R = 300 m
Level Grade
One (1) lane per direction, 3.35m per lane
Stopping Sight Distance = 160m

Problem : Determine the horizontal clearance requirements (from edge of the

pavement up to the obstruction) for a horizontal curve on a two- lane
highway using stopping sight distance (SSD).

Solution : Using Equation 3.1 for horizontal clearance (L>S):

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Novmeber 2020

BASIC CURVE EQUATION

The point-mass formula is used to define vehicular operation around a curve. Where the
curve is expressed using its radius, the basic equation for a simple curve is:

𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
𝑹𝑹𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 =
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏(𝒆𝒆 + 𝒇𝒇)

Equation 3.2: Basic Curve Equation

LIMITING SUPERELEVATION RATE

Length of tangent runout
The tangent runout length for a spiral curve transition design is based on the same approach
used for the tangent-to-curve transition design. Specifically, a smooth edge of pavement
profile is desired so that a common edge slope gradient is maintained throughout the
superelevation runout and runoff sections. Based on this rationale, Equation 3.3 can be
used to compute the tangent runout length:

𝒆𝒆𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵
𝑳𝑳𝒕𝒕 = (𝑳𝑳 )
𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒅 𝒔𝒔
Equation 3.3: Length of tangent runout
where: Lt = length of tangent runout, m
LS = length of spiral, m
ed = design superelevation rate, percent
eNC = normal cross slope rate, percent

Tangent runout
The tangent runout distance is calculated as follows: The superelevation runoff lengths are
calculated as follows:

𝒆𝒆𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵
𝑳𝑳𝒕𝒕 = (𝑳𝑳 )
𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒅 𝒓𝒓
Equation 3.4: Superelevation runoff
where: Lt = Tangent runout distance, m
eNC = Normal travel lane cross slope on tangent (typically, 0.02 m/m)

The relative longitudinal gradient for the tangent runout will be same as the relative
longitudinal gradient for the superelevation runoff.
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Novmeber 2020

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Problem No. 3.2 Superelevation

Problem: A. What is the minimum radius of curvature allowable for a

roadway with a 100 km/h design speed, assuming that the
maximum allowable superelevation rate and the pavement
coefficient of friction are 0.80 and 0.12, respectively?

B. What is the actual maximum superelevation rate allowable

under AASHTO recommended standards for a 100 km/h
design speed, if the maximum value of ƒ and minimum curve
radius allowed by AASHTO for this speed are 0.12 and 490m
respectively? Round the answer down to the nearest whole
percent.

C. For a two (2) lane road (3.35m per lane), with a normal
corss-slope of 1.50%, design speed of 100 km/h, and
maximum superelevation rate of 4.0%. Find superelevation
runoff length and tangent runout length?
Geometric Design Horizontal Alignment
Novmeber 2020

CURVE WIDENING
The amount of widening of the travelled way on a horizontal curve is the difference between
the width needed on the curve and the width used on a tangent.

𝒘𝒘 = 𝑾𝑾𝒄𝒄 − 𝑾𝑾𝒏𝒏

Equation 3.5: Curve widening

where: w = widening of travelled way on curve, m
Wc = width of travelled way on curve, m (Equation 3.6)
Wn = width of travelled way on tangent, m

The travelled way width needed on a curve (W c) has several components related to
operation on curves, including: the track width of each vehicle meeting or passing (U)
Equation 3.7, the lateral clearance for each vehicle (C); width of front overhang of the
vehicle occupying the inner lane or lanes (FA) Equation 3.8, and a width allowance for the
difficulty of driving on curves (Z) Equation 3.9. These components are illustrated in Figure
3.1.

𝑾𝑾𝒄𝒄 = 𝑵𝑵(𝑼𝑼 + 𝑪𝑪) + (𝑵𝑵 − 𝟏𝟏)𝑭𝑭𝑨𝑨 + 𝒁𝒁

Equation 3.6

𝑼𝑼 = 𝒖𝒖 + 𝑹𝑹 − �𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 − � 𝑳𝑳𝟐𝟐𝒊𝒊

Equation 3.7

𝑭𝑭𝑨𝑨 = �𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 + 𝑨𝑨(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝑨𝑨) − 𝑹𝑹

Equation 3.8

𝑽𝑽
𝒁𝒁 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏( )
√𝑹𝑹
Equation 3.9
where: U = track width of design vehicle (out-to-out tires) on curves, m
µ = track width on tangent (out-to-out tires), m
R = radius of curve or turn, m
Li = wheelbase of design vehicle between c onsecutive axles (or sets of
Geometric Design Horizontal Alignment
Novmeber 2020

tandem axles) and articulation points, m

FA= width of front overhang of inner-lane vehicle, m
A = from overhang of inner lane vehicle, m
L = wheelbase of single unit or tractor, m
Z = extra width allowance, m
V = design speed of the roadway, km/h
Wc= width of travelled way on curve, m N
= number of lanes
C = lateral clearance, m

Figure 3.1: Widening components on open roadway curves

The lateral clearance, C, provides clearance between the edge of the travelled way and
nearest wheel path and for clearances between vehicles passing or meeting. For design,
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Novmeber 2020

assume C = 0.9 m.
Table 3.1: Calculated and design values for horizontal curve widening
Vehicle
DesVeh u Σ Li² A L
front
track width overhang Wheelbase
P 1.83 11.2225 0.91 3.35
SU 2.44 37.21 1.22 6.1
BUS-12 2.59 62.17323 1.83 7.32
BUS-14 2.59 75.5161 1.83 8.08
CITY-
BUS 2.59 58.0644 2.13 7.62
S-BUS-
11 2.44 42.1201 0.76 6.49
S-BUS-
12 2.44 37.21 2.13 6.1
A-BUS 2.59 57.6124 2.62 6.71
WB-12 2.44 74.889 0.91 3.81
WB-15 2.59 131.5885 0.91 4.45
WB-19 2.59 187.6781 1.22 6.58
WB-20 2.59 211.2301 1.22 6.58
WB-
20D 2.59 113.2115 0.71 3.35
WB-30T 2.59 166.0379 0.71 3.35
WB-
33D 2.59 325.7184 0.71 4.36
MH 2.44 37.21 1.22 6.1
P/T 2.44 37.8565 0.91 3.35
P/B 2.44 29.797 0.91 3.35
MH/B 2.44 54.746 1.22 6.1

Table 3.2: Guidelines for the values of C (lateral clearance) and f (side friction)

C_table Side Friction <f_table>

Wn C km/h f
5.4 0.45 15 0.4
6 0.6 20 0.35
6.6 0.75 30 0.28
7.2 0.9 40 0.23
50 0.19
60 0.17
70 0.15
80 0.14
90 0.13
100 0.12
110 0.11
120 0.09
130 0.08
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Novmeber 2020

Problem No. 3.3 Widening on Curves

Given: For a two (2) lane highway (3.60 m per lane) with a design speed
of 40 km/h, and radius of 50 m.

Problem: Find widening along the curve using Single-Unit Truck (SU-9)
design vehicle type.
Note:
Refer to tables above for the values of the following:
• A = front overhang of inner-lane vehicle, m
• L = wheelbase of a single unit or tractor, m
• u = track width on tangent, m
• Li = wheelbase of design vehicle between c onsecutive axles
(or sets of tandem axles) and articulation points, m
Solution:
Step 1: Using Equation 3.9, compute for the extra width
allowance, m
𝑉𝑉
𝑍𝑍 = 0.1 � �
√𝑅𝑅

Step 2: Using Equation 3.8, compute for the width of front

overhang of inner-lane vehicle, m

𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴 = �𝑅𝑅2 + 𝐴𝐴(2𝐿𝐿 + 𝐴𝐴) − 𝑅𝑅

Step 3: Using Equation 3.7, compute for the track width of

design vehicle (out-to-out tires) on curves, m

𝑈𝑈 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑅𝑅 − �𝑅𝑅2 − ∑ 𝐿𝐿2𝑖𝑖

Step 4: Using Equation 3.6, compute for the track width of

design vehicle (out-to-out tires) on curves, m

𝑊𝑊𝑐𝑐 = 𝑁𝑁(𝑈𝑈 + 𝐶𝐶) + (𝑁𝑁 − 1)𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴 + 𝑍𝑍

Step 5: Using Equation 3.5, compute for widening of travelled

way on curve, m

𝑤𝑤 = 𝑊𝑊𝑐𝑐 − 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛